Act Like Jackie Chan the Cinematic Legacy Ofjingju Training Schools in Hong Kong Pui-Lun Chan

Act Like Jackie Chan The Cinematic Legacy ofJingju Training Schools in Hong Kong Pui-Lun Chan

When the National Went Local Jingju (京劇), also referred to as Beijing Opera or Peking Opera, is one of hundreds of genres of traditional Chinese theatre. In the late 18th century, it first emerged as a hybrid form draw- ing on several northern genres; it developed into a sophisticated, independent form in Beijing. In the first two decades of the 20th century, as a result of efforts by some dedicated intellectu- als and practitioners, jingju was “nationalized” as representative of traditional Chinese culture. Its status as the “national drama” (guoju, 國劇) of China is still recognized within the country and internationally. As an imported theatrical genre with northern origins, jingju has never been popular in Hong Kong, especially when compared to the local genre of Cantonese Opera. Nevertheless, thanks to the community of mainland immigrants who formed a core audience base, jingju has successfully maintained a secure place in the local cultural spectrum. Between the 1940s and the 1970s, jingju made considerable progress in putting down roots in Hong Kong as a genre of traditional Chinese theatre that was available to local spectators. I designate this a forma- tive period for two reasons: first, local (as opposed to touring) performers based in Hong Kong began to participate; second, some of them established a recruitment system for jingju, which included training schools and private lessons that were open to local people. Local jingju training schools flourished between the 1950s and 1970s, the same period during which Jackie Chan, the internationally renowned movie actor, studied at one such school. The story of his training in the China Drama Academy (Zhongguo Xiju Xuexiao, 中國戲劇學校), an active jingju school at the time, details how the school operated, and shows the significance of jingju training schools to local students and society at large. There were great obstacles to being a professional jingju performer in Hong Kong in this period, a determin- ing factor in the phenomenon of training school graduates entering the movie industry instead. By making this move, these graduates — Chan being the most well known globally — greatly impacted the industry with what they had originally learned for a jingju career. In addition to Chan’s autobiography (1998), my research is also informed by Li Juhua (李菊華), a senior-level student with Chan at the China Drama Academy, whom I interviewed during fieldwork in Hong Kong in 2015.

Pui-Lun Chan received his PhD in Chinese Studies at the Leiden University Institute for Area Studies in 2017. He received his MPhil in Ethnomusicology from the Chinese University of Hong Kong in 2010 and a BA in Music from the Hong Kong Baptist University in 2007. His main field of specialization is traditional Chinese theatre. [email protected]

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00751 by guest on 01 October 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00751 by guest on 01October 2021 116 Qixiaofu 2009:49) ( Figure 1. Yuan Hong (元紅) and Jackie Chan (right) in Pui-Lun Chan 翠屏山, in Cuiping Mountain). Hong Kong City Hall, 1967. (Photo from 1. dialect theyspoke. ing languageofjingjumighthavebeendifferentfromthestandard MandarinorotherChinese same reason, languagedidnotposeaproblemforthis group, eventhoughthearchaicperform- were fromBeijingandShanghai, wherejingjuwasconsidered amajortheatricalgenre. Forthe cultural backgroundinthepopularperformanceform. Inparticular, manyoftheseimmigrants Hong Kongcreatedanaudiencebaseforjingju, many of whomarrivedinHongKongwitha establish trainingschoolsinordertoearnaliving. The communityofmainlandimmigrantsin skilled jingjupractitioners, whosoughtopportunitiestoperform, togiveprivatelessons, andto large-scale emigrationfromtheChinesemainlandtoHongKong. Among themigrantswere Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)andtheSecond ChineseCivil War (1946–1950)ledto 1930s alsochangedthestoryofjingjuinHongKongtoacertain degree. Inparticular, the covers the modern province of Hunan. Jingju mainly in Mid-land is performed dialect, which originated in the mid-region of ancient China. The region Cuiping Shan

land” dialect, performing languageof “Mid- theatre genrewithanarchaic Jingju isatraditionalChinese Jingju inHongKong? the localethnoscapeinlate enjoy jingju. difficult itwouldbeforlocalsto is thecase, onecanimaginehow (in LiJian1993:91–92). Ifthat or thenicetiesofartform rarely bytheskillsofperformers by thestoriesofplaysand spectators usuallyweredrawn scriptwriter, commentsthatlocal Ye Shaode, aCantoneseOpera make senseofthenarrative. and dialogueor, consequently, barely understandthelyrics myth orlegend, thelocalscould was basedonafamousChinese ment. Unlessthefeaturedplay ular localchoiceforentertain- genre what wastothemanexotic tors’ spontaneouscuriosityabout mostly reflectedlocalspecta- argue, I mainland —which, formers fromtheChinese tion ofoccasionalguestper Indeed, despitethewarmrecep- locals onlyspokeCantonese? in HongKong, wheremost Was thereanaudienceforjingju Nevertheless, changesin — jingju washardlyapop- 1 sothequestionis: - Act Like Jackie Chan 117 - were also bought — 2 especially Anhui and Jiangsu especially — It was practical for troupes in Beijing to look in Anhui and It was practical for troupes in Beijing to look in 3

