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Preloading and Post-Loading Among Ecstasy-Using Youth^

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Preloading and Post-Loading Among Ecstasy-Using Youth^ Mediating MDMA-Related Harm: Preloading and Post-loading Among Ecstasy-Using Youth^ Brian C. Kelly, Ph.D.* Abstract—Ecstasy use remains a key concern for professionals working in fields related to youth and drug use. At the forefront of these concerns are issues related to neurological dysfunction and depression—both acute and long-term—associated with MDMA use. Ecstasy users have been shown • to assess Ecstasy related harms and to engage in a variety of practices to manage these risks. To contend with risk related to neurological dysfunction and depression, some youth have tumed to "preloading" and "post-loading": the practice of consuming other substances to mitigate the negative effects of Ecstasy. Drawing upon data from an ethnographic study of club drug use among youth, the author provides a descriptive profile of the practices of preloading and post-loading as well as the motivations underlying these behaviors among New York City area youth. Youth utilize a range of preloading and post-loading practices, yet do not universally share similar practices, attitudes, and knowledge. It is critical to link clinical and behavioral sciences research to further study both the efficacy and safety of these practices. Keywords—club drugs. Ecstasy, harm reduction, pre-loading, post-loading, youth With the global surge in Ecstasy use during recent de- between 1996 and 2001, with lifetime prevalence figures cades, and the potential for harm associated with the use of almost doubling (Johnston, O'Malley & Bachman 2002). Ecstasy, the continued study of the negative consequences U.S. national data suggests similar increases during that time related to Ecstasy use is critical. With its emergence as a among 18 to 25 year olds (SAMHSA 2002). These trends significant recreational drug among youth, young people have similarly emerged in Australia (Degenhart, Copeland & in particular bear the burden of risk. Dramatic increases in Dillon 2005), Europe (Bogt & Engels 2005; Soellner 2005), Ecstasy use among U.S. high school-aged youth occurred and Canada (Barrettet al. 2005), though not simultaneously. tThe author would like to acknowledge the National Institute on Drug In some instances, the increase in Ecstasy use has led to Abuse for their generous support of this project (Grant # R03-DAO16171) negative health outcomes associated with the drug. Drug and thank Moira O'Brien for her support. Jennifer Foray & Brooke Wells provided helpful comments On earlier versions of the manuscript. Last but Abuse Waming Network data suggest that emergency room certainly not least, I would like to thank the youth who volunteered for this (ER) mentions of Ecstasy in New York coincided with the study and shared their lives with me. diffusion of Ecstasy's use and increased five-fold from the *Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology & Department of Anthropology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN. second half of 1998 to the first half of 2000, indicating that Please address correspondence and reprint requests to Brian C. Kelly, problematic outcomes rose along with more widespread use Purdue University, Department of Sociology, 700 W State Street, West (CEWG 2001). Lafayette, IN 47907. Fax: (765) 496-1476, Email: [email protected] Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 19 Volume 41 (1), March 2009 Keliy Mediating MDMA-Related Harm Since 2001, rates of Ecstasy use have plateaued in users. Long-term neurotoxic effects of MDMA may include the United States, indicating that the diffusion period of a wide range of effects such as impaired memory, diminished the drug cycle has ceased and we have entered a period of attention capacity, impulsivity, alteration of mood, and other stabilization. Nonetheless, Ecstasy remains a widely used cognitive impairments. Several studies have found evidence substance, with roughly two million users in the U.S. during of long-term memory impairment among current and former 2005 (SAJVIHSA2006). In addition, though its diffusion has users of Ecstasy. These effects on memory appear to be plateaued in America and Europe, Ecstasy use continues to multifaceted (Yip & Lee 2005). Ecstasy users have been diffuse in other regions of the world—e.g. Australia (De- found to be impaired on both verbal memory and delayed genhardt. Barker & Topp 2004). Along with the proliferation memory (Rodgers 2000). Others have found Ecstasy use of Ecstasy, the concern for harm associated with its use has to impair working memory (Wareing et al. 2005). Some diffused to various subsets of Ecstasy-using populations as contend that the association of Ecstasy use and memory well. Two key harms concerning scientists and health profes- impairment has been confounded by the concomitant use of