0 Review SCI

Received: 18 January 2013 Revised: 13 AugustAugust 2013 Accepted article published: 20 August 2013 Published online in Wiley Wiley Online Library: 23 September 2013 2013

(wileyonlinelibrary.com(wileyonlinelibrary.com)) DOI 10.1002/jsfa.635110.1002/jsfa.6351 Agricultural biodiversity as as aa linklink betweenbetween traditional food food systems systems andand contemporarycontemporary development, social social integrityintegrity and and ecological ecological healththealth† ∗ Timothy Johns,a' Johns,a,bb* Bronwen Powell,a'b'c Powell,a,b,c Patrick Patrick MaunduMaundu1b,d" andand Pablo Pablo B B EyzaguirrebEyzaguirreb

Abstract

Traditional food food systems systems offer a key link between the the social social and economic resilience ofof smallholdersmallholder farmers and pastoralists andand the sustainable food and nutrition security security of of global global populations. populations. This This paper paper addresses addresses issues relatedrelated toto socio-culturalsocio-cultural diversitydiversity and the continuing complex engagement of traditional and and modern communities communities with the plants and animals that sustain them.them. In light of of some some of the unhealthful unhealthful consequences consequences ofof thethe ‘nutrition'nutrition transition’transition' to globalized modern diets, the authors authors definedefine and propose a process forfor aa moremore successfulsuccessful food food system system transition transition that that balancesbalances agro-biodiversityagro-biodiversity and processed commoditiescommodities to support support diet diet diversity, diversity, health health and and social social equity equity alongside alongside sustainable sustainable economic economic growth. We review review empirical empirical research research in support of practice practice and policy policy changes changes in agriculture, agriculture, economic economic development and and health health domains domains as as well well as as cross-sectoral cross-sectoral and community-based innovation. High-value food crops within domestic and global value chains cancan bebe anan entryentry pointpoint for smallholders'smallholders’ participation as contributors and beneficiaries beneficiaries of development, while while sustainable sustainable small small farms, farms, as as purveyors purveyors of environmental and public health services, diversifydiversify globalglobal optionsoptions forfor long-termlong-term adaptationadaptation in the face of environmental uncertainty. ©c 20132013 Society Society of Chemical Industry

Keywords: smallholders; resilience; developingdeveloping countries; markets; sustainabilitysustainability

INTRODUCTION determine how farmers respond toto change, change, as well as as offer offer Traditional smallholder smallholder farmers farmers and and pastoralists pastoralists make make essential essential communities unique opportunities for for sustainable sustainable development. contributions toto food and and nutrition nutrition security security in in developing developing First we draw generalizable insightsinsights fromfrom the broader literature countries. TheThe cropscrops andand animal products they produce produce are are related to the crops, marketmarket integration,integration, livelihoods, sustainabilitysustainability consumed locally andand nationallynationally wherewhere theythey enhanceenhance thethe nutrientnutrient and health of of small small family family farmers farmers and and pastoralists. pastoralists. Here we employ traditional as a qualifierqualifier to distinguish our specific specific focus quality of of diets diets based based on on high-energy high-energy staples, staples, satisfy satisfy preferences on social-cultural social–cultural context and the unique biocultural nature of for a a variety variety of of culturally culturally valuable valuable foods, foods, and underpin healthy healthy agro-biodiversity.3 TraditionalTraditional food food systems systems are maintained by dietary patterns rooted rooted in in regional regional ecosystems, ecosystems, community community people ‘who'who retain knowledge knowledge of the the land land and and food food resources resources practices andand custom.' custom.1 However,However, food security security concerns concerns and rooted in historical continuity within within their their region region of of residence' residence’ and changing dietary preferences of urbanurban andand ruralrural populationspopulations drive agricultural intensification intensification and global demand demand for for cereal cereal crops crops

(maize, wheatwheat andand rice) and animal-source foodsfoods inin ways that ∗ * CorrespondenceCorrespondence to: to: Timothy Timothy Johns, Johns, School of Dietetics andand HumanHuman Nutrition,Nutrition, can conflictconflict with cultivation of locally important crops crops2 and crop Macdonald Campus, Campus, McGill McGill University, University, Ste. Ste. Anne Anne de de Bellevue, Bellevue, QC, QC, H9X H9X 3V9, 3V9, varieties and lead to the simplification simplification of of both both agro-ecosystems agro-ecosystems Canada. E-mail: [email protected] and human diets. diets.3 ThisThis paper paper explores explores trans-disciplinary trans-disciplinary ways ways † in which which agricultural agricultural biodiversity biodiversity can can mutually mutually benefit benefit small small t This paper was presented presented at Traditional Traditional Foods Foods International International (TFI-2012), (TFI-2012), Cesena, 4–5,4-5, October, 2012. producers and globalglobal populations, with synergies forfor bothboth human and ecosystem health.health. a SchoolSchoolofDieteticsandHumanNutrition,MacdonaldCampus,McGillUniversity, ofDietetics and Human Nutrition, MacdonaldCampus, McGill University, In constructing constructing a a novel novel framework framework for for equitable equitable smallholders smallholders Ste. Anne de Bellevue, QC, H9X 3V9,3V9, CanadaCanada (see note a, a, after after the the reference reference list), list), private-sector private-sector and and b Agrobiodiversity and and Ecosystems Ecosystems Programme, Bioversity International,International, Via dei public partnerships, wewe extend the consideration of traditional Tre Denari 47 472/a,2/a, 00057 Maccarese, Rome, ItalyItaly smallholders beyondbeyond aa focus on economic economic growth, growth, where where c CentreCentreforInternationalForestryResearch,JalanCIFOR,SituGede,Bogor(Barat) for International ForestlyResearch,Jalan CIFOR, Situ Gede, Bogor (Barat) traditional is often often synonymous synonymous with with subsistence subsistence or self- self- 16115, Indonesia sufficiency,'sufficiency,4 toto explore the manner manner in in which which culture, culture, social social 3433 institutions, and and people's people’s connection connection to to place place and and ecosystems ecosystems d KENRIK, NationalNational Museums of Kenya, P.O. BoxBox 40658,40658, 0010000100 Nairobi,Nairobi, Kenya

