Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego im. Bronisława Czecha w Krakowie University of Physical Education in Kraków, Poland Studies TDE NSOTHMNTE 16 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES in Sport Humanities 16

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Kraków 2014 Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego im. Bronisława Czecha w Krakowie University of Physical Education in Kraków, Poland Studies in Sport Humanities 16

Kraków 2014 Editorial board

Editor-in-Chief Associate Professor Halina Zdebska-Biziewska, Ph.D.

Vice Editor-in-Chief Associate Professor Jan Blecharz, Ph.D.

Department editors Philosophy of physical culture – Associate Professor Maria Zowisło, Ph.D. Pedagogy of physical culture, Olympism – Associate Professor Halina Zdebska-Biziewska, Ph.D. Physical education theory – Associate Professor Grażyna Kosiba, Ph.D. Psychology of physical culture – Associate Professor Jan Blecharz, Ph.D. Sociology of physical culture – Piotr Nowak, Ph.D. History of physical culture – Associate Professor Ewa Kałamacka, Ph.D. Associate Professor Ryszard Wasztyl, Ph.D.

Secretary to the Editorial Board Agata Kiluk, Ph.D.

Advisory Board Prof. Sandro Anastasi (Università di Messina) Prof. Richard Gordin (Utah State University) Prof. Ivo Jirásek (Palacky University Olomouc) Prof. Scott Kretchmar (Penn State University) Prof. Jerzy Kosiewicz (Jozef Pilsudski University of Physical Education, Warsaw) Prof. Józef Lipiec (Jagiellonian University, Kraków) Prof. Wojciech Lipoński (University of Szczecin) Prof. Norbert Müller (University of Kaiserslautern, TU) Prof. Jim Parry (Charles University in Prague) Prof. Artur Poczwardowski (University of Denver) Associate Professor Janusz Zdebski, Ph.D. (Holy Cross University in Kielce)

Edited by Grażyna Fall – Polish

Translation Sylwia Willcox (Transatlantic Communication) – English

Editor’s Offi ce Studies in Sport Humanities AWF im. B. Czecha al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków, Poland

Typesetting FALL ul. Garczyńskiego 2, 31-524 Kraków www.fall.pl

Copyright © University of Physical Education in Kraków, Poland

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2 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Contents

Od redakcji / From the Editor ...... 5

Małgorzata Siekańska, Jan Blecharz: Dual Career Pathways: Psychological and Environmental Determinants of Professional Athletes’ Development ...... 6

Alois Koch: Pierre de Coubertin and His Relation to the Catholic Church ...... 20

Michał Bronikowski, Małgorzata Bronikowska: Olympism and Olympic Education in Poland – State of Art . . 35

Tomáš Tlustý: Th e YMCA’s International Mission and Its Link to the Olympic Movement ...... 45

Katarzyna Krężel: Manager in the Organization (Based on Women’s Basketball in Poland) ...... 54

Waldemar Makuła: Personal and Social Determinants of Active Ageing: Th e Case Study of the Jagiellonian Th ird-Age University Students ...... 63

Maria Brudnik-Dąbrowska: Th e Th eatre of School Life: Th e Burning-out Teacher Seen from the Perspective of the Actor, the Audience (His Students), and the Spectator (Sometimes Accidental) ...... 73

Paweł Ochwat, Elżbieta Szymańska: Formal and Legal Analysis of Sporting and Recreational Events on the Basis of Sporting and Recreational Festivities “For a Child Smile” Organized by the University of Physical Edu- cation in Kraków ...... 82

Anna Bodasińska: Sędzia jako kreator widowiska sportowego w piłce siatkowej / Th e Volleyball Referee as a Sporting Show Creator ...... 89

Bartłomiej Chrzanowski: Formy edukacji sportowej w kontekście pedagogiki klasycznego liberalizmu we współczesnym świecie / Forms of Sports Education in the Context of the Pedagogy of Classical Liberalism in the Modern World ...... 100

Małgorzata Tomecka: Kierowanie w placówce oświatowej / Directing in an Educational Establishment ...... 107

Małgorzata Jacko: Krakowski Park dra Henryka Jordana w relacjach prasy niemieckojęzycznej z lat 1890–1908. Rekonesans badawczy / Henryk Jordan Park in Kraków in German Press Articles (1890–1908). A Scientifi c Reconnaissance ...... 117

