Fiji Islander trans-border mobility in the Pacific: The case of Fiji and Japan

Dominik Schieder1

1 University of Siegen, Department of Social Sciences, Adolf-Reichwein-Str. 2, 57068 Siegen, Germany

DOI: 10.23791/561322

Abstract: This article is concerned with Fiji Islanders in Japan. Its objective is to introduce a to date little explored case of Pacific Islander trans-border mobility within the Pacific region. After providing a general overview of the topic, it discusses two of the main reasons why Fiji Islanders spend shorter durations or migrate for (in)definite periods to Japan in more detail: education and professional sport. Although the paper focuses on Fiji and Japan, the discussion points at two structural undercurrents that characterize Pacific Islander mobility more generally and aims to appeal to a broader audience interested in Pacific Studies.

Keywords: Fiji, Japan, Pacific Rim, mobility, migration

[Submitted as Scientific Paper: 05 May 2021, acceptance of the revised manuscript: 21 August 2021] Source: Dominik Schieder. Dominik Source:

Figure 1: Reception for the Kanagawa-based honorary consul of the Republic of Fiji to Japan in Yokohama, 2012.

Pacific Geographies #56 • July/August 2021 13 Source: Dominik Schieder. Dominik Source:

Figure 2: Japan-based Fiji Islanders gather for the 2012 Tokyo Sevens international rugby tournament.

Introduction While Fiji Islander mobility is global the aforementioned English-speaking Trans-border mobility is constitutive in its reach, as the presence of migrants countries in the Pacific Rim or within to the lives of many contemporary from Fiji in countries as diverse as the Pacific Islands, little is known Pacific Islanders (e.g. Keck & Schieder France, India, Japan, the United States about Fiji Islanders and, by extension, 2015; Lee & Francis 2009; Rensel & of America and the United Kingdom other Pacific Islander migrant popula- Howard 2012; Taylor & Lee 2017) and testifies, a recent study conducted by tions in those parts of Asia that are Fiji is no exception. Once a British the International Organization for crown colony between 1874 and 1970, Migration (IOM) shows that by mid- Fiji has witnessed the influx of large 2019, the absolute majority of the numbers of South Asian indentured estimated total of 222.000 Fiji-born labourers and passenger migrants dur- people living abroad were located in ing its early colonial history as well as four Pacific Rim countries: Australia, other immigrants mainly from East Canada, New Zealand and the US Asia and Oceania. Since the 1970s, (IOM 2020:xvi; cf. Voigt-Graf 2007). however, Fiji has turned from an immi- The same study claims that emigration gration to an emigration country (Lal from Fiji has doubled since 1990 and 2003). Large numbers of Indo-Fijians that in 2019 Fiji had one of the highest (the descendants of South Asian immi- mobility rates of Pacific Island coun- grants) and other Fiji Islanders have tries with an estimated emigrant popu- left Fiji following the ethnonationalist lation of 25 per cent in comparison to political developments which unfolded its resident population (IOM 2020:24).1 after Fiji gained independence and led Despite these numbers, it is interesting to several political coups and constitu- to note that in the field of migration tional crises since the mid-1980s (Lal studies, Fiji has attracted far less atten- 2006; Fraenkel et al. 2009). At the same tion to date compared to other coun- time, Fiji Islanders have been involved tries in Oceania that are characterized in different types of educational and by large-scale mobility such as Samoa

labour mobility, occasionally leading and Tonga. Moreover, while a handful Schieder. Dominik Source:

to permanent emigration (IOM 2020; of scholars have explored migration Figure 3: An advertisement for an Osaka-based Mohanty 2006). patterns and routes between Fiji and food bar owned by a migrant from Fiji, 2012.