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include those those foods foods they they know know and and have have access access toto fromfrom theirtheir local SMALLHOLDER AGRO-BIODIVERSITYAGRO-BIODIVERSITY ANDAND 5 environment through farming farming or or wild wild harvesting harvesting. .3 WhileWhile diver- SUSTAINABLE FOOD/NUTRITIONFOOD/NUTRITION SECURITY SECURITY gent from efforts to derivederive commoncommon definitionsdefinitions ofof traditional foods Smallholders supplysupply thethe greatergreater partpart ofof foodstuffs inin developing in European European6 andand similar similar regulatory regulatory contexts, contexts, our perspective perspective is countries, mostlymostly forfor auto-consumption, withwith over 2.5 billion nonetheless informed by and consistent withwith influentialinfluential discourse people living directly off off farming, farming, pastoral pastoral and fishing fishing activities activities on Mediterranean dietsdiets'7 thatthat emphasizes emphasizes their essential essential cultural (FAO). TheThe majority majority ofof thethe world’sworld's family farms consist of 2 hectareshectares and social social elements. elements. Agricultural Agricultural biodiversity biodiversity comprises comprises the or less 22,16'16 andand continue to play play a central role in improving food cultivated plants plants and and animals animals in in agricultural agricultural ecosystems ecosystems (as (as well as and nutrition security security in in developing developing countries. countries.11,17 WhileWhile small small associated beneficialbeneficial organisms such asas pollinatorspollinators andand soilsoil biota)biota) farms maymay drawdraw onon improvedimproved varieties ofof staplestaple cropscrops and/orand/or growgrow along with the wild wild foods foods and and other other products products gathered by rural monocultures under high input intensified intensified systems systems ofof cultivation,cultivation, populations for their livelihoods.2,8 this is not not the the norm.' norm.18 TheThe diversity diversity of of landraces landraces and and species species Multi-sectoral interactions across agriculture, health, environ- cultivated oror gatheredgathered fromfrom thethe wild,wild,'19 forfor consumption consumption or or sold sold ment and economic economic development identifyidentify a pathway to rural in local local markets, formsforms thethe foundationfoundation ofof traditional agriculture agriculture poverty-reduction and consumer well-beingwell-being throughthrough new part- in Africa Africa and and other other developing developing regions. regions. Smallholder Smallholder farms farms are are nerships. However, successfulsuccessful participationparticipation ofof smallholders in estimated to comprise between a third and a half of the earth's earth’s contemporary market chains requiresrequires greatergreater recognitionrecognition ofof theirtheir agricultural area. 2 constraints, asas wellwell asas theirtheir significantsignificant contributionscontributions toto global Given access toto adequateadequate resources,resources, the the higher higher productivity productivity ofof welfare.9 Smallholder farmers areare oftenoften marginalizedmarginalized withwith respect small family farms relativerelative toto large farmsfarms isis attributableattributable toto the to food food and and development development policy. policy.1010,11'11 ToTo avoid avoid perpetuation perpetuation or efficiencyefficiency of farm-family labor and and lower lower supervision supervision costs costs4,13,24,13,20° exacerbation of rural poverty, effective partnerships must both exacerbation of rural poverty, effective partnerships must both (see also http://www.familyfarmingcampaign.net).http://www.familyfarmingcampaign.net). Likewise Likewise the build on smallholder’s inherent strengths and seek ways to mini- build on smallholder's inherent strengths and seek ways to mini- diversity of crop varieties varieties and and species, species, as wellwell asas farmers’farmers' intimateintimate mize their weaknesses. AccessAccess to to and and knowledge knowledge aboutabout biodiver-biodiver- knowledge of of landscape, landscape, biota and and ecological ecological processes, processes, allows 12 sity is aa keykey asset asset and and potential potential advantage advantage forfor traditionaltraditional farmers,farmers,' 2 them to optimize optimize outputs outputs from from high-potential high-potential and and marginal marginal soils soils asis thethe support provided by an established socio-cultural link. and from within numerous numerous micro-environments.20 Projects in 57 We highlight the contribution contribution of of locally locally diverse diverse foods to countries show that small small farmers using low-cost, sustainable and domestic food systems, systems, inin the first first instance, instance, and examine non- diversity-enhancing technologies increased average crop yields market as well as as market market constraints constraints on further further realization realization by 79% since the early early 1990s. 1990s.21 TraditionalTraditional farmers farmers are inherent of this this potential. potential. While While smallholder smallholder agriculture agriculture plays a key key stewards of natural resources. resources.22 TheyThey preserve genotypes often role for for increasing increasing productivity productivity and and reducing reducing poverty, poverty, high high with unique and valuable traits within their herds and traditional transaction costs and exclusion fromfrom commercial markets can be crop varieties." varieties.20 ThisThis intraspecific intraspecific diversity is compounded by overcome through public investment supporting market-related market-related dozens of edible and medicinal species in fieldsfields and household 13 infrastructure, systems andand institutions.institutions.13 However, the proposed gardens; farmersfarmers furtherfurther protect,protect, hunthunt andand gathergather wildwild biodiversitybiodiversity framework goes goes beyond market market mechanisms mechanisms and incentives since from field, field, farm farm margins margins and and wild wild areas areas. 3,19 GeneticGenetic diversity diversity 9 lack of initial initial demands demands for products products of of agro-biodiversity agro-biodiversity9 oftenoften provides thethe foundation for modern plant breeding and high limit opportunities opportunities for for traditional traditional farmers. farmers. We thereforetherefore highlighthighlight production agriculture,agriculture,'20 andand a a resource resource for ongoing ongoing global global the services smallholdersmallholder agricultureagriculture provideprovide toto publicpublic health and food security security strategies focusedfocused onon eithereither technologytechnology and trade environment in presenting presenting the case case for novel novel socially socially guided models or sustainable sustainable agriculture,agriculture,"11 or the the co-existence co-existence and and models of food system transformation.transformation. complementarity of the two. We have previously pointedpointed outout the key key contributions contributions and Worldwide more than 7000 7000 edible species species ofof plants plants and and potential of agricultural agricultural diversity forfor human human nutrition and and thousands of animals havehave beenbeen documented. documented.'1 Nonetheless, moremore health within the the changing changing actuality actuality of of contemporary contemporary food food than half of calories consumedconsumed globallyglobally come from rice, wheatwheat and 1,3,8,14 production and consumption.1,3,8,14 In examiningexamining thisthis relationshiprelationship maize, althoughalthough hundreds of under-utilized 23,24 speciesspecies provide within an an economic economic development development context context characterized characterized by essential nutrientsnutrients andand contributecontribute to the quality of human diets. 3 increasing orientationorientation towards towards market-oriented market-oriented food food systems, systems, Contemporary consumption of of intra- intra- and and inter-species inter-species diversity is we purposefully integrate social social and environmental perspectives perspectives rarely quantifiedquantified as partpart ofof usualusual intake,intake, butbut wewe inferinfer itit indirectlyindirectly in a a manner manner consistent consistent with with defined defined ecosystem ecosystem approaches approaches toto from other other data data (see (see note b, b, after after the the reference reference list). list). Our Our studies 15 human health health. 15 WhileWhile embracing embracing a a trans-disciplinary trans-disciplinary response response show a much greater contributioncontribution of diverse diverse foods than what is to the the complex complex dynamics dynamics of of contemporary contemporary food food systems, systems, here here recordedrecordedinnationalstatisticsorasthefocusofformalinterventions in national statistics or as the focus offormal interventions we draw particular attention to to the the socio-cultural socio-cultural determinants determinants (Table 1).1). InIn UzbekistanUzbekistan 769769 sampledsampled farmfarm householdshouseholds in 1010 villagesvillages of sustainability and health. WhileWhile buildingbuilding onon a growing body in the the two two major major agricultural agricultural areas, areas, Samarkand Samarkand Province andand thethe of relevant relevant literature literature to to examine examine the the practical practical engagement engagement Fergnana Valley, showshow highhigh levelslevels ofof vegetablevegetable andand fruitfruit diversity.diversity.25 of smallholder smallholder farmers and the products products of of agro-biodiversity agro-biodiversity In addition addition to to the the variety variety of of field field crops crops grown, grown, home home gardens gardens in contemporary contemporary market chainschains-with – with farmer farmer income, income, healthy healthy contained 185 different varieties among 15 fruit and and nut nut species. species. dietary options for consumers, and environmentalenvironmental conservation as In Kitui District, District, Kenya, Kenya, 9898 cultivatedcultivated plant species species comprised 240 intended outcomes outcomes - – our our greater greater aim aim in this paper is toto underlineunderline locally recognized varieties varieties (Table (Table 1).1). Nonetheless,Nonetheless, the the importanceimportance the necessity necessity ofof continuation and integration integration of of less less tangible tangible of agro-biodiversity for the sustainability sustainability and resilience ofof food social mediators such as as knowledge, knowledge, culture, culture, values, values, cuisine, cuisine, systems atat scalesscales beyond beyond the the household household through through thethe maintenancemaintenance community, institutions, networks, networks, land tenure, tenure, landscape landscape and of inter-household diversity or community-wide dietary diversity risk management. IncludingIncluding such socialsocial institutionsinstitutions and cultural has yet to be rigorously assessed. assessed.26 factors provides insightsinsights andand pathwayspathways thatthat link global global society society Malnutrition is the largest largest contributor contributor to negative negative health health

