COLLEGIATE CULTURAL AND INTEGRATION INTO THE COLLEGE COMMUNITY

John Wesley White University of North Florida

Amanda Pascale University of North Florida

Steven Aragon Aragon Education

Preventing attrition for racially minoritized, first-generation, and low SES postsecondary students continues to be a challenge despite significant ef- forts of educational researchers, college administrators, and high school teachers and counselors. (skills necessary to successfully navigate an environment) may help to explain and address this issue. Apply- ing cultural capital and college readiness frameworks, we attempt to better understand the challenges four racially minoritized, first-generation, low- SES students face in attempting to get a “read” (understand the workings) on college. Students were in their second semester of their first year and on academic probation. Each participated in interviews and journal writing throughout one semester. Analysis revealed that cultural capital served as a foundation for reading the college environment in four key areas required for college readiness: understanding and calculating GPAs; computer liter- acy required for completing assignments; understanding the course listing and registration process; and finding other campus resources for addressing needs.

Please direct inquires about this manuscript to: John Wesley White, [email protected]

College Student Affairs Journal, Volume 38(1), pp. 34 - 52 ISSN 2381-2338 Copyright 2020 Southern Association for College Student Affairs All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. 35 College Student Affairs Journal Vol. 38, No. 1, 2020 just can’t get a read on this place…You & Hayek, 2007). For myriad reasons, these know, I’m still wet behind the ears and students have had fewer opportunities to II don’t know much man. I came from a develop collegiate academic literacy prior place where I hardly even knew that this to enrolling in college. This, in turn, means system [university culture] existed” that once in college they have a less devel- - Simon, first-generation, Native-Amer- oped foundation on which to build new col- ican first year college student legiate academic literacy. Using a cultural capital framework, the Evidence suggests that Simon’s expe- purpose of this paper is to examine how rience is not unique; rather, it represents college campus practitioners can build in- the struggle that many racially minoritized, frastructure that better supports the growth first-generation and low social economic and development of acadmic literacy and status (SES) college students face in being collegiate cultural capital. The following able to “get a read” on what is expected of research questions guided this study: (1) them in college. Many racially minoritized, What forms of academic capital do racial- first-generation, and low-SES college stu- ly minoritized, first-generation, and low- dents transitioning from high school to col- SES students bring with them to college? lege start the latter with limited and insuf- (2) How do racially minoritized, first-gen- ficient knowledge about college social and eration, and low-SES college students de- academic culture and thus how to prepare scribe their academic identity? (3) What are for their first term (Tierney, 2013; Tierney the essential components of “collegiate ac- & Colyar, 2009).While the college admis- ademic literacy”? The examples described sions vetting process virtually guarentees below support the notion that soley provid- that enrolled students—regardless of race, ing access to the academy for youth from parental educational attainment, cultural disadvantaged backgrounds is not enough, background, prior educational experiences, we must also continue to find ways to pro- or academic ability—are literate in the literal vide support systems within higher educa- sense of the word, many lack the form of tion that will allow for the growth and suc- college readiness we refer to as collegiate cess of all students. academic literacy. While college students Before we begin, however, there is a individually bring a wealth of prior experi- critical issue that we would be remiss in ig- ences and academic strengths, too many, noring: what may appear to some readers particularly those who are first-genera- to be the lens of deficit theory (a focus on tion, from racially minoritized , or low-SES what groups of students lack rather than on backgrounds, arrive on campus with an in- what unique talents they bring to school) adequate understanding of the underlying in examining a complex problem. While we structures and rules associated with the col- fully acknowledge that all students come lege community, and with the institutional to college with many strengths—strengths norms that contribute to a more complete that are too seldom welcomed or appreciat- and useful collegiate academic literacy. ed in mainstream college academic and so- Not being fully versed in academic literacy, cial cultures—we also recognize that many these students have fewer opportunities to mainstream institutions (including colleges) become what Lave and Wenger (1991) call nonetheless require specific overt and tac- “full participants” (p. 105) in the culture in it skills. Academe is a discourse communi- which they find themselves. First-genera- ty and as such it expects specific norms of tion students, in particular, often have both the participants therein (Bizzell, 1992; Lave less overt knowledge and tacit knowledge & Wanger, 1991; Swales, 2016). Our goal about what college academic and social cul- in this paper is not to critique a group as tures entail (Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges, lacking, but rather to note a few forms of Collegiate Cultural Capital 36 collegiate cultural capital that, despite their ed with parental educational achievement: importance to collegiate success, tend to of the low SES students enrolled in college remain part of what Eliot Eisner defines as between 1992 and 2000, those who had a the null curriculum: “the options students parent or parents who completed college are not afforded, the perspectives they may graduated at a rate of 68%; that number never know about, much less be able to use, drops to 43% for first-generation students the concepts and skills that are not part of (Chen, 2005). This trend is still present their intellectual repertoire” (1985, p. 107). now, with 42% of continuing generation col- Thus, describing how and why some racially lege students graduating and only 20% of minoritized students, first-generation stu- first-generation college students graduating dents, or students from low socioeconom- (Redford & Hoyer, 2017). Further, the data ic backgrounds lack certain forms of colle- are clear, the attrition rate for college stu- giate capital is not a critique of the students dents with one or more of these socio-de- themselves, but is, in