All quotes from Mandarin, unless otherwise indicated, are my own translations. translations. otherwiseunless own my Mandarin, are indicated, from quotes All musi- of formation melodic structural of set specific a as understood be can mode singing A govern that rules linguistic on dependent highly These are contour melodic of rules play. theatre Chinese traditional a in lines cal region-specific. highly performingthe of tones are modes singing thus, and, dialect More importantly, social factors contributed to the community’s enthusiastic support of the community’s enthusiastic contributed to social factors More importantly, half past nine book the slot from the troupe has to of budget control, For the purpose and spectators yet, seven has not ended started at half past The film that in the evening. “Shanghai- a it looks like all intents and purposes, To the theatre. have to wait outside hands with each other, People appear to be constantly shaking nese clansmen gathering.” but they still twice, end up shaking hands with the same person to the point where they spectators do not sit Although the performance is proceeding, seem to want more [...] to conveniently greet because this position enables them and face backward, properly, it may be more back [...] Rather than just a jingju performance, friends sitting a few rows 1957) (Xinsheng Wanbao event as a social gathering. exact to describe the 2. 3. jingju in Hong Kong. Many reports comment on the social aspect of jingju performances. For jingju performances. the social aspect of reports comment on Many Kong. jingju in Hong Evening Post) reads: New Life 新生晚報, ( column in the Xinsheng Wanbao a example, Jiangsu, the core areas of the two modes respectively, for boys who might have linguistic famil- respectively, the core areas of the two modes Jiangsu, iarity with the singing modes.

tunity for these immigrant practitioners to break through social barriers with financial incen- tunity for these immigrant practitioners to for jingju in By the late 1950s they managed to establish a sustainable recruitment system tives. history of recruitment on the Chinese mainland. successful based on the long, Hong Kong, The Recruitment System of Jingju on the Mainland 1790s–1950s a recruitment as jingju developed into its mature form in Beijing, From the 1790s to the 1860s, bought boys of seven or eight years Teachers and training system for the genre also emerged. or at the request of troupe depending upon their personal needs, old for training in Beijing, was nation- The scope of the trade involving potential students to fill specific roles. leaders, as many boys from southern provinces wide, the far reach of the trade to the south was probably due to In my view, and taken to the capital. the continuing domination of erhuang (二黃) and kun (崑) singing modes in jingju at the time, which were not local to Beijing. 1950s–1970s the mainland during the immigration wave tried Some jingju practitioners who migrated from they Inevitably, training schools in Hong Kong. to continue their professions by establishing locals. the language of the form being the primary point of hesitation for faced challenges, which still consisted mostly of mainland immigrants, the audience base of the genre Initially, seemed It may not have Hong Kong population. comprised a relatively small portion of the the tough economic Nevertheless, perspective. wise to join one of the schools from a career II period inadvertently provided an oppor War environment in Hong Kong in the post–World Jingju Training Schools in Hong Kong Schools Training Jingju For the immigrant community, who had to adapt to a new place, a new society, and a new a new society, place, who had to adapt to a new For the immigrant community, maintained their connec- site of nostalgia where community members jingju was a culture, past was an incentive the desire to remain connected with a familiar tions in the diaspora: for attendance. Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00751 by guest on 01 October 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00751 by guest on 01October 2021

118 Pui-Lun Chan change, physicalpunishment drama theories, aswelldramatistsandtheirworkswerealso introduced. Inanotherdramatic phy weretaught;performingskillsinspokendramaincluded inthecurriculum; Western jingju training. Academic subjectssuchasChineselanguage, mathematics, history, andgeogra- Yuqian (歐陽予倩). The schoolwasprogressiveandofferedabroadcurriculum inadditionto The NantongSchoolwasestablishedbyZhangJian(張謇)in1919andmanagedOuyang of Traditional Chinese Dramas(ZhonghuaXiquZhuankeXuexiao, 中華戲曲專科學校). for Theatre Performers(NantongLinggongXueshe, 南通伶工學社 ) andthe Vocational School stand outasexamplesofthenewformtrainingschoolsinthis phase:theNantongSchool the 1910s, whenChinesesocietywasinturmoilbecause ofrapidmodernization. Two schools closure ofXilianchengtroupein1948markedtheendthisphase. dation, andmealsfortheirboys, usuallyforaperiodofsevenyears(Shen2006:269–76). The applied. Parentsnolongerreceivedmoney, butinsteadaguaranteeoffreetraining, accommo- agreement betweenschoolsandparents, butdifferenttermsfromthoseintheoldsystem 1894–1961) andZhouXinfang(周信芳, 1895–1975). Contractswerestillusedasaformof the mostrenownedjingjuperformersin20thcentury, mostnotablyMeiLanfang(梅蘭芳, ple ofthesedual-functionschoolswastheXiliancheng(喜連成)troupe, whichtrainedsomeof ers, butalsoproducedcommercialperformancesbytheirstudents. Onewell-knownexam- lished owners begantocombineperformingandtraininginonesingleinstitution/business, andestab- ent tobeobtainedlocally. This ledtoamajorchangeintherecruitmentsystem, assometroupe pihuang removedthelinguisticadvantageofsouthernboysandpavedwayfornewtal- ment, jingjuhadestablishedpihuang(皮黃)asitsmajorsingingmode. The heavylocalflavorof ual performersturnedtheireyesmoretothecapitalitself. Meanwhile, afterdecadesofrefine- including thetradeofboystocapital. Inordertosustaintheirsupply, troupesandindivid- tion insouthernChina, anddisruptedthetradingroutebetweensouthernareasBeijing, with the Taiping rebellionof1850to1864asaprelude. The rebellionhadcausedgreatdevasta- given period” (1975:71). gether surprisingthatpoorpeopleshouldhavesoughteconomicreliefbysellingachildfor poverty (Ho1959:270). Itisinthissocialcontextthat, Mackerrasconcludes, “it isnotalto- economic advantagegeneratedbyagrowinglaborforce, intoaproblemofoverpopulationand ond halfofthe18thcentury, whichgraduallybackfired:thecontinuedgrowthturnedfroman Mackerras, theindenturesystemwasfacilitatedbypopulationgrowthinChinasec- tlemen”), wouldalsohavethestatusofadoptedsonsperformers. According toColin to individualperformers, whowerespecificallytermedxianggong (相公, literally - “young gen a traditionalmaster-disciple relationship. The onlydifferencewasthatthosewhoweresold to establishedperformers. Regardlessofwheretheboysendedup, theyweretrainedthrough families couldafford. UponarrivalinBeijing, theboyswouldeitherjoinatroupeorberesold A preexpirationbuybackclauseapplied, thoughthecostwasusuallywaybeyondwhatordinary an amountofmoneyinreturnforthe “ownership” oftheirchildforaspecificperiodtime. ment systemwascarriedforward bythe Vocational School. Establishedin1930bysome their patronsasmorallyinappropriate (Ouyang[1929]1990:86–87). regard thepracticeasslaveryand toconsidersexbetweentheboysandtheirmastersaswell as the systembygovernment and thepublic, whoseevolvingmoralperspectiveshadbegun to ety. Around thesame time, thexianggongtradefadedawayafterpersistentcondemnation of as thiswasincreasinglyconsideredtobemorallywrongamong progressivefactionsofthesoci- Overlapping withthesecondphase, thethirdphasebeganinearlyRepublicanperiodof As thenamesuggests, thesetroupes-cum-training-schoolsnotonlytrainedjingjuperform- The secondphaseofthedevelopmentjingju’srecruitmentsystembeganin1860s, The studenttradewasbasedonanindenturesystem. Teachers wouldofferaboy’sparents The NantongSchoolclosedin 1926duetofinancialproblems, butitsprogressiverecruit- keban (科班, troupes-cum-trainingschools). — traditionally, brutaldisciplinaryacts — were forbiddenatschool, Act Like Jackie Chan 119