3434 with traditional traditional smallholders smallholders as as active participants in policies and outcomes aroundaround thethe worldworld and contributions to global health investments affecting the food system transition.transition. constitute a major public good good that that is is usually usually overshadowed overshadowed by

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predominately plant and minimally minimally processed, foods typical typical of TableTable1. 1. TheThediversityofedibleplantspeciesidentifiedinsmallholder diversityof edible plantspecies identified in smallholderj 3 interviews by Bioversity Bioversity InternationalInternational comparedcompared with with nationally nationally traditional diets.3 available commodity plants Culturally mediatedmediated andand sustainablesustainable patterns of dietary behaviorbehavior within food systems that promote promote such such traditional traditional elements elements Type of species MoroccoMoroccoaa KenyabKenyab of agro-biodiversity agro-biodiversity shouldshould leadlead toto positive health outcomes outcomes 7,15 of contemporary contemporary populations. populations.7'15 Countries,Countries, communities communities and Species identifiedidentified inin householdhousehold consumptionconsumption 87 104 cultures that maintain maintain their own own traditional traditional food systems systems are survey better able to conserve local food specialities withwith aa correspondingcorresponding Cultivated species diversity on a farm 60 98 diversity ofof cropcrop varieties andand animal breeds. They are also more Wild speciesspecies recordedrecorded 5 57Cc likely toto showshow aa lowerlower prevalenceprevalence ofof diet-relateddiet-related chronicchronic diseases.diseases. Food balance sheetsd sheetsd The Mediterranean dietdiet offersoffers a a clear clear example. example6,7,' Species produced nationally 32 35 Species available for consumptionconsumption 41 40 (produced + imported) BIODIVERSITY AS A SOURCE OF OF MARKETABLE MARKETABLE Results areare givengiven asas thethe number of species. a a Taounate and and Azilal Azilal Provinces; 2005; fivefive villages; foodfood frequency AND HIGH-VALUE HIGH-VALUE CROPS questionnaire (7 day) of 103 households; crop diversity diversity production PartialevidencedocumentsthecurrentstatusofandopportunitiesPartial evidence documents the current status of and opportunities from 26 farmer interviews. b for agro-biodiversity development.development. Growing aa greater diversity diversity b Kitui District;District;2009; 2009; 20 20 villages; villages; food food frequency frequency questionnairequestionnaire (7 day) of 1005 households ; ; crop diversity focus groups in in 11 villages. of barley varieties does improve productivity andand revenue of Cc Includes Includes 4444 fruitsfruits and and 1111 leafyleafy vegetables vegetables identifiedidentified inin focusfocus groups.groups. Ethiopian farms andand reduces risk exposure,exposure, especially underunder poor d 33 d FAOSTAT data data forfor 2005.2005. soils.33 Resource-endowed farmers in NepalNepal growgrow greatergreater numbersnumbers of local local rice rice varieties varieties with with socio-cultural socio-cultural and market-preferred market-preferred traits.'traits.34 OurOur monthly monthly monitoring monitoring of of open-air open-air markets markets in in Nairobi Nairobi economic and ecological assessments of biodiversity services.services.'27 during 15 months in 2005-2006, 2005–2006, recorded 230 species and 435 Lack ofof sufficientsufficient caloriescalories underlines underlines the the hungryhungry statestate of close close varieties of plants, plus 47 animal foods for sale, mostmost of which are to a a billion billion people, people, while while micronutrient micronutrient deficiencies deficiencies that that afflict afflict potential candidates for for market market development. development. In In Morocco, Morocco, local local at least least 2 2 billion billion directly directly contribute contribute to to disease disease susceptibility, susceptibility, knowledge of traditional leafy vegetablesvegetables varies greatlygreatly betweenbetween cognitive impairment and lack lack of of productivity. productivity.1,28,29 Evidence even relatively close proximity villages,villages, andand marketsmarkets maymay actact as for the contribution of of agro-biodiversity agro-biodiversity to positive nutrition and a site for transmission of knowledge about these under-utilized under-utilized health outcomes is is currently largely dependentdependent on circumstantial components of of local local food system. In bothboth case studies, thethe agro- evidence. Although dietary diversity is important, intake from from biodiversity inin locallocal marketsmarkets in Kenya andand Morocco captures a different foodfood groups rather than than consumption consumption of of multiple multiple major portion of the crops crops identified identified in household household and farm farm surveys (Table 1). Thus it is important to incentivize and support food items items appear appear sufficient sufficient to achieve achieve adequacy adequacy for for many many surveys (Table 1). Thus it is important to incentivize and support essential nutrients30,31 forfor vulnerable vulnerable populations. populations. Nonetheless, Nonetheless, local foodfood marketsmarkets asas partpart ofof aa healthhealth andand nutritionnutrition strategystrategy thatthat domestically sourcedsourced and culturally acceptableacceptable products of agro- includes agro-biodiversity. biodiversity including animal-source foods, fruits, vegetables, vegetables, High-value productsproducts derived from biodiversity provideprovide aa meansmeans for smallholders to take advantage of opportunities offered legumes and course course cereals cereals provide provide key key micronutrients including for smallholders to take advantage of opportunities offered by changing consumer diets and preferences.12,352'35 Smallholders vitamin A, zinc,zinc, ironiron forfor poor poor ruralrural and and urbanurban populationspopulations alike. 1,28 by changing consumer diets and preferences.1 Smallholders remain significant producers of perishable and semi-perishable The associations between dietary diversity andand reduced mortality remain significant producers of perishable and semi-perishable fruits36 andand vegetables vegetables for for domestic domestic markets, oror as in the case case and morbidity in industrial populationspopulations3 isis largely attributableattributable toto of eru eru ((GnetumGnetum africanum), africanum), a wild wild harvested harvested vegetable vegetable from from fruit andand vegetable intake and related factors otherother than essential Cameroon, to regional markets.37 In addition, smallholder food nutrient intake. Cameroon, to regional markets.' In addition, smallholder food products with novel or desirable traits, neglectedneglected staple crops (e.g. Malnutrition defineddefined by over-consumption of of energy has has critical critical millets23 oror tell, teff, fonio, fonio, taro, taro, yams, yams, quinoa quinoa27), or beverages and present and future public health significance.' significance.28 Calorie-richCalorie-rich diets, natural health products (e.g. (e.g. acai ac¸ai or rooibos), reach domestic as supported by production production and global global trade trade in in commodities commodities well as internationalinternational niche markets. such as as rice, rice, wheat, wheat, maize, maize, sugar and and vegetable vegetable oils oils and and Cultural criteria oftenoften define define value. value. Markets Markets for varieties varieties of preferences for animal-source foods,foods, promotepromote obesityobesity andand the cereals, legumes, fruits, vegetablesvegetables oror otherother foods associated with growing prevalence of non-communicable non-communicable diseases attributed particular cuisines oror recipesrecipes connectconnect producers with increasingly to the the nutrition nutrition transition. transition.33,28'28 AbandonmentAbandonment of of traditional traditional urban consumers who share cultural cultural values and history. In the diets and and lifestyles lifestyles places indigenous indigenous communities andand the global market, identificationidentification of a product with cultural traditions, urban poor at at particular particular risk risk of diabetes, diabetes,5,85'8 withwith the the growing growing perhaps coincident with sustainability, maymay furtherfurther aa sense of phenomenon of obesity obesity and and micronutrient micronutrient deficiencies deficiencies co- co- solidarity of purchaserspurchasers with traditional farmers, particularly whenwhen occurring in many contexts. 32 OtherOther constituents constituents of of traditional traditional supported by by niche niche product product certification certification.12,28,38 12,28,38 UnderUnder the right right diets such as polyphenolics, polyphenolics, non-nutrient carotenoids, fiber fiber and circumstances, addedadded culturalcultural valuevalue cancan alsoalso bebe reflected reflected in a fatty acids acids define define food food quality quality with with implications implications for health. health.3 higher price paid to the farmer. Systematic epidemiologicalepidemiological documentationdocumentation ofof the contributions of such such functional functional constituents constituents in typical typical diets diets is is lacking, lacking, despite our growing understanding of of antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic andand other mechanisms of disease risk reduction.3 SMALLHOLDER PERSPECTIVES ANDAND Many elements of agro-biodiversity agro-biodiversity havehave exceptional content PRIORITIESPRIORITI ES of functional phytochemicals. Furthermore,Furthermore, thethe long-term and Agriculturalists andand pastoralistspastoralists onon thethe peripheryperiphery ofof contemporarycontemporary 3435 subtle nature of of such such effects effects underlines underlines the the virtues virtues of of diverse, diverse, market economies desire greater economic economic and and personal personal