some ways, an indict- mographic characteristics continues to far ment of the rigidity of the college institu- exceed that of their more advantaged peers. tion itself, and the failure of K-12 schools There are abundant and well-documented to adequately prepare everyone for college reasons for this. success (Balduf, 2009; Charles, 2018; Gew- The most commonly cited reason—and ertz, 2017; National Center for Education- the focus of the earlier research on racial- al Statistics, 2017; Reid & Moore, 2008; ly minoritized and low-SES student attri- Sheehy, 2012). However, criticism alone, is tion—is that these students are less likely not enough to foster change. We posit that than their White peers to be academically change is most meaningful and effective prepared through their previous academic when it orginiates from within; to this end, experience for the demands of college-level only when the academy itself contains a coursework, and thus drop out due to aca- greater multiplicity of voices and views will demic failure (Falcon, 2015;Adelman, 2006; it become more appreciative of the forms of Zarate & Gallimore, 2005). Inequitable K-12 capital that diverse students bring. school funding, tracking into low ability groups, lowered teacher expectations (defi- Background cit theories), and punitive behavioral man- agement all negatively affect minoritized Racially Minoritized, First-Generation, student academic performance and prepa- Low-SES Students in Higher Education ration for college more than they do White Racially minoritized students received students (Oakes, 2005; Oakes, Rogers, & only 33% of the nearly 1.9 million bach- Lipton, 2006; Solorzano, Ledesma, Perez, elor’s degrees awarded during the 2013- Burciaga, & Ornelas, 2002). 2014 academic year despite higher enroll- There is also a relationship between ment in college, an increase from 24% of attrition and racially minoritized students’ 1.7 million bachelor’s degrees awarded in perceptions that college campuses are of- the 2007-2008 academic year (Kim, 2011, tentimes hostile places, a perception that NCES, 2017). While the majority of U.S. 9th is backed up by many examples of overt grade students expect to go to college (Aud and tacit racism and classism on campuses et al., 2010; Aud, KewalRamani, & Frohlich, (Quaye, 2007; Schmidt, 2008). Reinforcing 2011), only 33% of those high school seniors this perception are cultural incongruences in the lowest SES quartile are expected to between racially minoritized and low-SES complete a bachelor’s degree compared to college students and their peers and pro- 39% in the middle two quartiles and 35% in fessors (Marcus et al., 2003; Nuñez, 2009; the highest quartile (Aud et al., 2011). The Ortiz, 1999, 2000). Furthermore, lack of issue is further complicated when correlat- culturally-relevant peers and faculty role 37 College Student Affairs Journal Vol. 38, No. 1, 2020 models contributes to diffult transitions to development of more nuanced and complex college (Pyne & Means, 2013; ACT Policy forms of discourse rely on an understanding Report, 2002; Perna, 2000). While off cam- of the basic structures around which such pus they have fewer college-educated rel- discourse is built—the general structure of atives who can serve as academic or social the society (and its hierarchies), the vocab- mentors (Falcon, 2015; ACT Policy Report, ulary unique to the context, the basic ‘rules’ 2002; Perna, 2000; Swail, Redd, & Perna, and operations of the communities, pref- 2003). Finally, students from disadvan- ered modes of communication, etc. (Lave taged backgrounds tend to face significant & Wenger, 1991). In other words, because burdens in paying for rapidly rising college more advanced forms of discourse are so costs (Falcon, 2015; Conley, 2001, 2008; closely tied to contexts, those wishing (or Finegold & Wherry, 2004). Though this body needing) to employ said discourses must of research elucidates a bevy of factors af- understand the structures around which fecting attrition for students from disad- discourses have formed (much as one must vantaged backgounds, a lesser emphasis is understand the referents to understand a placed on the role that academic literacy, as metaphor). a form of collegiate cultural capital, plays in ‘Reading’ an environment requires what students’ integration into and success with- all other forms of effective reading require: in the academy. prior knowledge (McNamara & Kintsch, 1996; Tarchi, 2010). As Paolo Friere stress- Academic Literacy and Collegiate Cul- es in Literacy: Reading the Word and Read- tural Capital ing the World (Freire & Macedo, 1987) one Research examining students’ identity must be able to “read the world” if one is to issues and cognitive development as related “read the word” in any meaningful way (p. to their knowledge and uses of literacy and 32); conversely, being ill equipped to read discourses (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Lave one’s surroundings and contexts is likely to & Wenger, 1991; Vygotsky, 1986) suggests lead to oppression. Unfortunately, structural many first year college students leave their barriers prevent many racially minoritized, high schools lacking a collegiate-level aca- first-generation, and low-SES students from demic literacy (Author Citation). By academ- entering college without an understanding ic literacy, we refer to the types of discours- of some of the most rudimentary workings es commonly expected within the university of academic and college culture that, in community (itself a discourse community a turn, inhibits their ability to develop new la Lave and Wenger, 1991) and especially and nuanced knowledge. within classrooms and between students Acquiring “capital” to read and succeed. and faculty. To be fully understood in aca- The notion of collegiate cultural capital draws demic discussions and communications (and on the theoretical underpinnings of Bour- to be accepted as a legitimate participant in dieu (1986) and Delpit (1995). Bourdieu such discussions), one must be familiar with (1986) posits there are four different kinds and able to use the discursive norms of the of capital one must possess in order to find academy. This body of research emphasiz- full acceptance in a given community; eco- es that the development of strong collegiate nomic capital refers to the material goods academic literacies is predicated upon stu- and resources needed for one to be able to dents gaining an understanding of the ba- buy their way into a particular community; sic workings of the college system, which cultural capital refers to the institutionalized should come through their P-12 education- capital,(e.g., academic qualifications, certi- al experiences. Like the development of all fications, and other credentials) one must forms of literacy, academic literacy requires possess to gain entrance to a community; a solid foundation