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Figure 4: A meeting of the Fiji Community in Tokyo, 2013. located in or bordering the Pacific (but indigenous Fijians (henceforth: Fiji- from the British Empire in 1970, that see Besnier 2012; ‘Esau 2007).2 ans) and Indo-Fijians. In 2007, they bilateral relations were established and This article aims to contribute to made up 94.3 per cent of the total cross-border mobility put into motion. Pacific Islander mobility studies. It population (56.8 per cent Fijians and Japan was one of the first countries to mainly builds on fieldwork, which I 37.5 per cent Indo-Fijians) with the endorse Fiji as an independent state in conducted on Fiji Islander life worlds remaining being mainly of Chinese, 1970 and has been placing a particular and community patterns in Japan in European, Rotuman, other Pacific focus on health, environmental issues, 2012-13 (Schieder 2015) but also takes Islander and mixed-ethnic origin (Fiji climate change and education as part into consideration more recent devel- Islands Bureau of Statistics 2008).4 of its official development assistance opments.3 The article follows two par- While to this day, the majority of Fiji’s (ODA) to Fiji (as well as other Pacific ticular aims. Firstly, it provides general emigrants remain Indo-Fijians, the Island countries) (MOFA 2016). information on trans-border mobility number of Fijians leaving the coun- Existing interconnections are also between Fiji and Japan, also contex- try for longer periods or indefinitely increasingly shaped by a growing Jap- tually referring to other nodes of the is growing (Voigt-Graf 2008). In this anese interest in regional geopolitics Fiji diaspora. Secondly, it engages in article, I employ the term ‘Fiji Island- triggered by China’s rising influence more detail with two of the main rea- ers’ to refer to persons from Fiji (i.e. in Oceania (Envall 2020; Tarte 2005, sons why Fiji Islanders move for short born in Fiji, raised in Fiji, self-identify- 2018). Japan has been a trading partner periods, temporarily migrate or even ing as from Fiji etc.) regardless of their for Fiji (and other Pacific Island states) settle down in Japan: education and ethnic backgrounds but will specify if for decades. Although its economic professional sport (here: rugby). While I am referring to certain Fiji Islanders interests in island Oceania is marginal these facets of Fiji Islander mobility in the discussion. For example, while on a global scale, they play some role will be discussed in separate sections, Fiji Islanders are engaged in educa- in these small countries’ economies. they occasionally overlap to various, at tional mobility, the absolute majority Japan has been importing food (espe- times considerable degrees in individ- of rugby players from Fiji in Japan are cially fish, crustaceans and molluscs), ual cases and should be understood as indigenous Fijians as well as manufactured goods (espe- heuristics lenses rather than categories cially wood and cork products) from that can be neatly separated. Fiji Islanders in Japan Fiji whereas Japanese exports to Fiji Before I proceed, a note on termi- Given that Fiji and Japan have not are mainly made up by machinery and nology is warranted: Fiji is a multi-eth- shared colonial connections, it was transport equipment as well as min- nic society and mainly constituted by only after Fiji gained independence eral fuels (Pacific Islands Centre 2020).