Shixiu Murdering His Sister-in-law His Murdering Shixiu something not every family in Hong Kong ). Hong Kong City Hall, the 1960s. (Photo from from (Photo 1960s. the Hall, City Kong Hong 石秀殺嫂). — , Shasao Shixiu Figure 2. Jackie Chan performingChan in Jackie 2. Figure 2009:116) Qixiaofu ( However, Chan’s first year at school showed that he was not school However, 4

Free primary 1971. in all to available became only education Free 4. material. He was a poor student, and notorious for being a troublemaker (Chan 1998). He was a poor student, material.

could do at that time. renowned jingju performers renowned Vocational the and enthusiasts, provided a broad School also of academic sub- curriculum adopted furthermore, jects and, system used in the management commit- Staff regular schools. tees were set up for academic Most matters and discipline. Vocational the significantly, the admis- School also adopted schools, sion system of regular sys- abandoning the indenture tem and the use of contracts. the The school continued School, agenda of the Nantong consid- eliminating what they ered inappropriate practices, and discouraged the practice homosexu- of teacher-student According to Mackerras, ality. to ensure compliance with this doors of the stu- new policy, dent dormitories were left open and girls were also all night, recruited into the school from In my the beginning (1975:75). the recruitment of girls view, was not only intended to repress but also reflected homosexuality, the loosening of restrictions on female performers and the gradual acceptance of them by jingju spectators. Chan The Childhood of Jackie Jackie Chan was Born in 1954, the second generation of a mainland immigrant family in Hong Chan His real name, Kong. literally Kong-sang (陳港生), many of whom Compared to their fellow mainlanders and locals, “born in Hong Kong.” means His the Chan family was among the more fortunate. were living difficult lives in the ghettos, both working for the French ambassador: his father parents found jobs soon after immigrating, Victoria They lived in the ambassador’s house on the as cook and his mother as housekeeper. His family Chan’s childhood was secure in material terms. among the rich and powerful. Peak, could even afford to send him to primary school Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00751 by guest on 01 October 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00751 by guest on 01October 2021