on which to build. The refers to access to and mem- Collegiate Cultural Capital 38 bership in particular cultural and sub-cultur- Method al social groups and institutions via partic- Multiple case study design was used and ipation in ceremonies and rituals; symbolic predicated upon a constructivist approach capital refers to one’s capacity to satisfy the (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Stake, 1995; authorities who sanction or authorize “legit- Yin, 2014) to explore students’ creation of imate identity” (p. 75) in a community. Tak- meaning of their academic experiences and en together, Delpit (1995) termed the foun- development of their academic identity as dational junctions of Bourdeiu’s four types well as the types of cultural capital they of capital, cultural capital. Within the the possess. This methodology was appropriate collegiate setting, full participation and suc- given the multiple levels of context (e.g., cess in the university community requires individual’s internal context, family context, differing levels and types of cultural capital. school context and the broader social, eco- Conversely, the absence of, or inadequacy nomic and policy context) that shape stu- with, any of these forms of cultural capital dent success (Perna & Thomas, 2006). created through inequitable school experi- ences largely predicates failure within and, Sampling & Data Collection in some cases, withdrawal from the acad- Potential participants were screened emy (Kutz, 1998; Nettles & Perna, 1997; for specific criteria. These criteria included, Author Citation). In college, for instance, (a) first-generation college student status, information, strategies, and skills allow stu- (b) in the second semester at college, (c) dents to successfully navigate the complex from a minoritized and/or low socioeconom- processes of financial aid and registration, or ic background, (d) struggling academically develop an understanding of college norms, (on academic probation due to a GPA be- expectations, and diverse cultures (Barnes, low 2.0), (e) voluntarily seeking help from Slate, & Rojas-LeBouef, 2010; Conley, the university’s academic services center. 2008). However, though students from dis- For the purposes of participant selection, advantaged backgrounds often enter with a first-generation status was defined as stu- host of life experiences that contribute pos- dents whose primary caregiver(s) had not itively to the development of skills essential attended a four-year college or university. for college readiness (Byrd & Macdonald, Students who met all criteria were contact- 2005), they may be under prepared to nav- ed by telephone, campus mail, and email igate complex systems of higher education. to gauge their interest in participating. Sev- More specifically, many students arrive on en students meeting the basic criteria met campus without the economic, cultural, so- with the first author to discuss the param- cial, and symbolic capital (Bourdieu, 1986, eters of the study and to ask questions; 1991) needed to survive therein. In short, four chose to participate. They included Si- they have not had opportunities to aquire mon, a Native American male; Latricia, an what Bourdieu termed ‘habitus’, that is the African American female; Alex, a Hispan- internalization or normalization of specific ic male; and Maria, a Hispanic female (all funds of knowledge that serve as a basis for pseudonyms). Data were collected during survival in a given environment (Bourdieu, the academic semester and included weekly 1986). Speaking specifically to the needs of interviews with students and corresponding students from low-SES communities, Ren- researcher field notes, journal entries from don (1999) states, “the problem is not so students, and artifacts. much that low-income students lack ambi- Interviews. The weekly individual in- tion, it is that these students have not re- terviews lasted between and hour and an ceived the socialization, encouragement, or hour and a half. Each student was asked a mentoring to take full advantage of higher series of questions about their academic, education” (p. 197). cultural, and social backgrounds; their ex- 39 College Student Affairs Journal Vol. 38, No. 1, 2020 pectations for college and the surprises they Componential analysis provided a means faced in their first semester; their ideas to compare and contrast different units of about their relative strengths and weak- cultural meaning and identify otherwise un- nesses, etc. Finally, each of the participants noticeable patterns (Spradley, 1980). For sat for a final, post-study interview where example, we looked at ‘natural discourse they discussed the results of the interven- patterns’ on one axis and another domain tion approaches/practices, their plans for such as class participation (or lack thereof) the future, and what forms of capital they on the other axis. felt they developed or recognized during the Member checking occurred with the course of the semester. All interviews were participants at various points throughout recorded and transcribed. the process (Stake, 1995). After transcrip- Journal entries. Student journal en- tion and preliminary analyses had occurred, tries included their daily thoughts about all participants were given an explanation the college environment or culture, their of the categories, the data obtained from classes, academic tasks, social life, and any them, and then asked to comment on the problems they encountered. Journal entries initial categories generated at follow-up in- were photocopied for later analysis. terviews. Their feedback was subsequent- Artifacts. Artifacts included students’ ly incorporated. Upon completion of the written work, comments from and corre- componential analyses and a write-up of spondence with professors/instructors, and our findings, the participants were provid- their personal class notes. In addition, each ed with a draft of the analysis section and student’s academic progress was monitored again asked to provide feedback on the ac- via an academic database that included pro- curacy of our analyses as they pertained to fessors’ evaluations, mid-term exams, and each individual. With each participant, we notes from other academic advisors. discussed the few discrepancies she/he had brought forward and altered the text—in the Data Analysis presence of that participant—to ensure that Using Goetz and LeCompte’s (1984) we captured how they experienced each is- recommendations for initially organizing sue and context. This process helped to en- data, after a general ‘read through’ of data, sure the trustworthiness of these data. we created basic categories of issues. We consulted on items and issues not includ- Findings ed in the original categorization plan, and created additional categories as needed. We Cultural Capital as a Foundation for used this schema to identify themes