Pacific Geographies #56 • July/August 2021 15 In addition, tourist mobility between at the time of my research in 2012- Islanders in Japan in that year held Japan and Fiji has been an important 13 and mainly concerned Fijian and ‘student’, ‘trainee’ or ‘instructor’ visas link between the two countries prior Indo-Fijian men married to Japanese with students (60) making up by far to the current global COVID-19 pan- or other Asian women. Concurrently, the largest group (Immigration Ser- demic in terms of its benefits to Fiji’s chain migration played only a very vices Agency of Japan 2021a). In addi- local tourism industry (ibid.). marginal role at that time. Most of tion, and based on previous research The first nine Fiji Islanders in Japan the Fiji Islanders I have worked with experiences, it is fair to assume that a were statistically recorded for 1974. hailed from urban areas or had lived significant number amongst those 40 They arrived in the country as part in towns for longer periods of their Fiji Islanders holding an ‘engineer/ of diplomatic missions and for edu- lives before leaving Fiji. Almost all of specialist in humanities/international cational purposes; the later have been them had transnational connections services’ visa have also been engaged playing a prominent role in fostering to relatives in Australia, the U.S. and in educational work. mobility between Fiji and Japan ever other countries and a few arrived in As part of its ODA initiatives, since.5 Data offered by the Japanese Japan via the diaspora. While no offi- Japan not only sends material aid, aid government shows that numbers cial statistical data on the ethnic com- workers and volunteers to the Pacific increased only slowly in the consec- position of the migrant group exists, Islands. From the outset of bilateral utive decades but more rapidly in a survey I conducted during my field- relations between the two countries recent years. Yet, they remain low in work revealed that it broadly resem- Japan has also been regularly inviting comparison to other Pacific destina- bled Fiji’s population structure at that Fiji Islanders to obtain degrees and tions such as Australia and New Zea- time (cf. Schieder 2015:174-177). training at Japanese universities in land, never comprising more than a Comparing the 2019 figures with areas such as agriculture, environmen- few hundred individuals. This is due statistical data concerning the period tal conservation, management, peda- to the specific reasons that allow for- during which I conducted fieldwork in gogy and science education. There are eigners more generally to enter (and Japan reveals that the group of Japan- different opportunities for Fiji Island- remain in) Japan according to the based Fiji Islanders has been increas- ers who wish to pursue education in country’s strict immigration policies ing steadily in the last years (from 181 Japan. For example, they can apply (Douglass & Roberts 2003; Healy et in 2012 to 287 in 2019). This develop- for the Japanese government’s pres- al. 2016; Liu-Farrer 2020). ment is particularly related to a grow- tigious Monbukagakusho scholarship, In 2019, 287 Fiji Islanders were sta- ing number of student visa holders which derives its name from the gov- tistically recorded in Japan (excluding and persons on a so called ‘engineer/ ernmental institution in charge of the diplomats and persons on holiday specialist in humanities/international program (i.e. the Japanese Ministry of or business trips). More than fifty services’ visa; the later connotes a Education, Culture, Sports, Science percent of them were located in the broad category that lumps together and Technology, MEXT) and is open Kantō area, which contains Tokyo various employment sectors and is to nationals of various countries. and six of its neighbouring prefec- applicable to foreigners who have Another venue to explore is MEXT’s tures. Moreover, smaller clusters secured work contracts in the country, scholarship for ‘teaching training stu- existed in a few other prefectures such such as English language instructors dents’, which allows teachers from Fiji as Aichi, Fukuoka and Osaka. Very employed with private companies.6 to enhance their skills in Japan. In light small numbers were spread through- At the same time, the number of Fiji of more recent developments, Fiji out other parts of Japan. The sex ratio Islanders holding ‘instructor’ visas, (and other Pacific) Islanders have also has remained stable for several years which qualify them to teach at gov- been able to join the Pacific Leaders’ with approximately 30 per cent female ernmental institutions such as primary Educational Assistance for Develop- to 70 per cent male in similar fash- and high schools, has remained rela- ment of State (Pacific-LEADS) pro- ion to the age distribution with the tively stable. In conclusion, it is fair gram to secure degrees in fields such majority of Japan-based Fiji Island- to argue that education in its various as public management, policy analysis ers being between 20 to 29 as well forms remains one of the most signif- and international development at Jap- as 30 to 39 years old (i.e. 29 per cent icant reasons for the presence of Fiji anese universities.8 Other scholarships and 36 per cent of the total). As will Islanders in Japan.7 are offered by the Japan International become evident below, there is a clear Cooperation Agency (JICA) as part correlation between the age struc- Education: students, trainees of its Kizuna program (which focuses ture of the migrant group and two and teachers on development issues related to min- of the main reasons for the presence Education-related mobility between ing) and the newly established SDGs of Fiji Islanders in Japan: education Fiji and Japan has to be evaluated Global Leadership program. More and professional rugby. Moreover, against the backdrop of international generally, JICA plays an instrumental there is indication of a slowly grow- relations between the two countries role in implementing and administer- ing second generation of Japan-based as well as, albeit to a lesser degree, ing Japan’s ODA in Fiji and beyond. persons of Fiji Islander descent, in respect to Fiji Islanders seeking With the exception of the Monbuk- many of whom are the children of employment opportunities abroad in agakusho scholarship, the educational Fiji Islander-Japanese couples and the (private) educational sector. Sta- programs open to Fiji Islanders par- hold Japanese citizenship. Marriages tistical data offered by the Japanese ticularly target civil and public serv- between Fiji Islanders and Japanese government for 2019 reveals that 74 ants who are commonly nominated or other nationals had been common out of the total of 287 registered Fiji and/or approved by Fiji’s govern-