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0 SCI www.soci.org T JohnsJohns et al. -,I._ _ opportunities and and security. security. However, However, small farmers’farmers' cautiousnesscautiousness indigenous traditions traditions and and from from land land ownership; their vulnerability towards engaging engaging in in entrepreneurial entrepreneurial activities activities often often reflects reflects stands even even larger larger without without the the resiliency resiliency afforded afforded by by diverse diverse rational assessmentassessment of risks, bothboth in economic economic terms 39 andand in in ecological and social options.options. unforeseen and undesirable impacts on their their social social and cultural cultural The biocultural landscape plays a central role in the worldview needs and and aspirations. aspirations. Indeed, Indeed, initiatives initiatives to incorporate incorporate agro- and decisions decisions of of small small farmers. farmers.5 LandscapesLandscapes represent a sense biodiversity intointo marketsmarkets cancan furtherfurther health and development development of place, history, meaningmeaning and identity; land is the investment investment goals best when when they they incorporate incorporate interests interests and and institutions institutions of of a family's family’s laborlabor andand holds the promise promise of of long-term long-term security security small producers. Past failure ofof biodiversitybiodiversity marketingmarketing toto advanceadvance and a prosperous future. Responsible management of of agricultural local development oror reduce reduce poverty poverty34 justifiesjustifies smallholder smallholder landscapes by small farmers isis a desirable desirable route route for for achieving achieving prudence. Specialization onon aa few crops or varieties inin order to biodiversity conservation,22 productive yields, yields, economic viability viability generatesaleablesurplusesexposessmallholderstomarketsupplygenerate saleable surpluses exposes smallholders to market supply and social integrity. fluctuationsfluctuations and loss loss of of livelihoods. livelihoods. Although traditional farmers typicallytypicallyfocustheirgreatesteffortonstaplefoodsthatarethebasis focus their greatest effort on staple foods that are the basis for their household food food security, security, growing diverse landraces and DISADVANTAGES OF OF TRADITIONAL TRADITIONAL maintainingagro-biodiversitybalancesproductivity,riskreductionmaintaining agro-biodiversity balances productivity, risk reduction SUBSISTENCE SYSTEMS and cultural preferences. Philippine farmers inin thethe heartlandheartland of thethe Limitations ofof traditionaltraditional systemssystems underscoreunderscore aa rationale rationale for for 'green‘green revolution' revolution’ still still favorfavor andand growgrow geneticallygenetically heterogeneousheterogeneous change, as well as help define define approaches approaches to ensure ensure success success rice varieties suitedsuited forfor variedvaried environmentsenvironments and and foodfood uses.uses."40 of market initiatives onon oneone hand,hand, oror conservationconservation andand public goodgood This occurs despite the lack lack of of official official support or promotion promotion objectives where markets fail.fail.'27 LowLow productivity relative toto that of traditional cultivarscultivars whenwhen comparedcompared toto thethe products of the achievable in intensive systems (or(or toto thethe potential of any given green revolution. revolution. Similarly, banana banana farmers farmers in in Uganda Uganda'41 grow system) standsstands out as a a major major constraint constraint on on traditional traditional systems systems many varieties that serve to balance balance risk-reduction, risk-reduction, culinary and that is is perpetuated by by lack lack of of access access to agricultural agricultural technologies productionvalues.Likewiseforlivestock,specifictraitsthatsupportproduction values. Likewise for livestock, specific traits that support and other other resources. resources.2 SoilSoil infertility, infertility, whichwhich isis exacerbated by purposes such such as as fertility fertility and disease resistance, as as well well as cultural shortening fallow fallow cycles andand otherother unsustainableunsustainable practices, places criteria, maymay bebe favored over productivity.42–4442' a major major constraint constraint on on agriculture agriculture in in sub-Saharan sub-Saharan Africa Africa and Agricultural biodiversitybiodiversity isis embedded embedded within culturalcultural structuresstructures other regions. regions.3535,51'51 WhileWhile the the productivity productivity and and profitability profitability of through which which farmers understand and and communicate communicate rich rich knowl- knowl- smallholders cancan be higher than for for large large farms, farms,52 theirtheir focus focus on edge on on the the properties, properties, use use and and cultivation cultivation of of biodiversity biodiversity elab- staples for which returnsreturns are low cancan reducereduce their opportunity for orated by by many many generations generations living living in in specific specific environments.20,282°,28 income generation and profit. profit. Fruits, vegetablesvegetables andand otherother crops In thethe form of food, biodiversity takestakes on additional significance, significance, usually havehave higherhigher market value, butbut are also moremore laborlabor intensiveintensive both symbolically andand in customs and cuisines, as it definesdefines iden- and susceptible to stress.34 Indeed, some components of of fruit fruit and tity, social relationships, values and worldview worldview.24,25 24,25 InIn Ethiopia Ethiopia horticultural biodiversity maymay notnot bebe strongstrong candidates for market the maintenance maintenance of of many many varieties varieties of a unique crop, ensete ( ( also development or good good vehicles vehicles for for integrating smallholders smallholders into referredtoasthefalsebananareferred to as the false banana EnseteventricosumEnsete ventricosum))isasymbolofcul- is a symbol of cul- value chains. Traditional varietiesvarieties cancan bebe vulnerable to disease, tural identity and social status.status."45 AfterAfter leaving their home state of such as as the the outbreak outbreak of of bacterial bacterial wilt wilt in in East East Africa. Africa.34 TheseThese Yucatan to findfind wagewage labor in neighboringneighboring areas of of Mexico, womenwomen crops can have low yields relativerelative toto moremore recognized crops, may reported making special tripstrips homehome toto gathergather seedsseeds andand cuttings be slow slow growing growing or or have have specific specific physiological physiological requirements requirements in order to maintain maintain the the aspects aspects of of traditional traditional agro-biodiversity agro-biodiversity or agronomic agronomic limitations.' limitations.53 ManyMany traditional traditional foods may have have needed for for their culinary heritageheritage and cultural identity.identity."46 Biodiver-Biodiver- palatability andand culinary propertiesproperties thatthat make them unsuitable sity maymay bebe recognizedrecognized aesthetically as aa componentcomponent of of ecological for modern lifestyles. lifestyles.23 PerishablePerishable products or those those for for which which integrity, atat thethe same time as providing long term sustainability. 47 supply is small oror unsustainable, oror qualityquality inconsistent,inconsistent,'53 are Elements of agro-biodiversityagro-biodiversity havehave importantimportant sensory, cooking or likely incompatibleincompatible withwith commercialcommercial distribution.distribution. preservation qualities; they may have medicinal propertiesproperties or serve Obtaining germplasm (quality seeds,seeds, seedlings and planting key ceremonialceremonial functions.5,235'23 Indeed, removed removed from from its its ecological ecological material for vegetatively propagated species) species) for for local local varieties varieties and cultural context, conservation of of agro-biodiversity agro-biodiversity faces chal- is oftenoften aa constraint.constraint.'12 WhereWhere social social and and cultural cultural institutions and lenges only partiallypartially compensatedcompensated byby genegene banks. 20,2820428 Erosion of farming practices remain vibrant, informal exchangeexchange with rules genetic diversity stems from the loss of traditionaltraditional farmingfarming systemssystems of exchange and trust that are embedded in in the the local local culture culture54 in thethe faceface ofof economic,economic, environmentalenvironmental andand land-useland-use changeschanges andand may meet local needs. But as demand grows grows and preferences preferences acculturation:"acculturation.48 change, traditional networks may notnot meetmeet requirements for new The risk-averse risk-averse character of traditional traditional farmers farmers anticipates anticipates genetic material. Formal seedseed suppliers and growing local marketsmarkets their potential resilience resilience underunder unpredictable climatic andand other are able to provide provide levels levels of crop diversity equalequal toto that found conditions.conditions 49,5°49,50 TheyThey intentionally maintain a diversity of plants in productionproduction systems for traditional food crops.55 The value and and animals animals with with different different adaptive adaptive characteristics, characteristics,24 exploitexploit a demand for for crop crop diversity diversity among small small scale food producers producers range of ecological habitatshabitats and/orand/or engage in in multiple economic remains sufficientlysufficiently strong strong toto influenceinfluence locallocal seedseed suppliers to strategies:"strategies.49 SocialSocial networks networks related related to to kinship, kinship, inter-marriage inter-marriage begin to address their germplasm needs. and reciprocity reciprocity aimaim toto maintain householdhousehold accessaccess toto a range of productive environments, goods and services, services, including the labor required required for for market-oriented market-oriented initiatives. initiatives. The The differences differences between genders,genders,'48 oror among among age age groups, groups, in in the the knowledge knowledge CONSTRAINTS ON AGRO-BIODIVERSITY AGRO-BIODIVERSITY and management management of of biodiversity biodiversity and other other natural natural resources resources MARKETING