that Reading the College Environment were particular for each participant and, Although each of these students faced more importantly, those themes that were enormous challenges to academic success common to all of the participants. at the university including, as Simon put it We further analyzed the data collect- “not knowing how to talk right,” many of ed according to Spradley’s (1980) domain their problems—including learning those and componential analysis. Domain analysis linguistic codes common to the collegiate allowed us to focus on those domains that academic setting—resulted from a more were pertinent to the components of colle- basic misunderstanding of the university giate academic literacy and thereby provide system itself (for more information on each a guide to analyze a wealth of otherwise student’s level of academic literacy and the overwhelming raw data. Next, we created challenges they faced in building that litera- categories of semantic relationships (e.g., cy, see Author Citation). Though intelligent X is an attribute of Y, X is a way to Y…) for and capable, each came to the university un- each issue. aware of the ways in which students, staff, Collegiate Cultural Capital 40 and faculty are expected to operate with- A’s if I wanna stay here.” Misunderstanding in that system; they lacked a foundation- how GPAs work, he felt that “no matter how al institutional literacy. In contrast to most hard I work, that [staying at the university] of their peers, our participants had never ain’t gonna happen.” His misunderstanding been exposed to the foundational skills they compounded his difficulties and his -chanc needed to develop a comprehensive aca- es for success: “I’m getting these letters all demic literacy. More specifically, each of the time [from the Dean of Students]…tell- the study participants came to the univer- ing me I got to do better.” He had stopped sity not understanding concepts such as cu- opening university mail because they made mulative grade point averages (and how to him feel “stupid” and “like I don’t have a compute them), course forgiveness, how to chance [to stay].” Simon was, based upon use email in communicating with professors threats from the University combined with and university personnel, how to navigate his misunderstanding of the system, prepar- the university’s learning management sys- ing himself—very prematurely—for failure. tem (online course management software), Unbeknownst to him however, Simon’s situ- how to apply for student loans and grants, ation was far from dire. Once taught how to how to determine the courses in which they compute GPA, Simon learned that with his needed to enroll and how to undertake the current course load he would only need to process of enrollment, and where and to earn a 2.4 GPA (a C+ average) to get off of whom to go for healthcare and psycholog- academic probation. He also learned how to ical needs. These issues were compounded compute projected GPA scenarios, thus giv- by these students’ lack of study skills, yet ing him a better understanding of his situa- another foundational form of academic lit- tion and a feeling of control over his destiny. eracy. He said, after learning the truth about his Grade point averages. Understanding academic standing that “Yeah, I can do that the concept of grade point average (GPA) (his emphasis)”. Furthermore, he felt great is crucial to knowing one’s academic status relief: “At least now I know what I gotta do within the system (Author Citation). Howev- [to stay].” er, how grade point averages are calculated Maria had an equally naïve understand- (and the ways that one can predict a future ing of GPA; at the start of her second semes- GPA via prospective grades), too often re- ter she told me, “I know I didn’t do good last main a part of the null curriculum (Eisner, semester, but I don’t think I did that bad.” 1994). Simon and Maria were both on aca- She went on to say that she felt that “if I demic probation with GPAs under 2.0, after do pretty good this semester, like B’s and their first semester at college. Yet neither maybe a C, I should be alright.” Belying her understood how their previous semester’s unjustified confidence was her actual GPA of respective GPAs had been calculated, or a 0.333. Once Maria learned about cumula- what would be required of them to get off of tive GPA, she realized that she would need probation. Thus, their academic probation to earn nothing less than an A in each of her and the potential consequences resulting semester’s classes just to stay at the uni- from probation, was unclear. versity. Though Maria was disheartened to Simon, whose GPA had fallen to 1.65, learn of the depth of her predicament, she claimed early in our work together that he was also better able to prepare herself and felt that improving enough to stay in col- her family for what was almost inevitable. lege was “almost impossible.” When dis- She also developed more realistic expecta- cussing his predicament, he said, “[T]here’s tions for herself. At the end of the semester, all these worries in my head. I got to do she said, “I know I didn’t do good enough, good or else I’m outta here.” His idea of but it [being dismissed] wasn’t a big sur- ‘doing good’ was “I guess I need, like, all prise…I didn’t expect all A’s.” She had, how- 41 College Student Affairs Journal Vol. 38, No. 1, 2020 ever, improved academically throughout the stuff about class, that I didn’t know ‘till I got semester and,thus improved her chances of there…they were getting emails.” Though being readmitted in the future. competent in other electronic media, La- Computer literacy. Recent studies tricia was not familiar with this essential have shown computer literacy is crucial for college tool. This should not be surprising student success in college (Bartholomew, as she had no need for it before college: 2004; Henson, 2014; Latham & Gross, “In high school, most of my papers were 2008). With the ubiquitousness of personal hand-written. I didn’t really have to type computers and social networking, comput- at all…teachers told us what we were sup- er literacy is a skill that college personnel posed to do [in class] or gave us handouts assume students have grasped prior to en- [assignment information].” Similarly, Simon tering the university (Eisenberg & Johnson, had trouble accessing his own portal ac- 2002). Yet, for students from low resourced count information and receiving emails. He neighborhoods, there is no guarantee that had never been taught about his “Personal they have adequate access to computers Identification Number” (PIN) or that all of to practice their computer skills. Schools in his student accounts were online. Rather, he lower resourced school districts tend to have spent the better part of an entire day try- fewer and more outdated computers than ing to get information from various campus do schools in