120 Pui-Lun Chan were usedtoindicateseniority. was called Yuan Fu(元甫). Fortroupeswithmorestudents, different “common characters” master’s name(Yu Zhanyuan). Forexample, Chanwasnamed Yuan Lou(元樓)andLiJuhua Chinese charactersandsharedthecommoncharacter “Yuan” (元), whichwastakenfromthe up withtherigoroustraining. dents, whiletheassertionofprideempoweredthem. Together, thismotivatedstudentstokeep Discipline andpridewerelikethetwosidesofacoin, in whichdisciplinecontrolledthestu- at the Academy; andheinstilledasenseofprideinstudents asrepresentativesofthe Academy. this philosophyinthe Academy intwoways:hewasastrictdisciplinarianregardingtraining ing training, theonlywaytoasuccessfulcareer, accordingtotheprofessionals. Yu adheredto A characteristicofinstitutionaljingjutrainingingeneralwastheintensiveandhighlydemand- Core Values: DisciplineandPride tract with Yu, the longest possiblecontract Yu would offertoanewintake. convinced hisfathertoputChaninthe Academy. Eventually, hisfathersigneda10-yearcon- that Chan, ayoungandactiveboy, wasreluctanttoleavethe Academy aftereachvisit, andthis several timestoseeiftheboylikedschoolbeforecontractwassigned. The storygoes and parentstotryouttheschool. According toChan, hisfatherbroughthimtothe Academy third-phase (1910sto1950s)school, inthatitwasco-ed. Also, itallowedprospectivestudents students inlieuofamonetarypaymenttotheparents. Meanwhile, ithadacharacteristicof ified termsinitscontractswithparents, whichobligedthe Academytotakecareoftheyoung jingju troupeinHongKongatall. All studentswerelocallyrecruited;andtheschoolusedmod- training school. Itwasnotaffiliatedwithajingjutroupe their namesandfounders(Yamada andUdagawa1998;HongKongFilm Archive 1999:86). by MaChengzhi(馬承志). Noinformationaboutthelatterthreehasbeenfoundtodate, except and theChung Wah ChineseOperaSchool(ZhonghuaXiquXuexiao, 中華戲曲學校)founded Chinese OperaSchool(DongfangXiquXuexiao, 東方戲曲學校)foundedby Tang 唐迪), Di( Xuexiao, Kong atthetime Academy almostadecadelater, in1959. ItwasoneoffourjingjutrainingschoolsinHong ing thesecondChinesecivilwar, hefledwithhisfirstwifetoHongKong. Heestablishedthe the ChinaDrama Academy, awell-knownjingjutrainingschoolinHongKongatthe time. time, especiallyafterChan’spoorperformanceatschool, hisparentsdecidedtosendChan it mightbetooheavyaburdenforsinglemothertoworkandraisegrowingboyatthesame worried that, withouthisfather, Chanwouldhavenoonetodisciplinehim. Outofconcernthat alone, fearingtheuncertaintiesofrelocatinghiswholefamilytoanewplace. Hisparentswere the headcheffor American ambassadorin Australia. Heacceptedtheoffer, butdecidedtogo a jingjuperformerofthemartial-male-role(wusheng, The ChinaDrama Academy wasestablishedby Yu Zhanyuan(于占元, 1905–1997). Yu hadbeen Life ina Training School 5. Every studentwasgivenastagenameuponjoiningthe Academy. The namescontainedtwo The institutionalsettingofthe Academy wasmuchlikeasecond-phase(1860sto1948) crews that none of their own students could take up. was excluded from the naming tradition. The purpose of this alternative was to fill in roles in troupes’ performing in the troupes.some rules That’s why Mei Lanfang, who joined the Xiliancheng troupe under this alternative, lished some reputation onstage, to join the troupes. The chosen would receive privileges exempting them from addition to the indenture system, When Chanwassevenyearsold, afterhisfirstschoolyear, hisfatherreceivedajobofferas students, namely “Fu” (富 For example, the famous Xiliancheng troupe in Beijing had seven classes, and seven “common characters” for its 春秋戲劇學校) foundedbyZhangSuqiu(張素秋, akaFenJuhua粉菊花), theEastern — the otherthreewereSpringand Autumn DramaSchool(ChunqiuXiju ), “Lian” (連 5 keban at that time would also who invite alreadyyoung performers, had estab- This namingpracticegavethestudentsacollectiveidentity ), “Xi” (喜 ), “Sheng” (盛武生) inShanghai. Inthelate1940s, dur ), “Shi” (世 — in fact, atthetimetherewasno ), “Yuan” (元 ), and “Yin” (音 ). In - Act Like Jackie Chan 121 - where one — there was no toi- — an apartment that functioned as an apartment that functioned — both horizontally on the ground, and both horizontally on the ground, but his new status moved him to first — — ) (15). According to Chan, the first heavy beating for every new student, the first heavy beating for every new student, According to Chan, 打死無怨) (15). From Youngsters to Heroes), which was dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the which was to Heroes), Youngsters From

Yu required absolute obedience to the demanding daily schedule of the Academy. As Chan Academy. of the demanding daily schedule obedience to the required absolute Yu the most important training Insiders considered this training. After lunch came flexibility the harsh physical punishments to their limits, If the daily schedule did not push students He received harder training and heavier pun- Academy was unique. Chan’s experience at the and Li recalled, the routine started at five in the morning with running several laps around the several laps around morning with running at five in the the routine started and Li recalled, Academy was located where the flat rooftop of the building had his own bedroom while all where only the master and residence, both the training ground usu- run there was a simple breakfast, After the floor of the training space. students slept on the which usually lasted five to six Then came the morning training session, ally a bowl of congee. including foot- performing, Students practiced all core skills in jingju hours without a break. the first toilet break Then lunch time and and acrobatics. martial arts, work, have been sweated out believed that all toxins should Yu as lunchtime, let break allowed before to go to toilet before lunch- and any needs and the morning training, during the wake-up run enough. that the student was not exercising hard time could only mean The training consisted of dif- skills in jingju. because it was the foundation of most performing horrible part and was considered by the students to be the most ferent kinds of body stretching, full leg-splits The practice included of the daily routine. a perfect Students also had to learn to execute head. vertically by holding one leg above one’s In Chan’s position for at least a half hour at a time. handstand and were expected to hold the it frankly, because room would be full of howling, the soon as the exercises began, “As words, The students were divided into groups. After the flexibility training, (1998:42). hurts like hell” in sing- while a select group received special training majority were given housekeeping work, after This lasted until evening dinnertime, weapons. ing and movement combinations with prop Chinese history. and Chinese literature, writing, which students were given lessons in reading, would give extra lessons on other practical matters in jingju, Yu Sometimes after the lessons, The daily schedule ended at midnight. or costumes. props, such as face painting, per Yu been abandoned by that time on the mainland, While these practices had certainly did. In the 2009 publication Xiaonian sisted with his brutal disciplinary measures. Chu Yingxiong (少年出英雄, beat- merciless Yu’s almost all contributing former students recalled Academy’s establishment, admission requirements was Yu’s one of In fact, ings during their training (Qixiaofu 2009). to death” “No complaints if [the student is] beaten accepting a term in the contract that read (dasi wu yuan, his A few years after his admission, his family situation. partly because of ishment than his peers, about his behavior while he was alone Worried Australia. mother decided to join his father in On the one accepted the request. Yu to be his godfather. Yu his parents asked in Hong Kong, when he For example, as the godson of the master. Chan benefited from his new status hand, entered the academy he was one of the last to get his share of food at meal times sat and when one got food was determined by seniority He had to train much longer than the more from Chan. expected Yu On the other hand, chair. and received double beatings when he move he learned, with higher standards for every others, made mistakes. which helped control the students’ behavior because anything they did, in or out of the school, in or out of the school, anything they did, behavior because control the students’ which helped The stage the school. more importantly, entire peer group and, reputation of their affected the kept their stage of the academy identity and many students become a lifelong name could graduation. names after ritual” “welcoming of sort a became week, first punishment-free a after buttocks their on usually one student would in which a mistake by were collective, beatings Sometimes, Academy. at the This was another measure to strengthen the students’ collective identity. cause suffering for all. they would help each other in training to avoid being it apparently worked: According to Chan, would also work harder because they didn’t want to and they punished for another’s mistakes, be labeled troublemakers (51–52). Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00751 by guest on 01 October 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00751 by guest on 01October 2021