INFORMATION

Instructions for Authors ...... 122

List of reviewers ...... 124

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 3

Od redakcji

From the Editor

Studies in Sport Humani- Studies in Sport Humanities (previously Studia Hu- ties (dawniej Studia Humani- manistyczne) is a scientifi c journal that publishes origi- styczne) to czasopismo nauko- nal works on physical culture prepared from multidisci- we, w którym publikowane plinary approach (including the perspectives of history, są oryginalne prace dotyczą- pedagogy, sociology, philosophy, cultural antropology, ce kultury fi zycznej w ujęciu olympism, physical education theory, recreation and multi dyscyplinarnym (m.in. tourism theory, and management sciences). Th e journal z perspektywy historii, peda- includes book reviews, polemics, conference proceed- gogiki, socjologii, fi lozofi i, ings, and reports from other important scientifi c events. psychologii, antropologii kul- Detailed guidance for preparing text, procedures for re- turowej, olimpizmu, teorii wy- views, and other editorial requirements are located in the chowania fi zycznego, teorii rekreacji i turystyki, nauk publishing regulations. o zarządzaniu), a także: polemiki, recenzje książek, spra- Th e title of the magazine and frequency of edition wozdania z konferencji i innych ważnych dla środowi- (twice a year) has been changed in 2013 year. We hope ska naukowego wydarzeń. Szczegółowe zasady dotyczące that the English title and subsequent increase of num- przygotowania tekstu, procedury recenzowania oraz in- ber of articles published in that language will result with nych wymogów redakcyjnych zawarte zostały w regula- enlargement of the authors, reviewers and readers’ cir- minie publikowania. cle. We count too on popularisation of Polish science W roku 2013 zmienił się tytuł czasopisma i częstotli- achievements within the international environment and wość edycji (teraz dwa razy w roku). Mamy nadzieję, że publications of the most interesting articles of foreign au- angielska nazwa, a także sukcesywne zwiększanie liczby thors in our periodic. tekstów publikowanych w tym języku przyczynią się do Th e journal is published by the University of Physical poszerzenia kręgu naszych autorów, recenzentów i czytel- Education in Kraków. Th e journal appears on the Min- ników. Liczymy również na popularyzację dorobku pol- istry of Science and Higher Education scientifi c journals skiej myśli naukowej w obiegu międzynarodowym i pu- list B. It is also indexed in the Index Copernicus interna- blikacje na naszych łamach najciekawszych opracowań tional database. Th e original version is the hardcopy ver- autorów zagranicznych. sion, while the electronic version can be found on the edi- Wydawcą jest Akademia Wychowania Fizyczne- torial board’s website: www.sporthumanities.pl. go im. B. Czecha w Krakowie. Czasopismo znajduje się na liście B czasopism naukowych Ministerstwa Nauki Editor-in-Chief i Szkolnictwa Wyższego, indeksowane jest też w bazie In- dex Copernicus International. Wersją pierwotną jest pa- pierowa, wersja elektroniczna dostępna jest na stronie in- ternetowej redakcji www.sporthumanities.pl. Associate Professor Halina Zdebska-Biziewska, Ph.D.

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 5 Dual Career Pathways: Psychological and Environmental Determinants of Professional Athletes’ Development

Małgorzata Siekańska, Jan Blecharz Psychology Department Faculty of Physical Education and Sport University of Physical Education in Kraków, Poland

Summary The purpose of the study was: (a) to determine the process of dual career development (e.g., stages of develop- ment, turning points) and its relationship with the type of dual career pathway; (b) to investigate the relation- ships between some psychological determinants and the type of dual career pathway; (c) to investigate the relationships between environmental determinants and the type of dual career pathway; (d) to examine the relationships between the type of dual career development and the quality of life. Data was collected using a semi-structured interview, The General Self-Effi cacy Scale (GSES), The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). Athletes (N = 95) were divided into three subgroups representing three types of dual career pathways: 1) Balanced and harmonious development – no confl ict between sport and education per- ceived (N = 40); 2) Unbalanced development – orientation to sport development (at the cost of educational development) (N = 34); 3) Unbalanced development – orientation to educational development (at the cost of sport development) (N = 21). The ANOVA analysis and chi2 test yielded 19 statistically signifi cant diff erences between the groups of dual ca- reer pathways as regards: athletes’ family situation, the process of their development, self-effi cacy, and the qual- ity of life. Keywords: professional athlete, dual career, athletes development