3436 reflectreflect complexcomplex rolesroles andand relationships. The contemporarycontemporary poor Case studies of of profitability, profitability, supply chains and and program program in developing developing countries countries encompass encompass people people alienated alienated from from evaluation23,323,30,56°,56 identifyidentify common common constraints constraints on on smallholder smallholder

wileyonlinelibrary.com/jsfa ©c 20132013 Society Society of Chemical Industry J Sci FoodFood Agric 2013; 93:93: 3433-3442 3433–3442 0 Traditional food systems, agriculturalagricultural biodiversity and sustainable developmentdevelopment www.soci.org SCI success asas marketersmarketers ofof biodiversity. Faced withwith potential potential use of biodiversity biodiversity is a key key component component of agricultural agricultural multi- limitations on initial initial demand, demand, particularly particularly for for under-utilized under-utilized functionality,51,52 and within global global foods foods systems systems a a focus for social products without without well-established well-established value value chains, chains,9,239'23 highhigh and health values values that facilitate facilitate positive positive consumer consumer behaviors. behaviors.3 transaction costs, costs, limited capital capital resources resources and and access access toto technicaltechnical Poverty is aa primaryprimary determinantdeterminant ofof malnutrition;malnutrition;3 thus crops and knowledge, smallholders typically require market-based market-based actions products which generate generate more than than subsistence subsistence income, while or incentives, some formform ofof collectivecollective actionaction that combines efforts providing an impetus for farmers farmers to pursue pursue new opportunities of several producerproducer households in order to achieve economies ofof within domestic domestic (and (and secondarily international markets), markets), translate scale, and/orand/or outsideoutside investment to provide incentives, incentives, expertise into improved improved household household food food security security and health.health. and support for local institutions.institutions.1212,57'57 Conservation ofof biodiversity, as the most directly directly synergistic synergistic General barriers faced byby smallholderssmallholders in accessing commercialcommercial environmental benefit benefit from the marketing of traditional products, markets13 areare potentially potentially even even more more pronounced pronounced for products products along with sustainable foodfood and nutritionnutrition security are contingentcontingent of agro-biodiversity. agro-biodiversity. Requirements for for quality and reliable reliable on economic economic gain motivating the the responsible responsible management of supply present serious serious challenges to smallholders. smallholders. Supermarket resources ratherrather thanthan introducingintroducing anan incentiveincentive forfor their over- over- 2,602.6° conglomerates thatthat increasingly controlcontrol foodfood distribution and exploitationexploitation. WhereWhere domestic, domestic, ecological and cultural traits retail in developing developing countries countries offer offer consumers consumers large numbersnumbers ofof remain important important to to farmers, farmers, commercial commercial varieties varieties typically typically brands of food, but little diversity diversity in in biological biological terms. terms. Even Even fresh augment rather than displace land races andand agro-biodiversity.agro-biodiversity.36,5936,50 produce is sourced from large suppliers, often at a great distance, As Giuliani et a1. al.36 observe in Tajikistan, where farmers increasing who offer consistent consistent quality, supply, andand lowlow cost, butbut limited findfind market opportunities for traditional fruits: variety.'variety.58 Additionally, controlcontrol overover land and the the resource resource base base is is a pure market focus will almost almost certainly certainly endanger food a prerequisite prerequisite for smallholders smallholders to achieve achieve long-term long-term benefits benefits security, whereas aa strategy linking income income generation generation from biodiversity biodiversity marketing. marketing.39 ControlControl over over access access to land, land, through the the commercialization commercialization ofof crop varieties toto the as well as as water, water, can can help help enable enable significant significant smallholder smallholder use use promotion of of qualities qualities central central to to household household needs needs will also of agro-biodiversity agro-biodiversity and dietary dietary inputs, inputs, even even amid amid extensive extensive improve diversity and publicpublic health.health. migration and and cash-crop cash-crop commercialization commercialization that distinguishes distinguishes Smallholder agriculture within an an agro-ecological agro-ecological mode1 model52 much contemporary development.59 offers positive templatestemplates in in response to to the specter specter of instabilities presented by global warming. warming. Making Making food food systems systems PARAMETERS FOR CONSTRUCTIVECONSTRUCTIVE FOODFOOD simultaneously productive, nutrition-sensitive and and sustainable sustainable within integrated integrated global, global, national national and and local local responses responses poses poses a SYSTEM TRANSITIONTRANSITION major challenge in policy and practice. Impacts of climate change While in many many contexts contexts (such (such as as the the above above case case study study on health, economy and food security, security, while universal, will have from Morocco), Morocco), marketsmarkets havehave longlong acted to transfer transfer agro- agro- the most most severe severe effects effects on poor poor farmers. farmers.1910 ProjectedProjected regional regional biodiversity between local producers producers and consumers consumers the food shortfalls shortfalls in in Africa, Africa, South Asia andand otherother regionsregions furtherfurther add successful incorporationincorporation ofof thethe productsproducts ofof agro-biodiversityagro-biodiversity intointo to a a dependence dependence on on global global trade. trade. For For small small farmers farmers biological biological modern markets requires: diversity of traditional crops crops fosters fosters resilience resilience and offers a critical buffer against climate change, 24,502459 while, collectively, smallholder • Overcoming the inherent inherent disadvantages disadvantages of of smallholder smallholder self-sufficiencyself-sufficiency cancan contributecontribute inin majormajor waysways toto long-termlong-term global agriculture food security.' security.11 TheThe current current environmental environmental crisis crisis in juxtaposition • Accommodating the unique character of agro-biodiversity to the the increased increased demands forfor food in the the 21st 21st century century demands demands • • Satisfying thethe economic and social realities of traditional traditional greater efficiencies efficiencies inin production and and sustainability. sustainability.35,51 WhileWhile communities both large large and and smallholder smallholder agriculture are called on to reduce reduce • • Avoiding and mitigating the the potential potential negative negative consequences consequences their ecological ecological footprint, traditional traditional and and local local systems systems typically on agricultural biodiversity oror thethe over exploitation ofof wild leave lessless environmental environmental impactimpact andand havehave demonstrated demonstrated potentialpotential biodiversity for major major gains gains in in productivity productivity and and environmental environmental services services. 21.5221,52 None of these these objectives objectives are achievable withoutwithout a strong strong public-sector commitment to invest in production and market public-sector commitment to invest in production and market FORMULATING A A FARMER-FOCUSED FARMER-FOCUSED AGENDA development and formulate supporting policies. 12 JustificationJustification forfor Reasonable expectationexpectation thatthat investments inin marketing agro- agro- aapro-farmerfocusatnationalandinternationallevelscanflowfrom pro-farmerfocus at national and international levels can flow from biodiversity, including direct direct financial financial assistance assistance and payments acceptance ofof the greater social, healthhealth andand environmentalenvironmental good for ecosystem ecosystem services, services, research, research, technologytechnology transfer and and of a transformed food system, system, but demands demands a tighter consensus consensus infrastructure development, be efficacious efficacious andand profitableprofitable should than current knowledge supports. be reconciled with legitimate legitimate concerns concerns for security, security, land rights, equity, social cohesioncohesion andand environmentalenvironmental sustainability.sustainability.27 Table 2 outlines key elements of the the interaction interaction among among smallholders, smallholders, SEEKING AA NEWNEW CONCEPTUALCONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK:FRAMEWORK: non-governmental organizations organizations (NGOs), (NGOs), business andand thethe publicpublic MAINSTREAMING AGRO-BIODIVERSITY AGRO-BIODIVERSITY sector essential to this process. WITHIN ECOHEALTH ECOHEALTH CHALLENGES CHALLENGES Increased contributionscontributions ofof biodiversitybiodiversity byby smallholders toto food Inclusion andand respectrespect forfor communitycommunity valuesvalues andand autonomyautonomy production and supply converge positively with primary global Traditional farmers shareshare aa desiredesire toto have control over their and cross-sectoral cross-sectoral concernsconcerns includingincluding poverty, food insecurity, insecurity, lives, thethe right to to define define and and make make decisions decisions relatedrelated toto their their 3437 malnutrition, and and human human and and ecosystem ecosystem health. health. Sustainable Sustainable own interests, interests, andand integrity in their their relationships relationships with others. others. w JJ Sci FoodFood Agric 2013; 9393:: 3433–34423433-3442 ©c 20132013 Society of Chemical Industry wileyonlinelibrary.com/jsfa