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Figure 5: Two Fijian teachers preparing kava at the 2012 Fiji Independence Day celebrations in Yokohama. ment. In that light, most scholarships ment of Pacific Islander professionals tional exchange on a community level available concern graduate (M.A.) or who seek greener pastures abroad in and draws on teachers from countries postgraduate (Ph.D.) education and terms of employment opportunities such as Fiji where English is a ‘native’ students are expected to return to Fiji for a number of interrelated reasons language and the professional level upon graduation and to resume their and who, in terms of professional of education prospective teachers ministerial or teaching jobs.9 teachers, have become “mobile knowl- undergo is high (cf. Iredale et al. 2015; In addition, a limited number of edge workers in the global labour mar- Rokoduru 2006:174). For this pur- scholarship opportunities, for exam- ket” (Iredale et al. 2015:98). pose, JET allows foreign nationals to ple for undergraduate students, are Teacher mobility within the Pacific be temporarily deployed to Japanese offered by private Japanese corpora- Islands and the Pacific Rim has been schools and other government organi- tions at irregular intervals (e.g. EFT documented for some time (e.g. Ire- sations, where they are responsible for 2019). Finally, some Japanese univer- dale et al. 2015; Rokoduru 2006; Voigt- assisting Japanese teachers in enhanc- sities have been offering scholarships Graf 2003) without, however, paying ing foreign language proficiency as to male Fiji Islander students with much attention to potential Asian well as inter-cultural awareness and the prime reason to boost their rugby destination countries. In the case of sensitivity among Japanese pupils and teams. As I will show in the next sec- Japan, there are various channels Fiji students. Apart from Assistant Lan- tion, there is a growing development in Islanders can pursue to gain access guage Teachers (ALT) which make up this area. Therefore, student mobility to teaching-related opportunities more than 90 percent of JET activi- in the context of Fiji, its diaspora and (cf. Schieder 2015:175-176). Some ties, positions are available in the fields Japan also has to be evaluated against Fiji Islander who have a background of international relations and sports the backdrop of what young Fiji in professional teaching have been activity coordination. In 2019, JET Islanders (especially Fijian men) offer engaged with the Japan Exchange and included more than 5,700 participants to Japanese educational institutions in Teaching Program (JET) since 2011. from 57 countries, including one ALT terms of their sporting abilities. JET, which is officially co-coordi- and two Sports Exchange Advisors Education related mobility between nated by different Japanese ministries from Fiji (JET 2021b). Currently, there Fiji and Japan does not only concern and local government institutions has is also a small number of Fiji Island- students but also teachers from Fiji been officially implemented in 1987 ers contracted to Japanese boards of and Fiji Islanders previously unrelated and aims at fostering “mutual under- education and governmental schools to this profession who take up Eng- standing between the people of Japan (mainly on a primary and secondary lish teaching jobs in Japan. These Fiji and the people of other nations” (JET level) where they are working as ALTs. Islanders form part of a broader move- 2021a). The program targets interna- These are islanders who have opted to

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Figure 6: A Rotuman corporate rugby player, 2012.