122 Pui-Lun Chan acrobatic show. (Photo from Qixiaofu 2009:28) Figure 3. Five members of the Seven Little Fortunes the troupe performing increased numberoffullplays (quanben xi, 1964 to1966(XinshengWanbao 1962–1969). The Academy’s statuswasespecially evidentinthe ments intheNewLifeEvening Post, showagradualexpansionofthe Academy’s repertoire from example, thedailyparkprograms, whichwereincludedinthe park’sdailynewspaperadvertise- ing everyeveningfrom8:00to11:00p.m. The Academy wasatitspeakduringthisperiod. For on 16March1964. The engagementlastedforalmost fiveyears, withselectstudentsperform- The studentsdebutedon2 August 1963fortwoweeks beforebecomingtheresidenttroupe Seven LittleFortunesshowsandmadethepark’sperformances the Academy’s soleobligation. Park fordailyperformancesinoneofthepark’stheatres. in commercialperformances. In1963, Yu securedacontractwiththeLaiChi Kok Amusement performance opportunities. capable ofatthatpoint;theshowalsopromoted Academy, whichhelpedtosecurefuture the developmentof Academy. Itbroughtfinancialreliefbyutilizingwhatthestudentswere show atdifferentplacesonthesameevening(LiJuhua2015). This successwasahugestepfor rial incomewasparticularlysignificantduringtheearlyperiodof Academy, asstudentswere tions fromlocalChristianchurchesintheformofrice, milkpowder, andclothes. This mate- The Academy hadtwofinancialsourcesformaintainingitsdailyoperations. Thefirstwasdona- The Beginning oftheSeven LittleFortunes

7. 6. It tookthestudentsin Academy aboutthreeyearsofbasic trainingbefore Yu putthem Cantonese Opera, and jingju. There were nine theatres in the Park, such as movies, staging a wide range of entertainments variety shows, served foreigners. The Happy Palace was a Chinese restaurant in daytime, and a nightclub in the evening that mainly 全本戲), whichrequiredatroupe tohavealargeand 7 Heimmediatelystoppedallthe staging theSeven LittleFortunes were threeteamsofstudents venues. At somepointthere Happy Palaceandseveralother restaged regularlybothinthe among clubguests, andwas Fortunes, receivedhighacclaim show, alsocalledSeven Little movie ofthesametitle. The (Qixiaofu, named SevenLittleFortunes for theshow, andthegroupwas Seven studentswereselected manager oftheHappyPalace. subjects inthe Academy andthe then bothateacherofacademic Shenghai (孫勝海), whowas This gigwasarrangedbySun Palace (LegongLiu, 樂宮樓). show inaclubcalledtheHappy mance, butforanacrobatics offer Academy receiveditsfirstwork months afteritsfounding, the However, alreadyin1960, just ent commercialperformances. and werenotyetreadytopres- still workingontheirbasicskills — not forajingjuperfor 七小福) aftera1961 6 -

Act Like Jackie Chan 123 A Truce Between the the Between Truce A 淨) (Li Juhua jing, ). Lai Chi Kok Amusement Park, the the Park, Amusement Kok Chi Lai 巴駱和). , He Baluo Figure 4. Students from the China Drama Academy in Academy Drama China the from Students 4. Figure ( Families Luo and Ba 2009:26) Qixiaofu from (Photo 1960s. ), and even the painted-face-role ( 武生), - - - to get into the starting group. The desire to be in the elite group and be able to to get into the starting group. —

martial-male-role (wusheng,

Yu’s system worked because he trained his students differently than in traditional schools. worked because he trained his students differently than in traditional schools. system Yu’s As another measure to As another measure formances and the Seven Little formances and the Seven Fortunes shows exclusive to the Only top Academy. best in the students would be chosen for regardless those performances, The starting group of seniority. was given material incentives in addition to the sense of pride in For Academy. representing the they were given extra example, pocket money for each per Yu and occasionally formance, would bring the group to a res- At taurant for a luxury meal. he constantly the same time, changed the rosters for these performances — signaling to the if they failed to do their best onstage. starting group that they could be easily replaced trained his students to play Yu instead of the conventional specialization in one role-type, First, (laodan, learned to perform in the senior-female-role Li Juhua For example, a range of roles. 老旦), strong cast of performers. This This of performers. strong cast the growth of indeed reflects from a certain per Academy the At some point during spective. restaged the also Yu this period, Fortunes’ acrobat- Seven Little In addi- ics shows in local clubs. occasionally the group also tion, stages, performed on makeshift at spe- providing entertainment celebra- cial events like festival (Chan tions and private parties 1998:98; Qixiaofu 2009:59). from his encourage hard work per made the park Yu students, let go of some of the fear of being beaten or replaced was incentive for every student to keep up let go of some of the fear of being beaten or replaced was incentive for every student with the intensive and demanding training (Qixiaofu 2009:86–87). Academy The End of the China Drama when its students Academy was in its prime during the period of the mid-1960s, the As noted, even purchased another Yu In 1965, Park. Amusement performed regularly at the Lai Chi Kok As a things went downhill from that point on. However, Academy. apartment and expanded the Chan witnessed the dwindling of the genre with regular participant in the park performances, The number of full plays onstage declined as did the number a persistent drop in attendance. both indicating of different programs performed toward the end of the 1969 park engagement, probably due its performance level at the time, Academy was struggling to sustain that the The declining park 1962–1969). to the diminishing roster of new students (Xinsheng Wanbao 2015). Second, Yu always trained two to three students for each character in every play, ensuring students for each character in every play, always trained two to three Yu Second, 2015). gave every student a common goal Yu In short, Academy was irreplaceable. that no one in the to fight for Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00751 by guest on 01 October 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00751 by guest on 01October 2021

