Mediating Maendeleo: Examining the Nexus Between Geothermal Extraction, Wildlife Conservation and Community Well-Being in Olkaria-Suswa, Southern Kenya
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Mediating Maendeleo: Examining the nexus between geothermal extraction, wildlife conservation and community well-being in Olkaria-Suswa, Southern Kenya. by Daniel Salau Rogei A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program, Anthropology. Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2021, Daniel Salau Rogei Abstract Decisions regarding livelihoods, land and natural resource management are embedded in the traditional institutions and societal structures of the Maasai communities that have been in dynamic interaction with hegemonic forms of state-building during the colonial and post-colonial periods in Kenya. The Maasai’s fraught interaction with and cautious response to change, often portrayed and interpreted as being conservative and repugnant to modernization and/or maendeleo (development), is critical in understanding their response to contemporary mega-development enterprises now mushrooming in the erstwhile marginal frontiers of Kenya. This study examines these larger dynamics in the context of the nexus between development, conservation and community livelihoods in the contested landscape of Olkaria. By locating this study in a historically significant site but also an area of large- scale international and state investment in natural resource extraction, I analyze the historical and current threads that intricately but fractiously weave together geothermal development, wildlife conservation, and community well-being as well as claims and struggles of belonging in a contested landscape marked by more than a century of land displacement and land conflicts. Four villages within the greater Olkaria region (Narasha, Olomayiana, RAPland and Mt. Suswa) in Nakuru, Narok and Kajiado counties were purposefully selected for the study. A mixed method approach that entailed ethnographic methods such as focus group discussions, interviews and participant observation were employed to collect data. The data was qualitatively analysed in a thematic scale using enkishon (well-being)-based Maasai philosophy as a frame to deeply understand the extent to which decision making/leadership (erikore), environmental governance (eramatare) and rights-based development (esipata) have been shaped by geothermal development in the area of study. ii The findings of this study show that geothermal development and wildlife conservation are incompatible as the former is privileged over the latter to the detriment of wildlife well-being. The study shows how the Kenyan government, investors, and donors promote geothermal as environmentally friendly, and documents how local Maasai consider the environmental effects of wastewater, fumes and noise at the local scale to be harmful to their health, wildlife and livestock. Additionally, the study shows how geothermal fields require expansive land space for exploration and subsequent exploitation, which has meant many local communities have been forced to resettle elsewhere and continue to face the risk of resettlement, a process that has often been characterized by human rights violations, dispossession and significant socio-cultural implications. This thesis shows that coupled with little economic returns at the local scale, including limited employment opportunities, geothermal development in Olkaria culminates in compromised livelihoods that destabilise the Maasai enkishon of well-being. iii Acknowledgements This thesis would have been a mirage without the support of various individuals and institutions. First and foremost, I would like to acknowledge the sacrifice made by my young family who persevered lonely days in my absentia. Special thanks to my lovely wife Grace Salau and our children; Linah Silantoi, Faith Rayon, Isaac Sabaya and Joan Saidimua for their patience and understanding. To my parents Mr and Mrs Rogei Kisompol- I say a big thank you for believing and investing in education that you yourselves don’t have and for your immeasurable support. I am also indebted to the Olkaria community for their welcoming and generous support during my fieldwork. Special thanks to my field assistants Mark Tinkoi and David Mankuyio for their great sacrifice and commitment. I am also grateful to Jackson Shaa and Lucy Parsampula for helping me navigate the Olkaria’s social-political landscape. I also acknowledge the role of Bishop Julius Tinkoi for emotional and spiritual support without which this journey would have been difficult. I thank God for the grace that have seen me this far. I am indebted to various