high resource environments departments. In response to his legitimate (e.g., Benson, 2007; Chapman, Masters, & queries, he felt that university staff gener- Pedulla, 2010; Hohlfeld, Ritzhaupt, Barron, ally greeted his questions as if he were lazy & Kemker, 2008; Valdez & Duran, 2007). or obtuse. This, in turn, fueled his frusatra- Even in homes where there are comput- tion and anger: “Man, when I realized I’d ers, students from lower SES backgrounds spent a whole freakin’ day trying to get the still tend to have lower levels of computer same stuff that’s on the computer, man I literacy as compared to those from higher was pissed. I wasted so much time…how SES homes (Cohron, 2015; Ritzhaupt, Liu, come no one ever told me about this stuff?” Dawson, & Barron, 2013; Zickuhr & Smith, Course listing and registration. Un- 2012). derstanding how to read a course catalog Simon and Latricia each came to the (including required courses, course num- university lacking academic computer liter- bers and sections, prerequisites, and sched- acy. They possessed only rudimentary un- uling) and knowing how to enroll for class- derstandings of how to check their respec- es are essential skills for college success. tive student tuitionaccounts online, how to Even into his second semester, Simon did access course-related web sites, or how to not understand college course listings and use email appropriately. Latricia, for exam- enrolling for courses; he did not know that ple, announced weeks into our work togeth- beyond their titles, classes are identified by er that she did not know how to access the prefix, number, and section—a foundational lecture notes and PowerPoints her professor part of being literate in the college setting had put online for a coming midterm exam. (Corson, 2001). Simon had received no ex- She did not know what a URL address was posure to or need to understand the lexicon (her professor had provided one in the syl- of course listings or section numbers in his labus) and she did not know how to log in to high school because, as he put it, “every- her university portal, which would have giv- thing was planned out for me.” He added en her access to the course Blackboard site. that because “no one expected me to go to We quickly discovered that she had failed college,” no one had taught him how to find to get and read important notices sent out out what courses to take. Coming from a to class email lists: “It took me a long time community in which almost no one went to to realize why other students knew stuff, college (only four out of 800 graduating stu- Collegiate Cultural Capital 42 dents from his reservation were enrolled in financial or academic penalty: “they gave a four year college or university) he lacked me a really hard time about it even though the resource of college mentors or ‘insiders’ it wasn’t my fault.” He had to get “special from whom he could seek advice (Act Poli- permission” from personnel at the Dean lev- cy Report, 2002). This proved a huge detri- el to override the rules, an endeavor that ment to him at the university: in his first se- itself took days, numerous meetings, and mester he simply followed his overburdened that prompted further feelings of embar- advisor’s lead and trusted his directions: “… rassment and shame. he told me what I should take and did it Finding campus resources. Because [enrolled him for courses] on his comput- many first-generation and minoritized stu- er.” Simon was “waitlisted” in two sections dents are unfamiliar with college campuses, of the overenrolled course “The College Ex- they often come to campus lacking an un- perience” (a mandatory class designed to derstanding of campus resources (Author; introduce freshmen to basic research skills Byrd & MacDonald, 2005). An important and the expectations associated with most part of the cultural capital of the university courses). As spaces opened in the course, is knowing where to find the networks of Simon was automatically enrolled in two helping professionals common to most cam- sections. Being unfamiliar with the concept puses (Mucowski, 1984). Campus programs of waitlisting or course sections, Simon sim- such as orientation are designed to help ply followed his computer-generated sched- students learn about resources to and foster ule. Due to this misunderstanding, Simon new connections between students. How- spent the first six weeks of his first semes- ever, well-intentioned each participant in ter taking two sections of the same course; this study complained that orientation was, he thought that, like his Geography class, from their perspective, “full of fluff” (Simon) the course had two parts (such as a Lab or a or worse, “a touchy-feely waste of time…I Recitation) and that each part had a similar didn’t learn nothing there that really helped syllabus. me” (Maria). Lacking college educated par- This experience affected Simon in a ents or friends to whom to turn for advice, number of important ways. Not only did it they remained ‘in the dark’ on where to seek frustrate him because of the extra work he help for any number of common college-re- had to do, it made him wonder about his lated problems (Act Policy Report, 2002; qualifications for being at college. In recol- Author Citation). It is not surprising, then, lecting the experience, Simon said: that when they needed help,with emotional I guess this is how college really is. It’s issues, financial issues, or with academics, completely confusing. I wondered if I they did not know to whom to turn for help. was supposed to be here, ‘cause this As Alex shared, “Until I came to this study is college man, the big time. It’s sup- and this place (the Student Services Cen- posed to be organized, to be together. ter), I didn’t know where I was supposed to They’re supposed to know what’s going go [for help].” on; they’re here to guide us through, Simon entered college carrying a huge and I was told the wrong thing to do. burden: representing fellow Native Ameri- Not understanding the registration system, can people in a positive light and doing well Simon had to work much harder than nec- academically to make good use of his res- essary—a situation that caused him signifi- ervation’s scholarship money. He had been cant stress and prompted self-doubt. Com- told before leaving for college that he repre- pounding the problem was the fact that even sented Native American people and should after he was told of his mistake, his prob- therefore serve as a positive example: lems were far from over. Simon had missed My parents would say, ‘be careful what the deadline for dropping courses without you do, because what you do, people— 43 College Student Affairs Journal Vol. 38, No. 1, 2020 the upper, the majority—will look at you, he would consequently turned away. No one and what you do or what you say is go- told him that services there were included in ing to reflect on us.’ That’s what they al- his tuition. Simon suffered significantly (lack ways said to me. That kind of stuck into of sleep, heavy drinking, loss of appetite, my head, you know?…It [failure] would etc.) and for an extended period because no be bad, man. I mean, like, I’d let them one taught him about this essential campus all down, you know? They’re expecting resource. me to get it done, to do good. They’re Alex faced similar problems. Being what even paying for it [through a reserva- he called a “double minority” (Hispanic and tion scholarship]…So, if I have to go gay), he was having trouble assimilating into home a failure, if I can’t survive here the university environment. For example, and do good, they’ll all be disappoint- he was shocked at the level of homophobia ed… my little brother and sister couldn’t on a “liberal” campus that supposedly cele- look to me no more. brates diversity: The burden of trying to succeed as an out- There’s all this talk about [the universi- sider on campus—Simon was well aware ty] being open, being, you know, liberal that he was “like probably the only Indian and all. It’s just talk…You can be what these people have ever seen in real life”— you want so long as it’s pretty much like combined with the burden of positively rep- everyone else…My friends and me, we resenting Native American people through stick with our own kind. academic success, caused Simon to fall into Early in his time on campus, Alex started a severe depression. He exacerbated his becoming depressed and feeling increasing- depression by developing unhealthy lifestyle ly isolated. He felt that he had no one with practices. For example, misunderstanding whom he could talk openly. When he was his peers’ hyperbolic claim that they were having trouble with his first “real boyfriend,” “studying all of the time,” Simon attempted for example, he shared in his journal entry, to do likewise. He drank copious amounts “I can’t think, I can’t concentrate. I’m so of highly caffeinated drinks throughout the upset” He went on to write “there’s nobody day and turned to alcohol and marijuana to I can talk to.” Like Simon, he did not know “come down” late at night. This, in turn, be- that there were campus resources he could gan to affect his sleeping patterns and his utilize such as the mental health clinic or the ability to study. He said, early in the study, Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender (LGBT) that “I’m working all of the time, man, but it Resource Center. Though he had heard of don’t seem to do no good…now I can’t sleep the former, he thought that he could not much, and then I’m falling asleep in class.” seek help there because “I don’t have the Facing what was later diagnosed as se- money for it.” It was only after he was ed- vere chronic depression, Simon suffered for ucated on the availability, costs, and anon- months because he did not know where to ymous nature of these services (informa- go to seek help. To us he lamented the fact tion he gained through participation in our that “it’s not like there’s anything I can do study) that Alex began therapy and began about it anyway…no one cares.” Simon did to feel better. Toward the end of our time to- not realize that the student health center gether and nearing the end of his first year offered counseling and psychiatric care (he of college, Alex acknowledged how helpful thought it was just for “sick people, like with these resources were to his success: “I’m colds or the flu and whatnot”). Even if he stronger now…she [his therapist] has been was aware that he could seek help there, really helpful.” Alex even ended up finding he did not realize that he could afford it; an older, male mentor at the LGBT Center he had avoided the health center because who, he said, “is a good person…someone I he thought if he lacked the ability to pay, can talk to, bounce things off of.” Collegiate Cultural Capital 44 Finally, Simon, Latricia, and Alex all as “academic literacy,” but they lacked the lacked a final aspect of cultural capital at foundational prior knowledge requisite for the university: knowing where and how to developing this literacy. If anything, their get funding for college and college-related lack of prior knowledge on which to build expenses. Each student required external academic literacy precluded development of funding to help them pay their way through the latter. college. Yet again, they did not have the un- derlying foundational resources that they Discussion and Implications needed—in this case the foundational knowl- The stories of these four students testi- edge of and how to successfully navigate fy to the need to assess, and in some cases, the financial aid processes. Alex, who felt build levels of cultural capital for college stu- threatened by his mother’s economic con- dents who are at risk for having not aquired trol over his college experience (and her ho- capital through their K-12 educational ex- mophobia), wanted financial independence periences and who are, consequently, sta- from her. Simon needed a job to supple- tistically most in danger of leaving college ment his reservation scholarship and help prematurely (Pancer, Hunsberger, Pratt, & pay for summer school. Latricia’s primarly Alisat, 2000; Tinto, 1998). Building colle- caregivers growing up, her grandparents, giate cultural capital, while critically import- could not afford to provide her with spend- ant, is seldom a part of most 6-12th grade ing money for life expenses. Finding funding college preparation programs, which tend to for college is both an integral part of being put most emphasis on academics and ne- successful in college and a cause of great glect other forms of capital nessesary for stress (Mucowski, 1984). Yet again, these college success. students came to the campus not knowing Though there is ample research ex- where to go for help in such matters. Si- amining minoritized student attrition and mon, for example, was surprised to find out alienation from the university environment, that there was a financial aid office on -cam this body of literature has largely ignored pus: “That’s all they do there? Do you have the need to teach the foundations underly- to pay for it?” Simon’s comment provides ing traditionally defined academic literacy, another example where knowledge of avail- that is an understanding of the college sys- able campus resources could have helped tem itself (Conley, 2010; Mattern & Shaw, to ease stress in the process of navigating 2010; Perna, 2005). Kuh and Love (2000) college. emphasize the importance of an individual understanding and engaging with an insti- Summary tution’s culture, and suggest that there is Each of the students came to college foundational knowledge necessary for suc- lacking what we have termed “basic aca- cess. However, we need more research to demic literacy.” None of our participants better understand