124 Pui-Lun Chan jingju training schoolsinHongKong. jingju training three trainingschoolsclosedatroughlythesametime, markinganendtotheshorthistoryof Drama Academy officiallyendedintheUnitedStates(Qixiaofu 2009:67). Notably, theother Hong Kongwiththehelpofgovernment. The 14-yearhistoryoftheChina wuxia (武俠) Here Iusetheterm “martial arts movies” asanumbrellagenrethatincludesthreesubgenres: industry. The eraofromanticmovieshadpassed, replacedbyacrazeformartialartsmovies. As interestinjingjudwindledHongKong, the1960s broughtanewtrendinthelocalmovie The RiseofMartial Arts Movies Hong Kong Martial Arts Movies Jingju Training Schools and Qixiaofu 2009:54) senior-male role. Lai Chi Kok Amusement Park, 1967. (Photo from Figure 5. Yuanxian (元仙), a female student, impersonating a 8. term This subgenre was also referred to as “swordsmen” movies. Ho-Chak Law offers a sufficient explanation of the wuxia: “ Wu movies, , denoting militaristic or martial qualities, and , denoting militaristic or martial 8 kungfumovies, andaction-comedy movies.

xia, meaning chivalry, gallantry, and qualities of the othersweresentbackto dents decidedtostay, while In theend, Yu and somestu- ings andalloperationalfunds. disappeared withalltourearn- the organizeronUSside never finished, cutshortwhen tory. Unfortunately, thetourwas finale ofthe Academy’shis- a yearandmakethisgrand nal planwastotourtheUSfor the UnitedStates. Hisorigi- and ledthewholeschoolto ments the Academy owned 1973, Yu soldthe twoapart- tour to Thailand. Finallyin in 1970, heorganizedanother for anine-monthtour. Lateron, remaining studentsto Taiwan in HongKong, andbroughtall mances andacrobaticsshows 1969, Yu stopped all perfor Amusement ParkinMarch contract withtheLaiChiKok and stuntmen. to movieproducersasextras lending hisstudentsmoreoften from theparkperformancesby time, Yu triedtocovertheloss Kong martialartsmoviesatthe ment. NoticingtheriseofHong the incomefromthisengage- Academy, asitreliedheavilyon program wasdevastatingtothe Right aftertheendof - Act Like Jackie Chan 125 公主與 ), the leading leading the ), and and 林鳳 Qixiaoxia, yu Gongzhu the theme of revenge, the theme of revenge, — of narrative characterized by the themes the by characterized narrative of : a type a wuxia: ) in 1961. The woman in the middle is Lin Feng ( Feng Lin is middle the in woman The 1961. in ) Figure 6. Students from the China Drama Academy participating in the movie participating movie the in Academy Drama China the from Students 6. Figure ( Heroes Little Seven the and Princess The actress. (Photo from Qixiaofu 2009:22) Qixiaofu from (Photo actress. 七小俠 The

with fist-fighting replacing sword-fighting. The year 1971 was an intersection point for with fist-fighting replacing sword-fighting. —

principles of xia (chivalry or knight-errantry), portraying the xia (warriors) and their styles of swordplay” (chivalryxia of principles knight-errantry),or portraying swordplay” of styles their and (warriors) xia the (2014:25). knighthood and heroism, constitute what is known as known is what constitute heroism, and knighthood The phenomenon of kung fu movies and Bruce Lee did not last long, probably due to the The phenomenon of kung fu movies and Bruce Lee did not last long, The rise of wuxia mov- The rise of The watershed moment the two subgenres. As kung fu movies were on the rise, interest in wuxia movies waned. It is waned. interest in wuxia movies were on the rise, As kung fu movies the two subgenres. after which probably around 1970, period, worth mentioning that there was also a transitional increased. the news of Bruce Lee’s hit circulated in Hong Kong and interest in kung fu movies producers started making hybrid forms of wuxia local cater to the changing audiences’ taste, To but fist-fighting still adopted a wuxia movie setting, Movies of this kind and kung fu movies. a fight between the protagonist and the antagonist would first For example, scenes were added. would drop the swords and fight with their bare fists and at some point they start with swords, 1997:99). (Teo of kung fu movies “golden formula” The sudden death of Lee in 1973. ies began in the mid-1960s. the mid-1960s. ies began in as Teo, to Stephen According influence in the Hong Kong’s local increased, global economy shook off their people gradually as colo- old subordinate status became As they nial subjects. identity more confident of their the as citizens of Hong Kong, the movies swordsmen heroes in pride. reflected this newfound the import of when In addition, became Japanese samurai movies Kong a big hit in the Hong were local producers market, make their inspired and tried to own versions of samurai mov- inspiring the wuxia genre ies, At the time, 1997:97–98). (Teo kung fu movies were also part of including local movie offerings, popular productions such as the Hung (黃飛鴻) series. Fei Wong - these were less popu However, lar than wuxia movies. when the Golden came in 1971, Harvest Company released , Daxiong (唐山大兄 Tangshan a kung fu movie fea- Big Boss), American actor turing a Chinese The movie named Bruce Lee. was a huge success in the Hong and had a mas- Kong market, sive impact on the audience’s taste Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00751 by guest on 01 October 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00751 by guest on 01October 2021