0 SCI www.soci.org T JohnsJohns et al. -., -,1._ _.• activities. ContractContract farmingfarming withwith thethe private sector sector and and NGO- NGO- Table 2. Priorities forfor sustainablysustainably engagingengaging traditional producers of agro-biodiversity in national-level markets guided collective organization cancan provide farmers thethe support and security to participate. 35 ForFor families families with negligible capital resources, cooperativescooperatives acting as intermediaries with business can • Participatory andand equitableequitable partnerships among traditional ensure farmers are paid in a timely, timely, if notnot immediate, manner.56 smallholder communities, NGOs andand thethe privateprivate sector.sector. Pre-negotiated rather than market-mediated market-mediated agreements with with • • Public supportsupport for agronomy,agronomy, quality assurance,assurance, distributiondistribution and private sector processors and distributors can ensure ensure optimal optimal value-chain development for for products of of agrobiodiversity. sharing of local benefitsbenefits andand moremore meaningfulmeaningful locallocal developmentdevelopment • Smallholder controlcontrol andand managementmanagement of resource base for 42 agro-biodiversity. from novel biodiversitybiodiversity marketing.marketing.' PaymentsPayments for for ecosystem or • Support for agro-ecological farming systems that are are locally locally and agrodiversity services offer incentivesincentives for farmersfarmers toto maintain key 27 ecologically embeddedembedded in communities. varieties, croppingcropping andand landland use use systems. systems.' • Strengthening of of local institutions and leadership. • Demand generation in national markets throughthrough promotion, education and research. Building onon traditionaltraditional biodiversitybiodiversity • Assessment of economic, environmental and social social impacts of Initiatives that that buildbuild onon and enhance enhance the the close close relationships relationships biodiversity marketing. between humans and their their local local environments environments by drawing on • Guidelines and regulations for agro-biodiversity access in elements of of biodiversity, within the mosaic of social structurestructure9,64 commercial distribution. and local local knowledgeknowledge'49 representrepresent a a coherent coherent foundation foundation from from • Research onon publicpublic healthhealth outcomes for biodiverse diets. which farmers' farmers’ participation in micro-enterprises can advance. Included inin thisthis potentialpotential can be gender-specific gender-specific ethnobotanical knowledge.48 FacilitatingFacilitating female farmers toto market aspects of Participatory approachesapproaches offer thethe chance for for effective effective balance agricultural or wild biodiversity which they traditionally control among farmers' farmers’ conflicting conflicting economic needs and aspirations, socio- or use 39,4939,48 suchsuch as as traditional traditional leafy leafy vegetables vegetables in in East East Africal Africa1,56,96 9,61 cultural valuesvalues andand environmentalenvironmental considerations.considerations.9'61 Farmers take supports objectives objectives of reducing reducing women's women’s poverty. poverty. As As women women greater ownership of decisions and accompanying compromises ordinarily assumeassume responsibility forfor childchild and family family health, health, when these these carry carry their their own own input input and and design. design. Business- Business- attention to to traditional traditional foods foods and and medicines medicines also also supports overall overall oriented interventions should establish equitable partnerships partnerships household well-being. with community counterparts, as as well as respectrespect traditional values Developing value chains and formal markets for high-potentialhigh-potential 9 of equality within societies as a whole.whole.9 On the contrary, assistanceassistance novel productsproducts requires greatergreater start-up investment and technical thatthatbenefitstheseeminglymostcapable,progressive,andwealthy benefits the seemingly most capable, progressive, and wealthy assistance inin aspects aspects of of agronomy, agronomy, quality quality assurance, assurance, and and membersofacommunitycanprovetobedivisiveandfailtobenefitmembers of a community can prove to be divisive and fail to benefit distribution than for for established established commodities. commodities.23,61 GeneratingGenerating 39 the poor.' poor. InitiativesInitiatives have have the the greatest greatest chance chance of of facilitating facilitating demand is is critical. critical. Viable valuevalue chainschains atat a national level level can the process process from from micro-producer micro-producer to micro-investor micro-investor whenwhen they be enabled enabled by by targeted targeted promotion promotion of of specific specific crops crops through through maintain and strengthen social social equity, equity, existing existing social structures, social marketing campaignscampaigns thatthat rekindle interest of urban urban 9,12,27,39 local institutions, leadership and traditional traditional authority. authority. and rural rural consumers consumers in in under-utilized under-utilized products products for for which which Development ofof local platforms with NGO NGO and government government latent cultural cultural memory remains,remains, asas we have have described described for for assistance cancan enable communities communities to assume assume autonomous autonomous traditional leafy vegetablesvegetables in East Africa.Africa)1 ImprovementsImprovements inin thethe control, especially inin relation to group group participation, participation, benefits- benefits- cultivation and processing of high-valuehigh-value genotypes,genotypes, under-utilizedunder-utilized sharing and resource management in a manner manner that that reinforces reinforces species, beveragesbeverages and natural health products for for domestic or objectives for economic and and social social self-sufficiency. self-sufficiency. international markets should synthesize technological inputs with Common propertyproperty landland tenure regimes regimes and and resource resource traditional knowledgeknowledge andand insight,insight,'51 whilewhile education in business management function function effectively effectively in subsistence subsistence communities communities management and and micro-investment micro-investment should should respect respect local local social social 22,27,62 with traditional social controls. With a market orientation, norms and decision-making. ContinuingContinuing educationeducation that hybridizes 63 intensifiedintensified pressurepressure on biodiversity resourcesresources63 and the imperative technical with traditionaltraditional knowledgeknowledge concerningconcerning agro-biodiversity for smallholders toto controlcontrol resourcesresources inin orderorder toto obtain a a fair fair can involve school curricula, oror practicalpractical training,training, throughthrough school 39,59 return3959 places more onus on private land tenuretenure regimes along or community gardens.gardens. with concomitant pressure to eliminate ‘commons’'commons' and traditional collectivemanagementinstitutions.Insum,considerableempiricalcollective management institutions. In sum, considerable empirical and analytical work remains to be done to find ways to and analytical work remains to be done to find ways to STRENGTHENING THE EVIDENCE BASE revitalize locallocal institutionsinstitutions that that cancan continuecontinue to assure assure access access A promising promising analytical analytical framework for market market development development to cultivated and wild wild edible resources in thethe context of of growing informed byby the ecological ecological and and social social characteristics characteristics of agro- agro- commercialization and privatization. 12 biodiversity conservationconservation and use, combines work from research stations, participatory on-farm agronomic trials and nutrition nutrition Immediate and long-termlong-term security studies with: Market-oriented interventionsinterventions thatthat seekseek to modify modify or improve improve the terms terms by by which which smallholders smallholders benefit benefit from from agro-biodiversity agro-biodiversity • Assessment of socio-cultural determinantsdeterminants of market demand must guarantee continuity continuity and and stability stability of of food food and and livelihood livelihood linking consumerconsumer behaviorbehavior andand preferences for for traditional food security.23,3423'34 ImprovingImproving agricultural agricultural outputoutput and prosperity prosperity in in products general allows people the latitude to to pursue pursue biodiversity-derived biodiversity-derived • Population-level assessment assessment of of thethe health and and nutrition nutrition income-generating activities. activities. Micro-finance Micro-finance or directdirect subsidizationsubsidization contributions of of agro-biodiversity agro-biodiversity (epidemiological (epidemiological analysis analysis of