remain for indefinite periods in Japan stays’, and the low cost of FBI’s pro- is the inclusion of large numbers of and can draw on extensive teach- grams in comparison to similar lan- Pacific Islanders in domestic compe- ing experiences, which they acquired guage schools in countries such as the titions and national teams in various before moving to Japan. UK. FBI has been particularly popular parts around the globe (e.g. Hor- Apart from Fiji Islanders work- in Japan and other East Asian coun- ton 2012). Among Pacific Islanders ing in state-run schools, Japan has tries and was able to attract more than engaged in the rugby industry, Fijians attracted individuals from Fiji with 1,000 students annually prior to the and, to a far lesser extent, Rotumans or without a background in teaching current COVID-19 pandemic (FBI and Fiji Islanders of mixed ethnic who seek employment in the private 2021). In the past, the two FBI schools descent feature prominently. In this educational sector. Most often, they in Fiji were also meeting hubs for Jap- context, Japan has been a destination take up jobs as English teachers with anese students and their future part- for athletes from Fiji and the Fiji dias- one of countless private language ners who opted to emigrate to Japan, pora (e.g. Australia and New Zealand) schools and companies which mainly where they found employment in the as well as other Pacific Islanders for operate in metropolitan areas such as teaching sector. While I am not aware several decades (Besnier 2012; Sakata Tokyo and Osaka. Sometimes they of similar cases in more recent years, 2004; Schieder 2014).11 work as freelance teachers. Another FBI nevertheless continues to influ- The appearance of Fiji Islanders migration channel related to educa- ence trans-border mobility in the pres- in the Japanese rugby world has to tion which I identified while doing ent case as it has expanded its portfo- be evaluated against the backdrop of research in Japan, concerned a few lio to include an employment agency the history and structure of domes- teachers from Fiji formerly employed more recently with the aim to cater for tic rugby in Japan, i.e. corporate and with Free Bird Institute Ltd. (FBI). Japanese companies interested in con- university rugby. A survey I conducted FBI is a private Japanese company tracting Fiji Islanders (see endnote 7). in early 2021 has revealed that for founded in 2004, which successfully In addition to education and at times the season, i.e. the prime operates English-language schools in overlapping with it, professional sport domestic rugby competition in Japan, two Fijian towns (Nadi and Lautoka). in the form of rugby is one of the the 16 participating teams featured a To promote their business, the com- most significant factors for the pres- total of twelve Fijians, one Rotuman pany highlights Fiji’s former status as ence of Fiji Islanders in Japan. and a further three athletes of part-Fi- a British colony, the friendliness of its jian descent. The nine best second-tier people (commonly highlighted also Professional sport: rugby10 teams that also participate in the cur- for touristic purposes) which students One of the striking features of rent make-up of the Top League, can experience, for example on ‘home rugby in its current professional state fielded another nine Fijians, making