126 Pui-Lun Chan (大醉俠, ances forotherdirectors, KingHuusedhimintwoofHu’sfamousproductions, DaZuixia (大小黃天霸, Huang Tianbawho wasverypopularwiththemoviemakers. HemadehisfilmdebutinDaxiao given opportunitiestoappearinmovies. Duringthisperiod, Chanwasoneofthestudents Academy (Yamada andUdagawa1998:61–63). Thanks toHu, studentsinthe Academy were jingju cultureduetohisBeijingorigin, hebefriended Yu andwasappointedasatrusteeofthe Jinquan, need forrevenue, butratheroriginatedwiththerelationbetween Yu andKingHu(aka movie producers. This connectionacrossthetwoartformsdidnotstartwith Academy’s ence base, seemedinevitable. was furtheramplified. Thedemiseofjingju, whichwasalreadydisadvantagedbyitssmallaudi- free-to-air broadcastin1967, theimpactoftelevisedentertainmentondomestichouseholds changed radically(Hampton2011:308). And when Television BroadcastLimitedhaditsfirst television servicesthroughwiredrelaynetworksin1957, consumptionhabitsinentertainment vision madethesituationworse. OnceRedifussion, aBritishbroadcastingcompany, provided the repetitiverepertoireweren’tenoughofahurdle, theemergenceofpublicbroadcasttele- to buildasustainableenvironmentforjingjuinHongKong. As ifthelanguagebarrierand Like theirpredecessorsinthe1940s, Yu andhisstudentsintheChinaDrama Academy failed From JingjuPerformers toMovie Actors contribution tothenewsubgenreofaction-comedymovies. Chan madeanameforhimselfinthehistoryofmartialartsmoviesHongKongwithhis Hong Kong, andsoweremanyofChan’slaterproductions. After yearsofrefininghiswork, batic mannerincontrasttothemorerigidstyleofLee’smovies. This moviewasabighitin into theconventionalthemeofrevenge, andhechoreographedtheactionsequencesinanacro- in Xiang (少林木人巷, ventional style, includingXinJingwumen(新精武門, ing “the newBruceLee” wasJackieChan. Hemadeseveralpopularkungfumoviesinthecon- new kungfuicon, thissubgenreremainedunderLee’sshadow. The closesttheycametofind- ment, itsstar, andbegantoloseitsmagic. Nomatterhowhardlocalproducerstriedtofinda the excitementoffist-fightingand, mostimportantly, Lee’scharisma

providing potentialreliefforat leastsomeofthoseinthestrugglingfinanciallowerclass. Yu nity inmid-20th-centuryHong Kong. The Academy alsohadanimpactonthe localsociety, tion wellasaninstitutionthatprovidedhumanresourcesfor the genre’ssmallartisticcommu- Before jingjufelloutoffavorinthe1960s, theChinaDrama Academy serveditsprimaryfunc- The SignificanceofJingju Training Schools in HongKong action directors;andaveryfew, likeChan, ended upasactorsanddirectors. seniority, incompetitionfortherarecontractedpositions. Somewouldgoontobemartialarts/ same careerpath. They startedasjunior, freelancestuntperformersandmoveduptheladderof They formedabigcommunityinthemartialartsmovieindustry, andsharedmoreorlessthe stuntman. Later, themoviestudiosbecameapopulardestinationfor Academy’s graduates. Ting, followed inthefootstepsofhissenior Academy alums such as Wu Mingcai(吳明才,aka Yuan 9. Shexing Diaoshou(蛇形刁手, As notedabove, oneofthefinancialresourcesfor Academywaslendingoutstudentsto Chan participated in the filming of these two moviesChan participated in 1964 and 1968 respectively. In 1971, Chancompletedhis10-yearcontractwithmasterandleftthe Academy. Hethen 元庭) andSammoHungimmersedhimselffullyinthemovie industry asajunior 胡金銓, 1932–1997), arenowneddirectorofwuxiamovies. Deeplyinterestedin Come Drink With Me,Xianu (俠女, 1966)and Big andLittle Wong Tin Bar, 1962)inasidekickchildrole. After severalappear Shaolin WoodenMen, 1976). In1978, Chanmadetworevolutionarychanges Snake intheEagle’s Shadow). Heincorporatedcomedyelements New Fist, ofFury 1976)and Shaolin Muren A Touch ofZen , 1971) — was missingitskeyele- 9 (Chan1998:327). - Act Like Jackie Chan 127 - Drunken Drunken in particular ) in jingju. 丑) in jingju. — , 1983), 1983), Project A, usually off several tables stacked on usually off several tables — without any safety measures. The performer must be able to take the The performer must be able to without any safety measures. — ) before resuming the fight. The pause, both onstage and onscreen, serves both onstage and onscreen, The pause, 亮相) before resuming the fight.