who possesses, or fails had the cultural capital required for college to possess, such foundational knowledge success. Not only were they not versed in as well as when and where this knowledge the more traditionally defined literate prac- comes from. A lack of research in this area tices required for college success such as highlights how often we ‘normalize’ the ex- note-taking, reading academic texts, writ- perience of the majority of students while ing, etc. (Walvoord & McCarthy, 1990; Au- relegating foundational knowledge to the thor Citation), they were largely unfamiliar null curriculum. It is unfortunate that the lit- with the more basic aspects of college life eracies associated with academic discourse and work. These students, though intelli- (e.g., collegiate academic literacy) and col- gent and capable, came to college not only legiate success have until now been large- lacking what other researchers have defined ly ignored. Because these literacies support 45 College Student Affairs Journal Vol. 38, No. 1, 2020 academic success in general, they should be goals such as increased student retention an area of focus for researchers, especially and recruitment of diverse populations. Per- in studies on retention and academic medi- haps the unspoken assumption is that the ation at the college level. Further, it would success in obtaining these goals is predicat- be beneficial to understand the differing ed by the extent to which the college can levels of academic literacy that high school provide the resources and support needed teachers, counselors, and other school staff for students to succeed. Based on the find- possess and how this literacy is imparted to ings of this study, we argue that as educa- a wide spectrum of students (and particu- tional stakeholders we may be unintential- larly for first-generation students). ly limiting the scope of our responsibility to To help racially minoritized and low- support students. Take, for example, Simon SES students succeed at college, we believe and Maria’s reflections regarding orientation that college preparation programs must as non-helpful. It is highly possible, however, move beyond focusing solely on academic that some of the resources the participants preparedness and the college application shared that they did not have knowledge of, process, to the broader concept of college were introduced to them in their orienta- readiness that includes the “academic skills tion, yet they did not, at that time, have the and practices that underlie academic perfor- foundational knowledge to connect the in- mance. . .to attend college” (Arnold, Lu, & formation in a personal and useful way. For Armstrong, 2013, p. 3). Typically, these in- instance, it was not until Simon began suf- clude study skills, self-efficacy, and aspira- fering from chronic depression that he was tions to attend college (Cabrera & La Nasa, primed to recieve the information regarding 2000; Perna, 2005; Rueda, 2005). College support services available from the campus preparatory programs could also examine health center, and connect it to himself in a case studies (like this one) to help them meaningful way. It is important for student identify specific areas where skill building affairs practicioners to remember that sim- and knowledge is needed. Some examples ply providing information about services is may be teaching students about college re- not enough to create information connec- sources such as writing centers, students tions for students to help them build literacy support services, and counseling services. and, in turn, collegiate cultural capital. We And, also, teaching students how to access suggest student affairs staff intentionally course information and how to talk to pro- seek opportunities to make these connec- fessors in person, via email, and how to en- tions for students. For example, one way to gage appropriately and confidently in class better support student development of of discussions. Such an examination would not acadmic literacy is to be intentional about be complete, however, without an examina- language used to connect with students in tion of the problematic issues minoritized orientation and other information sessions, and first-generation college students face or via campus marketing. Using the term when trying to adjust to the college envi- “free for students” as opposed to “covered ronment (Author Citation). with tuition”, for example, may be import- ant in communication with students from Implications and Reccomendations for low-socioecomic backgrounds who, when Student Affairs they first arrive to campus, may not have The findings of this study have power- the acadmic literacy foundations to equate ful implications for student affairs practice. the two term meanings. First, it is not uncommon to find statements Second, based on the findings from this reflective of the institution’s desire to fos- study, we suggest that student affairs work ter environments conducive to students’ ac- collaboratively with academic affairs and ademic and social success, or to promote enrollment services in assessment of stu- Collegiate Cultural Capital 46 dent levels of collegiate cultural capital. It is with campus assessment offices to assess evident that systemic barriers present well growth and development of academic liter- before students arrive on campus. It is also acy at critical junctures in the academic ca- the responsibility of student affairs profes- reer. Similar to math or writing placement sionals to strive to meet students where tests, baseline academic literacy measures they are, emotionally, socially, and academ- should be assessed to determine how much ically. With these ideas in mind, as students support students will require. Next, proce- who may be at risk for low levels of colle- dures should be followed to monitor stu- giate cultural capital are admitted, we rec- dents in their progression and provide ad- ommend colleges assemble a team of staff ditional assessments at critical junctures from student affairs divisions, admissions (e.g., end of the first semester, end of the offices, and acadmic advising to travel to first year). high schools and offer basic academic litera- In addition to assessments of collegiate cy skills, as a proactive approach to helping academic literacy, we suggest that colleges these students develop and build their colle- take proactive approaches to helping stu- giate cultural capital foundation and prepare dents succeed. That is, instead of putting them to succeed in college. Meeting stu- the onus on the student to seek help, in- dents in their highschools, where they are stead we recommend a pre-determined set more comfortable, may help to descrease of sessions with academic advisors, or as- some of the anxiety or stress our partici- signed mentors, throughout the student’s pants discussed, resulting from feeling out academic