3438 of start-up costs provides an incentive to engage in marketing a consumption outcomes) outcomes) and and multi-disciplinary multi-disciplinary understandingunderstanding specificspecific cropcrop withoutwithout drainingdraining assetsassets oror underminingundermining subsistencesubsistence of diversity-derived health-promotinghealth-promoting dietarydietary patternspatterns

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• Value chain analysis forfor promisingpromising varieties andand under-utilizedunder-utilized stations. Policies thatthat targettarget maintenance of rural life-ways life-ways and species61 institutions, agroecological agroecological approachesapproaches oror conservationconservation atat the • Critical national and local level level assessments assessments ofof thethe potential level of anthropogenic ecosystems, ecosystems, watersheds watersheds or or landscapes, landscapes, are social, environmental,environmental, health health and and economic economic impact impact'51 of likely to enhance enhance the use andand availabilityavailability ofof locallocal biodiversitybiodiversity and initiatives associated cultural practices. practices.3,22,51,523'22'51'52 Similarly,Similarly, policies that are are gender sensitive are more likely to value value under-utilized under-utilized species species A case-study approachapproach informedinformed by agronomy and ecology, ecology, that are are typically grown and harvested byby women.women.48 health, and economics shouldshould bebe complemented by ethnobio- The exceptional costs associated withwith business development 47 logical and anthropological research.' research. Specifically,Specifically, novel efforts in smallholder smallholder communities communities incurred incurred for for impact impact assessment, assessment, to exploit biodiversity biodiversity require require understanding of of existing existing elements participatorydecision-making,developmentofnichemarkets,pro-participatory decision-making, development of niche markets, pro- of diversity diversity and the the dynamics dynamics related to its its use. use. Neglect Neglect and poor cooperative management and environmental sustainability under-utilization of edible biodiversity leads to knowledge ero- typically require direct commitment by donors donors or or government government sion;sion;ethnographicdocumentationensuresthatessentialelements ethnographic documentation ensures that essential elements through some some form form of of social, social, health health or or environmental environmental subsidy, subsidy, 47 of traditional expertise remainremain availableavailable for for future future generations. generations.' whether channeled channeled through NGOs, NGOs, government agencies agencies or Breeding and selection selection within within landraces landraces can can expedite expedite as direct incentives incentives to business business or farmers. farmers. Development of the transition transition of of minor minor crops crops into into marketable marketable commodities. commodities. novel compensation compensation mechanisms for biodiversity conservation conservation Biotechnology'sBiotechnology’s potential potential forfor improvingimproving thethe value of under- under- and environmental services services over the previous decade, includingincluding utilized crops crops has has been been overlooked overlooked and and warrants warrants deliberate deliberate indirect subsidies subsidies forfor eco-friendlyeco-friendly enterprises, directdirect paymentspayments59 or 24,6524,65 investmentinvestment. However,However, introduction introduction of of improved improved varieties varieties 'beneficiary-pays'‘beneficiary-pays’ marketmarket initiativesinitiatives27,63 has recognized merit and whether through conventional conventional breeding or biotechnology needs needs potentialpotentia1355135,51 despitedespite the the modest modest practical practical experience experience. 6677 Removal 24,34 to be be attentive attentive to to farmer farmer realities, realities, priorities, priorities, and and preferences preferences24,34 of agricultural agricultural subsidies subsidies that are are biased biased towards towards conventional conventional in order order to to ensure ensure technology technology adoption. adoption. Seeds Seeds must be be available available crops would increase increase opportunities for for smallholders, smallholders,51 womenwomen and affordable and crops typically need to be open-pollinated open-pollinated farmers andand indigenous indigenous food crops crops48 asas well well as as benefits benefits to and require appropriate (usually minimal) inputs of fertilizers and consumers. GovernmentsGovernments can can encourageencourage demanddemand forfor agro- agro- 51 pesticides.51 Exploitation of local products requires understandingunderstanding biodiversity through policies that favor local sourcing of foods of the the limits limits to to their their supply supply and and the the ecological ecological constraints constraints in public-sector procurements. 23,27,68,69 on their sustainable sustainable harvest. AgronomicAgronomic interventions targeting Oversight of the commercial food sector also fallsfalls withinwithin the soil fertility fertility and and water water resources, resources, for for example, example, can can equally equally domain of national governments as as well as internationalinternational bodies.7970 enhance the productivity and and value value of of diverse diverse crops. crops. Moreover, Supermarkets, suchsuch asas thosethose inin KenyaKenya which which cooperatecooperate withwith local the intrinsic intrinsic physical, physical, chemical, microbiologicalmicrobiological or organoleptic NGOs andand smallholderssmallholders inin stockingstocking locallocal productsproducts ofof biodiversity,biodiversity,58 features ofof traditionaltraditional foods and products should be maintained. can be responsive toto social, environmentalenvironmental and health concerns, concerns, BiofortificationBiofortification is an example ofof a potentiallypotentially valuable utilization although formal guidelines guidelines and regulations that facilitate facilitate these these of intraspecific intraspecific agro-biodiversity thatthat has proceeded withoutwithout a objectives require timelytimely development. sound situational and ethical analysis ofof itsits economic,economic, nutritionalnutritional and environmental impacts on the people, and food systems thatthat The Brazilian model 65 it is intendedintended toto benefit.benefit.65 Brazil provides global leadership inin actively actively recognizing recognizing the IdentificationIdentification of of perverse perverse consequences consequences of agro-biodiversity agro-biodiversity importance of smallholders smallholders inin supplyingsupplying foodfood for the the domestic domestic marketing and potential strategies forfor mitigation is crucial in mamarket. rket.68,69 AgriculturafamiliarAgricultura familiar,, or ‘family'family farming’farming' with an an average relation to to health, health, conservation conservation and and social social equity. Human health size ofof 18.418.4 hectares,hectares, produce produce the the bulk bulk of of nutritionallynutritionally importantimportant may be undermined undermined rather than improved by efforts efforts that foods, andand aa diversitydiversity ofof tropical fruits, nuts and other products make fewer types of food available available for local local consumption consumption or for national national and and international international markets. markets. By By producing more more (38% (38% degrade ecosystems in ways that spread disease vectors. ClementClement of national agricultural value) per unit of land (24% ofof agriculturalagricultural 53 et al. 53 attributeattribute limited limited return return from from the the extensive extensive research research and land), the 84% ofof farmfarm enterprisesenterprises inin thisthis sector,68,69 'family‘family farms', farms’, public investment in in peach peach palm palm to to the the inadequate inadequate assessment assessment are moremore economicaleconomical and sustainable thanthan large commercialcommercial farms. of the the production-to-commercialization production-to-commercialization chainchain andand aa failure to Policies coordinatedcoordinated among agriculture, health, environmentenvironment and prioritize based on the participation and and needs needs of of small small farmers farmers other sectors, sectors, such as the Programa Programa Nacional de Alimentacao Alimentac¸ao˜ and consumers. consumers. Market-induced changeschanges inin production and and Escolar (Lei(Lei 11947/09)11947/09) thatthat mandatesmandates thatthat 30% ofof federal funds distribution or or lack lack of of infrastructure infrastructure can can exclude exclude poor poor farmers farmers for school school feeding feeding programs programs be be spent spent from from local local sources, sources,6868,69'69 39 from the benefits benefits of their own products.39 foster diverse foodsfoods systemssystemswith with multi-functionalmulti-functional value. value. In urbanurban areas, establishmentestablishment ofof specialtyspecialty marketsmarkets couplescouples locallocal productionproduction of diverse diverse agricultural products with promotion and and consumer consumer POLICY ecohealth education. Realization ofof thethe potential contributions of agricultural biodi- Internationally, Brazil Brazil spearheaded thethe ConventionConvention onon BiologicalBiological versity to convergent convergent economic economic and and health health objectives objectives requires requires Diversity Cross-cutting InitiativeInitiative onon Biodiversity forfor Food Food and and deliberate and cross-sectoral cross-sectoral policiespolicies withinwithin an environmental environmental Nutrition (COP 88 Decision VIII/23A, Curitiba,Curitiba, 2006)2006) andand recent recent governance framework framework66 inin support support of of traditional traditional farmers.' farmers.1 allocations through the the Global Global Environmental Environmental Facility Facility (GEF) (GEF) Investments inin rural rural infrastructure, infrastructure, agricultural agricultural extension, extension, in collaboration collaboration with with Turkey, Turkey, Sri Sri Lanka Lanka and and Kenya Kenya provide provide a a research, technologytechnology transfer and micro-business micro-business development means forfor its implementation. WhileWhile thethe size andand portionportion of can catalyzecatalyze opportunitiesopportunities for communitiescommunities where they specificallyspecifically subsistence farmsfarms differdiffer betweenbetween Brazil andand most low-income low-income target more more than than globally globally marketed marketed staple staple crops. crops. Policies favoringfavoring countries, lessons fromfrom thethe Brazilian modelmodel of socially socially directed local agriculture can can direct direct research research resources intointo specificspecific fruits,fruits, market, environmental and health intervention intervention parallel parallel cross- cross- 3439 vegetables oror other crops both at at farmer farmer level level and and on on research research sectoral initiativesinitiatives wewe described forfor Kenya,' Kenya,1 with potential potential