Introduction typifi ed by a variety of challenges and threats [Durand- -Bush & Salmela 2001; Côté, Baker & Abernethy 2007; To promote the dialogue between sport and education Stambulova, Stephan & Jäphag 2007; Stambulova et al. pathways in order to establish ‘dual career’ pathways for 2009; Côté & Abernethy 2012]. student-athletes the European Parliament embraced vari- Challenges and threats are connected with transi- ous policy actions [European Commission 2007, 2011]. tions that may have a normative or non-normative char- However, there is still a need to: acter [Cecić Erpič, Wylleman & Zupančič 2004; Alfer- – understand better the nuances of students-athletes mann & Stambulova 2007; Stambulova et al. 2009]. optimal development, Irrespective of the fi nal consequences, they are usually ac- – explore if the type of pathway is connected with spe- companied by anxiety, uncertainty and an increased level cifi c personality characteristics, of stress. Th ey aff ect all athletes dealing with sports on – examine how athletes who represent diff erent path- a long-term basis who surpass successive stages of devel- ways of dual career development assess their quality opment. Each consecutive stage is associated with greater of life, and more intense involvement in training and the devel- – create a favourable environment for them. opment of skills enabling one to compete on higher lev- Research on sport expertise reveals that professional els than previously. Th at implies greater expectations and athletes’ development is a long-drawn-out process based commitments. on focused, conscious and systematic work [Ericsson et Normative athletic career transitions are relatively al. 1999]. One can divide it into several stages that are predictable and possible to plan [Taylor & Ogilvie 1994;

6 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Dual Career Pathways: Psychological and Environmental Determinants of Professional Athletes’ Development

Stephan et al. 2003; Park, Lavallee & Tod 2013]. Th ey exceptional demands of high-level sport can prevent ath- encompass the whole process of sports career develop- letes from engaging in a wide range of developmental ment, including its termination and post-sport life. Re- tasks across their lifespan, including those that are im- search has shown, however, that athletes are mostly pre- portant for being satisfi ed with essential areas of activity occupied with reaching the highest possible level and (i.e. school, work, family) and that are needed to form improving their results in order to live up to social expec- a mature self-identity [Adler & Adler 1985; Pinkerton, tations [Aquilina 2013]. Hinz & Barrow 1989; Yopyk & Prentice 2005; Laval- Th e majority (60%) do not feel any need to plan lee & Robinson 2007; Lally 2007; Kreb 2009; Romar their development after a sports career is over [North & 2012]. Lavallee 2004; Park, Lavallee & Tod 2013]. It is particularly related to the period of early adult- Contemporarily, a growing interest is observed to hood (18÷35), i.e. the time when certain changes take search for psychological mechanisms of career planning place leading to the formation of a mature personality. [Cecić Erpič, Wylleman & Zupančič 2004; Torregrosa et As a result of undertaking certain actions a person rec- al. 2004]. Researchers refer to social cognitive constructs ognizes their traits and explores the possibilities of active such as self-effi cacy and outcome expectancies [Stephan functioning in their surroundings. On these bases they et al. 2003; Jolly 2008; Demulier, Le Scanff & Stephan make decisions as to their further conduct and the direc- 2013]. Self-effi cacy is understood as the self-evaluation tion their life takes [Lally & Kerr 2005; Vilanova & Puig of one’s abilities to complete a given task or accomplish 2013]. Th is is when we refer to identity achievement. It a given level of performance and achievement [Bandura is a situation of the greatest development potential. It 1986; Lent, Brown & Hackett 1994]. provides a strong basis for making future important life Non-normative transitions are much less predicta- decisions, including the ones related to education and ble, which makes preparing for them virtually impossi- profession. Such people are relatively immune to the in- ble. On the one hand they cannot be planned, on the fl uence of others and are not likely to break down under other each athlete may expect them sooner or later. Ex- the infl uence of emotions. Th ey will treat these emotions amples of such transitions are: transfer to another team/ as challenges rather than obstacles hindering them from club, starting to collaborate with a new coach, or an in- fulfi lling their given goals [Brzezińska 2000]. Th e extent jury [Blecharz 2008; Blecharz & Siekańska 2005]. Th e to which identity achievement is attained infl uences the consequences of non-normative transitions are also hard psychological well-being of people in their mid-adult- to predict. Th ey may involve temporary diffi culties or hood. Such persons are characterized by, among others, pre-mature termination of a sports career and, as a result, high personal control of own self-development, refl ec- searching for alternative objectives outside sport (e.g., tiveness and low neuroticism. It creates favourable con- education, work) [Corrado et al. 2012]. In the case of ditions to fulfi l developmental tasks assigned to an adult a student-athlete, combining education with sport may, [Gurba 2011]. on the one hand, be motivated by the urge to secure one’s Th e development of an athlete – irrespectively of future after terminating sports career. On the other hand their age and the stage of sports career – does not take it can result from the need for overall development. It place in a social void. Th e infl uence of parents and family may also be an eff ect of expectations and pressure put has been confi rmed by numerous authors [Wuerth, Lee on by signifi cant people, e.g., family members. In such & Alferman 2004; Siekańska 2012]. Th e areas of parents’ a situation the lack of a chance to explore and act in- infl uence are determined by three major roles they play: dependently combined with high activity and pressure 1) providers of support; 2) interpreters and commenta- from the environment contribute to the forming of the tors (the infl uence on forming of beliefs); 3) role models so-called foreclosed identity [Brzezińska 2000; Aquilina [Harwood, Douglas & Minniti 2012]. 2013]. Th e roles enumerated have a particular context com- Th e relationships between educational development prising of: of elite athletes and a sports career are determined by 1) general characteristics of parents and family (e.g., cultural context [Alfermann, Stambulova & Zemaityte education, socio-economic situation, the number of 2004; North, Lavallee 2004; Stambulova, Stephan & children, etc.), Jäphag 2007; Caput-Jogunica, Ćurković & Bjelić 2012; 2) characteristics of the child (e.g., sex, the position in Corrado et al. 2012; Henry 2013; Stambulova & Ryba the family when it comes to birth order, siblings, at- 2013]. It is also well established that the development of titudes, abilities), a sports career takes place in a broader context linked to 3) parents’ general beliefs (e.g., relating to values, self- the stages of psychological, social, scientifi c, and profes- eff ectiveness, gender roles), sional development [Wylleman & Lavallee 2004; Wylle- 4) parents’ opinions on children (e.g., expecting man, Alferman & Lavallee 2004; Park, Lavallee & Tod achieve ments, perception of child’s abilities and in- 2013]. Studies have provided many examples of how the terests, etc.).