journey Because students seek- of place on the college campus, and not ing academic help or mediation are, gener- knowing where to go for help when needed. ally, having significant academic or person- It will also serve as a mechanism to prime al difficulties, they are sometimes reluctant students for information regarding support to discuss these issues (Mucowski, 1984). services they will receive during orientation Academic failure is, for them, often equat- or in other various points in their collegiate ed with deep-seeded insecurities about career. their intellectual abilities (Wang & Castan- The findings in this study highlight that denda-Sound, 2011). It is embarrassing, without an understanding of the basic op- therefore, for many students to admit to erations of the university system, students having problems (Mucoswki, 1984; Stern, are unlikely to successfully navigate through 1996). Yet through repeated contact with the academic and social bureaucracy. There such students and a subsequent develop- is a need for basic skills instruction to better ment of trust between a campus staff mem- prepare them for the transition to college. ber and their student(s), problems start to The downward academic spiral that each reveal themselves—either through students’ participant in this study had begun during disclosing this information or through subtle their first semester would—without remedi- or direct references to problem areas (Au- ation in some of the basic aspects of college thor Citation). Each of the students in our life—likely have continued, eventually lead- study felt like an outsider, not just because ing to their withdrawal from the university they looked different than did most other altogether. By introducing academic literacy students, but because they felt “alone” in skills, provided by university staff, during their struggles. They did not readily seek highschool, we aim to intervene early, and help because they had been transplanted better prepare students for success in col- into a paradigm into which they did not fit, lege. but in which they were expected to succeed. Finally, with the understanding that They needed people with whom they could aquiring cultural capital is a process, we rec- speak openly about their problems, people ommend that student affairs work together of whom they could ask “stupid questions” 47 College Student Affairs Journal Vol. 38, No. 1, 2020 (Maria) without fear of judgment. Creat- Further, these students should be ing support networks is a time consuming viewed as somewhat extreme examples of and costly enterprise, but as this research newcomers to the college community. Each suggests, such networks are particular- self-identified (or was identified by their col- ly effective in helping racially minoritized, lege academic counselor) as needing help first-generation, low-SES students succeed with their collegiate-level academics. Thus . In order for the Student Academic Services they were already in academic jeopardy by Center (and services like it at other univer- the time we were working with them on this sities) to be more effective, finding more di- study. Two of these students were are also rect avenues of reaching students may be demographically different than most of their required. Email reminders of the available peers. While two students (Alex and Latri- services could be sent to students at the cia) came to the university from large met- start of a new semester as well as prior to ropolitan cities, the other two (Simon and mid-term and final exam weeks. Addition- Maria) came from very rural environments ally, systems may need to be recalibrated to where there was a dearth of college-edu- flag students whose GPAs are approaching cated mentors to whom they could turn the threshold of academic probation. for advice. As more students from diverse cultures enter and gain experience in col- Potential Limitations lege, it is increasingly rare for prospective Readers should note that the problems college freshmen not to know someone these students faced in their transition to who has college experience. Similarly, with college are a sampling of the myriad prob- each passing year it is increasingly rare that lems first-generation students face when even first year students from low-resourced entering college. Although these issues backgrounds struggle with course-related affect many students, the absence of any computing technology. Today’s youth are in- one or all of these issues does not mean creasingly “digital natives” (Prensky, 2001, that students are not struggling with other p. 1) in the sense they have grown up us- issues related to collegiate cultural capital ing and oftentimes owing technology (e.g., (Author Citation). computers, smart phones, tablets, etc.) and Similarly, though these students shared thus able to interact with and understand a some of the same issues, each student came wide variety of digital technologies. Finally, to the university with individual combina- some high school programs have expanded tions of issues that resulted in adaptive chal- their curricula, covering the more basic as- lenges. Practitioners working with first-gen- pects of how the college system works (see eration college students must be careful not Hooker & Brand, 2009). to assume that the presence of any one is- sue means that a student or students will Conclusion have any or all of the other issues. While These students’ educational futures— we acknowledge that each of the socio-de- and their present level of satisfaction— mographic characteristics (i.e., racially mi- would have been radically different had they noritized, first-generation, low-SES) can not gained greater collegiate cultural capi- and do exist independently of the others, as tal through these hard lessons and through discussed earlier, all three of these charac- our work together. Unfortunately, because teristics frequently co-exist in students who these resources are part of the cultural cap- are considered to be at a “disadvantage” for ital that too often remains hidden to rela- postsecondary success. Consequently, this tive outsiders to the university environ- complicates the extant work on ment, countless other students continue to and makes the value-added of studies such struggle, many believing that they are not as this harder to decipher. “college material” (Latricia) and leaving col- Collegiate Cultural Capital 48 lege altogether. The four students who were College, 20(1), 323-331. a part of this study benefited significantly Benson, A. D. (2007). An exploratory study from working with “insiders” in from aca- of online postsecondary education for demic/campus environment. They gained low-income working adults: A view from insights to which, without intervention, they education support programs. Journal of would have remained blind. 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