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Figure 7: A Fijian rugby player representing Japan internationally, 2014. it 25 athletes of (part-)Fiji Islander and foreigners alike) devoted parts and in the aftermath of the tourna- descent in total. Fijians also represent of their working life and free time to ment. More generally, Japan has slowly Japanese university rugby teams. While their company’s rugby team. While turned into one of the top ten rugby numbers are difficult to establish due corporate rugby has been gradually playing nations worldwide. This suc- to fluctuation and the lack of concrete moving towards more professional- cess has been fuelled by the systematic figures, several students of Fijian ori- ism, a strong corporate ethos remains inclusion of foreign-born players into gin are currently active in that field and intrinsic to Japanese rugby and some the ‘Brave Blossoms’ from the 1990s two of them even represented the win- teams still contain amateurs (Light et onwards, starting with Tongans and ner of the prestigious Japan University al. 2008; Sakata 2004).13 At the same Fijians and expanding to Australians, Rugby Championship in 2021.12 time, corporate rugby remains closely New Zealanders and South Africans. The majority of Japan-based athletes linked to university rugby, as many of Currently, there are one Fijian and one of Fiji Islander origin compete with the best players who wish to pursue athlete of part-Fijian descent in the local and other foreign players in ‘cor- the sport beyond their studies make ‘Brave Blossom’s’ 2021 wider training porate rugby’, a system unique to the up the bulk of company teams to this squad (JRFU 2021a). Significantly, the country. Teams such as Toshiba Brave day. In that sense, Japanese universities Japan Rugby Football Union (JRFU) Lupus or are have been serving as entry points for aims to replicate the international suc- not only sponsored but also owned Pacific Islanders to corporate rugby cess of the ‘Brave Blossoms’ in sev- by these globally renowned corpo- and, eventually, as is evident in some ens rugby. Given Fiji’s success in this rations. The same holds true for the cases, a career as a national (Japanese) fast-paced and shortened variation teams of smaller and less known com- representative (Besnier 2012; Light et of the rugby union code with seven panies such as Hino Motors Ltd. or al. 2008; Schieder 2014). instead of fifteen players per team the Kintetsu Corporation. Japanese Although less significant than base- (e.g. winning two consecutive Olympic rugby teams have a unique heritage. ball, sumo wrestling or soccer (Magu- gold medals in 2016 and 2021), and While current Top League sides and ire & Nakayama 2006), rugby has the inclusion of numerous Fijians in even some lower tier teams field pro- gained much popularity in Japan in the national sevens squads all around the fessional players who are contracted lead up to the 2019 men’s Rugby World globe, it is perhaps unsurprising that as full-time athletes, corporate rugby Cup which was hosted in the country. Fijians have been a common sight in began as an amateur endeavour and This development is closely linked Japan’s sevens teams for some time. has partially remained so ever since. to the outstanding performances of For example, the 2020 men’s sevens In its beginnings, employees such as Japan’s national male fifteen-a-side development squad featured five Fiji- office and factory workers (Japanese team, the ‘Brave Blossoms’ during ans among the 29 prospective athletes