The jingju training in the Hong Kong schools impacted the movie industry in other ways, impacted the movie industry in other ways, The jingju training in the Hong Kong schools Even as the changing economy and the fading interest in jingju was disastrous for the economy and the fading interest in jingju Even as the changing by exaggerating his reactions to taking a hit Chan often emphasized his comedic character his solid The most significant reason that Chan’s action-comedy films are distinctive is that top of one another As a master of this sort of acrobatic back somersault and land gracefully. jump with a front or as a freelance Chan once shocked everybody in the movie studio during his early years move, a backflip off the balcony of a 15-foot-high building stunt artist when he successfully completed well to pros- Academy had prepared him and his cohort unexpectedly The (Chan 1998:148–52). per in this new field. Jackie Chan’s innovations in his action-comedy providing more than just able stunt performers. be traced to his and can mainstream action movies, movies make this subgenre distinctive from mostly by choreographed the action sequences, Especially in his earlier movies, early training. and somersaults are frequently part rolls, Body spins, are very acrobatic. Chan or Sammo Hung, in jingju rou- One can easily associate these actions with similar skills found of the sequences. essential choreographed by Chan also show a great sense of rhythm, The action sequences tines. actions perfectly with the music in jingju where performers have to synchronize dens; the career prospects for the students was a long-term incentive for the parents. It was It was the parents. incentive for students was a long-term prospects for the dens; the career yet free from poverty. developing but not by a society that was good to be ignored indeed too fam- small number of limited to a relatively Academy was by the social impact made the Still, By the mid-1960s, 14-year history. Academy’s only 48 students total in the as there were ilies, which in turn in Hong Kong, the standard of living for many the rising economy improved Academy. incentive offered by the lowered the financial in the martial arts movie continued to help graduates get new careers the school Academy, The students’ physi- Hu. Zhanyuan and King Yu the relationship between aided by industry, gave them a competitive advan- after years of intensive acrobatic training cal abilities achieved move in jingju that requires there is an acrobatic For example, stunt jobs. tage as candidates for down from a considerable height a performer to jump A good example is the fight scene between section. with the rhythmic patterns of the percussion with a long wooden stick in Zuiquan (醉拳, Chan with his bare fists and his opponent but not only in the fight actions, The rhythm in this sequence is reflected 1978). Yuen Master; is another stylistic trick that Chan borrowed from The pause also in pauses during the fight. a powerful in which a fighting sequence is interrupted by a pause as performers to strike jingju, pose (liangxiang, for what and to build up their expectations actions, to give spectators time to digest previous comes next. in a fight sequence from A jihua (A計劃, For example, in the action sequences. the wooden chopping board, when Chan’s punch is blocked by an antagonist with a thick, This interruption makes way for a shot of dynamics of the sequence are suddenly interrupted. , that inevitably recalls the clown role (chou a move Chan rubbing his painful fist, hero that was This sort of clowning departs quite boldly from the image of the invincible main typically featured in the mainstream action movies at that time. on his web- Tony Zhou, According to action skills enable simpler and clearer frames in filming. Hence, action movies do not have solid action skills. actors in most site Every Frame a Painting, directors have to make a lot of camera movements to enhance the intensity of action sequences, as Chan In contrast, when filming in order to create the illusion of quickness and violence. he always keeps the cameras Chan: My Stunts (Lee 1999), emphasized in the documentary Jackie scene in a in his movies in a fixed position and employs a wide-angle lens to capture the whole offered an opportunity for free room and board, care, and career training for children. In the for children. and career training care, room and board, opportunity for free offered an fam- poverty-stricken of students came from the majority history, Academy’s of the two decades bur immediate financial as a way to relieve their Academy to the sent their children They ilies. Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00751 by guest on 01 October 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00751 by guest on 01October 2021

128 Pui-Lun Chan Drunken Master. (Photo from Gentry 1997:92) Figure 7. The fight scene, between Chan with his bare fists and his opponent with along wooden stick, in 10. single frame. against modernformsofentertainment, itopenedupanotheravenueforgraduatesfromthe the popularityofgenredwindled inthemid-1970s, whenitlostitsbattleforpopularity with awaytosurviveinthechallenging economyofmid-20th-centuryHongKong. Even as variety tolocalculturalofferings, butalsomadeasocialimpact byprovidinglocalpoorfamilies enjoyed arelativelyshortpeakinactivitybetweenthe1940sand the1970s. Itnotonlyadded more convincingandimpressivethaninconventionalaction movies. unedited, andevenfromdifferentangles. The stunt sequences inChan’saction-comediesare involved indefiningan “action” (警察故事二, in done byChanhimself. Particularlyexemplaryarethemultistory glassslideinashoppingmall results ofthesefilmingtechniquesaresingle-shot, multiangle stuntsequencesthatareclearly takes ofthestuntsequences, fromdifferentangles, andusestheminthefinalproduct. Theend employs longshotsthatcapturethewholestuntunedited. Moreover, healwaysshootsseveral with filmingtechniques(Gentry1997:73). Fortravelingstuntssuchascarchasesandjumps, he thing ofthesequencetospectatorsandallowsnoroomforactorcheathisactions Jingcha Gushi(警察故事, With themainlandimmigrantcommunitybeingpowerhouse, jingjuinHongKong Chan directs all action sequences of his own movies that are produced in Hong Kong. 10 Police 2, Story 1988). This uniquestyle, toparaphrase Zhou, showsalltheelements Specifically, heusesthescopeformat(aspectratio2.35:1), whichshowsevery- Police, Story 1985)andthecarchasesequenceinJingcha GushiEr

— actor, reactor, action, andreaction — in thesameframe, Act Like Jackie Chan 129 . ]. Hong Kong: Golden Harvest. Golden Harvest. Hong Kong: Project A]. ]. Hong Kong: Golden Way Films Ltd. Films Ltd. Way Golden Hong Kong: Story 2]. Police ]. Hong Kong: Golden Way Films Ltd. Films Ltd. Way Golden Hong Kong: Story]. Police ]. Hong Kong: Seasonal Film Corporation. Hong Kong: Seasonal Film Corporation. Master]. Drunken Er [警察故事二, 17, 3:305–22. Media History 17,

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