sionals as well as Ecstasy users themselves are neurological other drugs, including marijuana (Simon & Mattick 2002). dysfunction and depression. However, Halpem and colleagues (2004) found impair- ment among Ecstasy users with minimal exposure to other NEUROLOGICAL DYSFUNCTION drugs. Beyond memory impairment. Ecstasy use has been associated with impaired attention span among former users Neurological dysfunction, both acute and Iong-term, of the drug (Yip & Lee 2005). Ecstasy use has also been remains a primary concern of scientists and public health associated with adversely affected impulse control (Morgan professionals involved in the study of Ecstasy use. Neu- 1998). Some studies suggest that neurological dysfunction is rological dysfunction remains a complicated topic mainly dose-related, with neurotoxic effects being correlated with because there is no universal definition of neurotoxicity heavy consumption, thus suggesting that binges of Ecstasy and the range of effects on the brain varies (Baggott & use and great cumulative consumption over time pose greater Mendelson 2001). With a holistic and inclusive definition, risk of neurological dysfunction (Yip & Lee 2005; Parrott neurological dysfunction may comprise anything related et al. 2002; O'Shea et al. 1998). to toxic effects on the brain from serotonin depletion in the days following Ecstasy consumption to acute cognitive DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMOTOLOGY impairment to long-term cognitive damage or permanent alteration of neurons in the serotonergic system. MDMA Depressive disorders linked to the neurotoxic effects works on several components of the brain, including both the of Ecstasy use also concern scientists and public health serotonergic and dopaminergic systems, and as a result could professionals. The potential for depressive disorders is re- affect the brain through several mechanisms. For example, lated to neurotoxicity via concerns about the possibility of neurological dysfunction and changes to mood regulation permanent alteration of the serotonergic system, a portion of could potentially arise in various ways, from reductions in the brain associated with the regulation of mood and psycho- cerebral blood flow (Chang et al. 2000) to the alteration logical well-being. An acute period of depression in the days of axons in the brain due to oxidative stress (Jayathi et al. following Ecstasy consumption has been well-documented 1999; Shankaran, Yamamoto & Gudelsky 1999) to other (Travers & Lyvers 2005; Curran & Travill 1997). This is serotonergic changes in the brain. generally believed to relate to the process of restoration of Acute neurological dysfunction may include acute the serotonin system after the disruption due to the induced memory loss and other short-term cognitive impairment flooding of serotonin during the Ecstasy experience. The po- in the days following the use of MDMA (Parrott & Lasky tential for long-term depressive disorders, however, remains 1998). Some users complain of being left in a cognitive unclear given our inability to distinguish between premor- fog in the wake of a weekend of Ecstasy use. They report bid or latent depression and Ecstasy-induced depression difficulty with attention span as well as cognitive process- during retrospective assessments. Several research teams ing ability. Curran and Travill (1997) found significant have found both current and former Ecstasy users to score impairment on attention and working memory after the use significantly higher on Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) of Ecstasy in comparison to alcohol users. At times, youth scales of depressive symptomatology (de Win et al. 2004; refer to this as feeling "cracked out," while others assert they Roiser & Sahakian 2004). However, in a large community sometimes feel like a "zombie" in the days after using the sample, Falck and colleagues (2006) found a majority of Ec- drug (Kelly 2005). In addition to cognitive confusion and stasy users to score in the nondepressed/minimal depression depression, Topp and colleagues (1999) found irritability categories. In addition, they found the overall prevalence and sleep difficulties to be significant acute psychological of clinically significant depressive symptoms to be lower problems in the days after use of Ecstasy. than other nonmedical drug user samples and thus the po- Increasing evidence suggests that MDMA may have tential for confounding by other drug use remains unclear. long-term neurotoxic effects as well, particularly for heavy For example, those with backgrounds of opiate use rated Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 20 Volume 41(1), March 2009 Kelly Mediating MDMA-Related Harm significantly higher on the BDI scale than other Ecstasy Beyond the individual, harm reduction frameworks users (Falck et al. 2006). Yet, like other potential neurotoxic have become guiding forces
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