Pacific Geographies #56 • July/August 2021 19 and an additional wider training group grow steadily in recent years, concerns residency when he was scouted by the of eleven players included another young Fijian men who are admitted JRFU. Another Fijian man arrived in four Fijians, making it nearly a quarter to Japanese universities all around the Japan as the spouse of a Fijian woman of the total (JRFU 2020).14 country, especially via scholarships. who worked as an English language A few years ago, I proposed the These Fijians not only represent their instructor but secured a short-term existence of four ideal types of Fiji educational institutions in domestic contract with a lower tier corporate Islander athletes in Japan (Schieder competitions such as the Japan Univer- rugby team. At the same time, mar- 2014:260-262), which remains a useful sity Rugby Championship, but many riage migration potentially introduces heuristic tool to judge more contem- are also later contracted by corporate Japan-based Fiji Islanders to jobs in porary developments. A first category teams and some included in Japanese the Japanese educational sector. This consists of Fijian provincial and ama- national teams. does not only apply to cases related to teur players who have been scouted in In conclusion, there is a trend that former Free Bird Institute Ltd. teach- Fiji, some of whom eventually have more and more Fiji Islanders, espe- ers as discussed above. For instance, been representing Japan on an interna- cially Fijians, enter university and cor- a few Japan-based Fiji Islanders, who tional level. While this type of athlete porate rugby via diasporic locations; met their Japanese spouses while they was the most common one in the early a trend which is clearly linked to the were holidaying in Fiji, found employ- days of foreign player recruitment in ongoing professionalization of the ment as English instructors in private Japan, for example due to their will- sport in Japan. Moreover, there is a language schools or commenced work ingness to accept lower wages than visible development in more recent as freelance English instructors after many other foreigners, the recruitment years towards a growing number of they moved to Japan.15 of amateur players in the islands has Fijian ‘rugby students’ to remain in These examples raise awareness of become of little significance in more Japan after graduation. These young the complexities of mobility trajecto- recent years for Top League and lower men eventually join corporate teams ries and reveal that mobility categories tier teams. A second category con- and some are invited for trials con- such as the ones outlined in this arti- tains Fiji Islander athletes who have ducted by the JRFU. While the JRFU cle are not exclusive but potentially received rugby education abroad or recruits Fiji Islanders on a potentially overlap in regard to the lived experi- were exposed to professional rugby higher level than has been done in the ences of mobile persons (e.g. Brettell outside Fiji before they arrived in past, it remains to be seen what role 2003; Carter 2011). In this sense, the Japan while maintaining Fiji as their these young Fijians will play in Japa- material presented in this contribution home. Among these are younger men nese rugby in the future to come. serves the purpose of providing an who wish to use Japan as a stepping overview of the structural framework stone for more prestigious contracts, Conclusion of Fiji Islander mobility between Fiji, for example in New Zealand, France Building on an introduction of other diasporic nodes and Japan. The or England, as well as athletes who trans-border mobility between Fiji and individual life worlds that materialize were contracted for a limited num- Japan, also taking into consideration within this context warrant further ber of years in other countries before other diasporic nodes, this article has and more detailed exploration else- moving to Japan. However, like their presented two of the main reasons where. amateur counterparts, this type of why a growing number of Fiji Island- . athletes has become less prominent ers spend (in)definite periods of their Endnotes in Japan in more recent years. Rather, lives in Japan. While education and 1) In comparison, Fiji’s total popula- the Japanese rugby world has seen professional sport in most cases lead tion in 2017 was 884.887 (Fiji Bureau the growing significance of two other to stays for shorter and intermediate of Statistics 2018). types of athletes of Fiji Islander ori- periods, they might also foster (more) 2) See Keck & Schieder 2015 for a gin. Consequently, a third category permanent settlement. This is evident slightly dated literature review. refers to Fiji Islanders who left Fiji in respect to students and rugby play- 3) This article builds on twelve at an early stage or were born in the ers who got married to Japanese men months of fieldwork conducted pre- diaspora. Athletes of these type come and women in the past or university dominantly in Tokyo and the Kantō from a variety of backgrounds. For graduates who took up employment area in 2012 and 2013 as well as a brief example, some attend high schools in Japan and opted to remain in the follow-up visit to Tokyo in late 2015. and universities in Australia and New country. It also draws on written (re-)sources Zealand and were recruited by cor- More generally, in some cases edu- such as statistical data and newspaper porate teams afterwards. Others were cation, professional sport and other articles in regard to more recent devel- born or raised in these popular desti- factors that trigger mobility become opments. nations of Fiji Islander emigrants and intertwined. For example, one Fijian 4) A short and useful overview of the were active in ‘’ (i.e. one man who currently lives in Japan, is a ethnic composition of Fiji’s population of the prime rugby competitions in the professional athlete and represents the is offered by Naidu (2013:8-18). Note world) before coming to Japan. What Japanese national team, that no statistical material on ‘ethnicity’ all of these athletes have in common arrived in the country due to his mar- has been released by the Fiji Bureau is that they benefitted from structured riage to a former Japanese JICA vol- of Statistics in reference to the 2017 approaches to professional sporting unteer. Initially, he was employed as a Census. careers before arriving in Japan. The road maintenance worker and played 5) All statistical data used in this fourth category, which also appears to rugby on an amateur level in his area of section has been provided by the

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Figure 8: A meeting of the Fiji Community in Tokyo, 2013.