institutions for their financial and technical support. My gratitude goes to I-CAN and its partners, particularly Africa Conservation Centre, McGill University and Carleton University for the scholarship grants. Other individuals and institutions that contributed in one way or another to make this dream come true include: Dr Jeremy Lind (Institute of Development Studies, UK), Tanya Casas (Delaware Valley University, USA), the late Pamela Kraft of Tribal Link Foundation (may her soul rest in peace), Joseph Ole Simel (MPIDO), Phyllis Eckelmeyer and the entire Maasai Cultural Exchange Project team and New Canaan Congregation Church (CT). Thank you too Steve Moiko for nudging me to take up this doctoral program, which I reluctantly accepted. I am glad I did! To you all I say Ashe oleng’! iv To my supervisor Prof Blair Rutherford, thank you so much for your guidance and mentorship. You always have a way of rejuvenating my energies and instilling a sense of self-belief when at the verge of dispair. Your professionalism, friendship and understanding has finally yielded to the completion of this work. Thank you too my co- supervisor Prof John Galaty for the sage wisdom you shared and the great insights you impacted on me throughout this process. And to Prof Danielle DiNovelli-Lang, you are more than a committee member. Your numerous reviews on my work and detailed scanning have refined this thesis. I am also indebted to Dr. Damaris Parsitau (Egerton University) and Dr. Fred Mbogo, Technical University (Nairobi) for the review and editorial work. To all those not mentioned here, accept my appreciation for the great role you have directly and/or indirectly played to make this accomplishment come to pass. And to the Maasai community and the indigenous people’s fraternity, I hope the findings and recommendations of this study will be useful to your daily struggles. Ashe Oleng’! Ahsante Sana! Thank you very much! v List of Abbreviations ACC - Africa Conservation Centre ACHPR – Africa Commission on Human and Peoples Rights EIA – Environmental Impact Assessment EIB-CM – European Investment Bank Complain Mechanism CAMPFIRE- Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources CBC – Community Based Conservation CBO – Community Based Organization CLA – Community Land Act CDM – Clean Development Mechanism CSR – Corporate Social Responsibility DCC – Deputy County Commissioner EAS – East African SyndicateEIB – European Investment Bank ESIA – Environmental Social Impact Assessment GDP – Gross Domestic Product GHG – Green House Gases HGNP – Hells Gate National Park HWC – Human Wildlife Conflict IAP – International Accountability Project IDS – Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex vi IPs – Indigenous Peoples IPPs – Independent Power Producers IWGIA – International Working Group on Indigenous Affairs KADU – Kenya African Democratic Union KANU – Kenya African National Union KenGen – Kenya Electricity Generating company KETRACO – Kenya Electricity Transmission Company KILOA – Kisharu Land Owners Association KMC – Kenya Meat Commission KWS – Kenya Wildlife Service LAPSSET -Lamu Port South Sudan Ethiopia Transport MCA – Member of County Assembly MPIDO – Mainyoito Pastoralists Integrated Development Organization NGO – Non-Governmental Organization OOGC – Oldoinyo Onyokie Geothermal Company PAP – Project Affected Persons PDNK – Pastoralists Development Network of Kenya. PPPs – Public Private Partnership RAPIC – Resettlement of Affected Persons Implementation Committee REDD – Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation vii SAPs – Structural Adjustment Programs SCC – Stakeholders Coordination Committee SDGs – Sustainable Development Goals SGR – Standard Gauge Railway UNFCCC – United Nations Framework for Climate Change Convention UNCBD -United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity UNPFII – United Nations Permanent Forum for Indigenous Issues USAID – United States Agency for International Development viii Glossary of Kiswahili and Ki-Maasai terms Ashe oleng’ -Thank you very Much (Maasai) Ahsante - Thank you (Kiswahili) Chai - Tea Chapati – Pan cake Emutai – Disaster Endelea – Going forward Enkai - God Enkatini – History Enkishon – Well-being Eramatare - Governance Erikore - Leadership Esipata – Right Ilkunono - Blacksmith Maendeleo – Development Olaigunani/Ilaiguanak – Chief (s) Oldeket – Curse Olgilata/Ilgilat - Clan(s) Oloiboni – Seer/prophet Olosho – A ridge; a community section ix Olpiron – Age-group mentors Olporror – Age group Orinka – Knobkerrie Osotua – Peace; relative x TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. iv List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................. vi Glossary of Kiswahili