-... JJ Sci FoodFood Agric 2013; 9393:: 3433-3442 3433–3442 ©c 20132013 Society of Chemical Industry wileyonlinelibrary.com/jsfa 0 SCI www.soci.org T Johns et al. -1=—_, .• application in sub-Saharan sub-Saharan Africa, transitiontransition countries of West West Biological and cultural diversity diversity within within traditional traditional systems systems and Central Central Asia, South Asia and elsewhere. elsewhere. However, limited provide an auspicious auspicious platform from which which smallholders smallholders and empirical evidence affirmingaffirming aa directdirect linklink between thethe use of family farmers farmers cancan make aa constructive transitiontransition toto modern modern agro-biodiversity and contemporary public health outcomes still entrepreneurs whenwhen successfully linkedlinked withwith the commercial commercial impedes advancement. PilotPilot biodiversity, epidemiological and and food sector. sector. Initiatives thatthat enable smallholders toto profitprofit from market research' research1 that refines refines inter-disciplinary inter-disciplinary methodologies methodologies biodiversity with high high market market value value while while sustaining sustaining the the social, social, furtherjustifiesfurtherjustifiesacorrespondinglarge-scaleinvestmentinnational- a corresponding large-scale investment in national- cultural and ecological integrityintegrity of traditional ways of life offer level research research comprisingcomprising thethe four primary primary components components for possibilities for viable change. Inclusion of diverse products and strengthening the the evidence evidence base base described above. marketing options within the the composite of local and internationalinternational commerce and common culture enriches enriches and enhances thethe well- being and long-term long-term adaptation adaptation of all all humanity. humanity. Traditional Traditional CONCLUSION life-ways offeroffer valuablevaluable modelsmodels forfor globalglobal and national national policy policy Biological andand culturalcultural diversitydiversity inin the hands hands of traditional traditional to design design an an economically economically viable and and food food secure secure system system that smallholder farmers is under-valued as as a global asset asset to address address supports human health and the ecosystems onon whichwhich it depends. concurrent health, food security, security, environmental and economic economic In a a complex complex and and unpredictable unpredictable world, world, diversity diversity and and modern modern challenges. Inconsistent market success success seemsseems toto simultaneouslysimultaneously efficiencyefficiency can bebe mutuallymutually reinforcing. Enabling thethe participationparticipation validate and decrydecry thethe lacklack ofof attentionattention inin supportsupport ofof productionproduction of traditional smallholders smallholders is a pragmaticpragmatic step inin thethe realization ofof and value chain development of under-utilized components of this essential synergy. agro-biodiversity.9,23,599'2359 TheThe limitations of of scale, scale, high transaction transaction costs and negligible negligible initial initial demand demand necessitates necessitates substantial substantial investment in support support of of such such pro-poor pro-poor initiatives. initiatives. The The greater greater ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS social good with both both immediate immediate and and long-term long-term realization realization We acknowledge acknowledge financial financial support support from from IDRC, IDRC, NSERC NSERC and and justifiesjustifies cross-sectoral policiespolicies andand practicespractices that that enableenable traditional traditional Bioversity International and the helpful insights insights of of H.D. H.D. Cooper, Cooper, smallholders toto become both beneficiaries beneficiaries andand contributorscontributors to E.M. Dennis,Dennis, O. Hillel,Hillel, D. Mijatovich,Mijatovich, M.T. M.T. Ruel, Ruel, L.N. Sibeko, I.F. SmithSmith health and and environment-conscious environment-conscious markets,markets, andand toto common common and B.R. Sthapit Sthapit duringduring thethe preparationpreparation of this paper. public good where markets fail.27 At firstfirst glance, traditionaltraditional subsistence systems withwith theirtheir intrinsicintrinsic focus onon coping with unpredictability unpredictability and and risk, risk, could could seem seem to REFERENCES offer little towards an optimization of global food and nutrition 1 Johns Johns T T and and Eyzaguirre Eyzaguirre PB, LinkingLinking biodiversity,biodiversity, dietdiet andand health in security or economiceconomic outcomes. Nonetheless,Nonetheless, thethe inherentinherent stabilitystability policy and practice. Proc Nutr Soc 6565:182:182–189 -189 (2006). with which which our our ancestors, ancestors, and and indigenous indigenous farmers of today, today, 2 Zimmerer Zimmerer KS, KS, Biological diversity in agriculture and global change. change. Ann Rev Rev Environ Res Res 35:137-16635:137–166 (2010). 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