Immigration Services Agency of Japan mit-level meetings with various coun- university teams, some of which (2021a). Although no reliable data tries from Oceania (incl. Australia and belong to the best in the country, exists for previous years, the presence New Zealand) every three years (JICA included Fiji Islanders in the last three of Fiji Islanders in Japan prior to 1974 2021; MOFA 2021). years. cannot be ruled out. 9) Monbukagakusho scholarship 13) At the time of writing, corporate 6) The Immigration Services Agency holders on the other hand do not nec- rugby faces major changes. Earlier in of Japan defines this visa category as essarily fall under these restrictions. In 2021, the JRFU announced the start applicable to “(c)ontracted positions 2012-13 I met several former students of a restructured and fully profes- with public or private organizations who opted to remain in the country sional three-tier rugby competition in which utilize technology or special- for family and/or professional reasons January 2022 in favour of its current ized knowledge in fields related to after their graduation. corporate make-up. The JRFU aims physics, engineering, natural science, 10) Throughout, I focus on rugby to elevate the level of Japanese rugby law, economy, and sociology; or those union and do not include rugby and to bring it in line with domestic which require an understanding of or league, i.e. the second prominent competitions in countries such as sensitivity to foreign cultures” (2021b). rugby code, given that it is rugby Australia and New Zealand (JRFU 7) In addition to education and union that fosters mobility between 2021b). professional sport, Fiji Islanders have Fiji, its diaspora and Japan. 14) Similar developments are visible engaged in other work-related activ- 11) For example, Sakata (2004:51) with regard to the women’s national ities in Japan. They include mission- found that in the 2002 Top League sevens side. For example, the team aries, car mechanics, entrepreneurs, competition, 38 percent of foreign that competed in the Tokyo Olympics salary (wo)men and care workers. players originated from Fiji, Samoa included one player of Fijian-Japanese Moreover, a few years ago the oper- and Tonga. Given that athletes from descent who was born in Japan. Until ator of Tokyo’s Narita International Australia and New Zealand con- very recently another Fiji-born athlete Airport initiated an overseas recruit- stituted another 59 percent of the also featured for Japan’s national ment scheme and has, since 2018, total and that a number of athletes fifteens team. hired nine Fiji Islanders. Their recruit- of Pacific Island descent based in 15) While the (visa) category ‘spouse’ ment was facilitated by Free Bird Japan at that time held passports of has remained relatively stable, it is Institute Ltd., a Japanese company I these countries, the actual number interesting to note that the number of also refer to in this article’s section on of Pacific Islanders playing in Japan’s permanent residents of Fiji Islander education-related mobility. best domestic competition around the origin in Japan has increased from 28 8) The Pacific-LEADS program was turn of the century must be evaluated in 2012 to 59 in 2019. While it can initiated in 2015 as part of the Pacific even higher. be assumed that many permanent Islands Leaders Meeting (PALM) 12) While further research is needed residents are spouses of Japanese initiative. This forum was created to establish accurate numbers, I could men and women, further research is by Japan in 1997 which hosts sum- establish that at least nine Japanese required to validate this hypothesis.

Pacific Geographies #56 • July/August 2021 21 Acknowledgements Horton, P. (2012). Pacific Islanders in global rugby: Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press. Fieldwork in 2012-13 was under- The changing currents of sports migration. The Maguire, J. & Nakayama, M. (eds.) (2006). Japan, International Journal of the History of Sport, 29(17), Sport and Society: Tradition and Change in a taken as a Japan Society for the Pro- 2388-2404. Globalizing World. London/New York, Routledge. motion of Science Postdoctoral Immigration Services Agency of Japan (2021a, April MOFA (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan) Fellow [grant number PE11043] at 18). 在留外国人統計（旧登録外国人統計）統計表 [Statistics (2016). Rolling Plan for the Republic of Fiji. Hitosubashi University, Tokyo. I am of Resident Foreigners (Formerly Statistics of Registered Available from: https://www.fj.emb-japan.go.jp/ Foreigners)]. 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Corresponding Author: Dr Dominik Schieder [[email protected]] works in the Department of Social Sciences at the University of Siegen. He specializes in the anthropology and history of Fiji and Fiji Islander trans-border mobility with a focus on multi-ethnic sociality, institutional change, politics and sport. Since 2013, he serves as co-speaker of the German Anthropological Association’s Oceania working group.

22 Pacific Geographies #56 • July/August 2021