INTRODUCTION

Proclus of Constantinople (sed. 434–46) was an outstanding pulpit ora- tor who indulged in lavish praise of the Virgin Mary. When, in a series of controversial sermons, his bishop Nestorius banned the use of the popular Marian epithet ‘Theotokos,’ Proclus moved to unseat him. Pro- clus’ defense of the Virgin was closely intertwined with his emphasis on a unity of subject in Christ that alone could explain her ‘giving birth to God.’ Upon his subsequent elevation to the see of Constantinople, Pro- clus became the first native of the newly-founded Byzantine capital to attain that city’s highest ecclesiastical office. From his position as arch- bishop, Proclus worked avidly to promote the rising cult of the ‘God- bearing’ Virgin, and continued to develop the idea of a single incarnate person, or ‘hypostasis,’ in Christ, which his successors conveyed to the Council of Chalcedon. Proclus’ theologically brilliant conception of the Theotokos, which is inseparable from his christology, profoundly and lastingly influenced the rhetoric and rationale of the Byzantine cult of the Virgin Mary. This study of Proclus of Constantinople and the cult of the Virgin in late antiquity is organized around three major focal points: history, philology, and theology. The centerpiece is a critical edition of five of Proclus’ most important festal sermons on Christ and the Theotokos, framed by a historical introduction and a study of Proclus’ signature images of the Virgin Mary. Chapters 1–3 provide a detailed introduc- tion to the life of Proclus, situating him within the intellectual and historical milieu of fifth-century Constantinople. Critical moments in Proclus’ career, and in the development of his christology, took place on the eve of the Council of Ephesus (A.D. 431), and, again, in the period between the Council of Ephesus and the Council of Chal- cedon (A.D. 451). When compared to the Councils themselves, these periods have received relatively little scholarly attention, but are here explored in depth. As will be seen, the supposed historical margins and theological peripheries are no less fascinating and formative than the celebrated events to whose shadows they have commonly been rele- gated. 2 introduction

Chapter 1 deals with Proclus’ early life and education, the ques- tion of his relationship to John Chrysostom, and his central role as a young priest in the administration of his predecessor, Atticus of Con- stantinople. Chapter 2 chronicles events leading up to the Council of Ephesus, where Mary was officially proclaimed ‘Theotokos,’ that is, the one who ‘gave birth to God.’ Within the general framework of those events, the initial focus will be on Proclus’ ordination to the episcopal see of Cyzicus, and thereafter on his opposition to Nestorius’ attempted suppression of the cult of the Theotokos in Constantinople. That oppo- sition came to its climax in Proclus’ celebrated homiletical duel with Nestorius, embodied in his magnificent panegyrical sermon on the Theotokos (Homily 1), which will be studied here in detail. The historical narrative concludes with chapter 3, which concen- trates on Proclus’ tenure as archbishop of Constantinople, a twelve-year period during which he was deeply absorbed in the political and theo- logical aftermath of the Council of Ephesus. In the wake of that Coun- cil, Proclus endeavored to bolster the precarious ‘Union of 433,’ a the- ological settlement designed to heal the divisions which the Theotokos controversy had introduced within the eastern churches. At the same time, Proclus continued to pursue his own theological agenda, which included a concerted effort to condemn Theodore of Mopsuestia, who was at once the most highly-revered theologian of the School of Anti- och, the teacher of Nestorius, and the alleged source of ‘Nestorianism.’ Although ultimately unsuccessful in this effort, Proclus’ struggle proved to be the beginning of a larger controversy (the so-called ‘Three Chap- ters Controversy’) which, after protracted quarreling, eventuated in the condemnation of Theodore at the Fifth Ecumenical Council (Con- stantinople, A.D. 553). At its point of origin in the fifth century, the debate about the bishop of Mopsuestia was instigated by critical devel- opments in the church of Armenia, and these will provide the primary focus for the second half of chapter 3. The invention of the Armenian alphabet in the early fifth century inaugurated a series of major trans- lation projects and stimulated intensive theological interaction between Greek, Syrian, and Armenian Christian culture. Impelled by an inter- nal dispute over the translation of Theodore’s christological writings, delegates from the Armenian church approached Proclus for his direc- tion and support. Proclus’ response came in the form of his Tome to the Armenians, an important and skillfully balanced statement of orthodox christology that is here closely examined in terms of its historical con- text and theological content.