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 7 Małgorzata Siekańska, Jan Blecharz

Role-related actions taken by parents infl uence the – confi rmed their skills by achievements, competing in beliefs and value system of a child as well as the objec- their own or older age categories. tives the child sets up, and their achievements [Fredericks On the basis of the interview and qualitative data & Eccles 2004]. Successful career transition goes along analysis the participants were divided into three sub- with a specifi c behaviour pattern of parents, yet moth- groups representing three types of dual career pathways: ers and fathers perceive their roles and infl uence diff er- 1) Balanced and harmonious development – no con- ently [Wuert, Lee & Alfermann 2004]. Proper support fl ict between sport and education perceived (N = and encouragement is needed before and after the transi- 40); e.g., tion. At each phase, both athletes and parents must adapt – My education was always as important as sport. to meet diff erent demands. Positive emotional support I have never been in quandary. I love sport and from parents increases the chances of reaching a higher I need education. career phase [Siekańska 2013]. – I didn’t miss anything important because of Th e purpose of the study was both to become ac- sport. I could continue my learning and com- quainted with, and to make comparison between, some plete higher education. psychological and social circumstances specifi c to diff er- Th ey perceive both educational and sport devel- ent types of dual career pathways. opment as equally important (100%). Th ey don’t per- Before the study, the following objectives were for- ceive schooling as sports career inhibitor (90%). Th ey mulated: (a) to determine the process of dual career de- are satisfi ed with their education and/or academic degree velopment (e.g., stages of development, turning points) (87.5%). and its relationship with the type of dual career pathway; 2) Unbalanced development – confl ict between sport (b) to investigate the relationships between some psycho- and education perceived (N = 55) logical determinants and the type of dual career pathway; a) Orientation to sport development (at the cost of (c) to investigate the relationships between environmen- educational development) (N = 34); e.g., tal determinants and the type of dual career pathway; (d) – I am a champion because I have sacrifi ced to examine the relationships between the type of dual ca- everything to sport. I wanted to study but reer development and the quality of life. I couldn’t because of my sports goals. – I am interested in geography but it was im- Material and Method possible to combine studying and sport. I have tried for one month. In spite of my best endeav- Participants and Procedure ours I couldn’t cope with it. Th e names and contact to athletes were obtained via Th ey choose sport and perceive a sports career as sports institutions, universities, and schools. Potential being more important than educational development participants were invited to the research personally. Dur- (100%). Th ey pointed schooling out as one of the inhib- ing a short meeting they were introduced to the idea of itors of a sports career (76.5%). Th ey feel overwhelmed the study, and the ethical issues were explained (volun- by learning (71.5%). tary participation, confi dentiality in data treatment and b) Orientation to educational development (at the presentation). Th e research was conducted individual- cost of sport development) (N = 21); e.g. ly (one-on-one) (approx. 70–100 min per each person) – I don’t want to work in sport after termination within 14 months (from February 2011 to April 2012). of a sport career. I am interested in economics. Ninety fi ve top athletes (50 males, 45 females; I have to focus on my education. m = 26,76) including 21 Olympians, were invited to the – I gave up sport as I wanted to fi nish school. study which was retrospective in character [Côté, Erics- Th ey perceive education as more important than son & Law 2005]. Participants represented 23 individual sport (100%). Th ey don’t perceive schooling as one of and team sports (e.g., track and fi eld, fencing, wrestling, the inhibitors of a sports career (66.7%). Th ey perceive tennis, swimming, mountain biking, fi gure skating, ski the school environment as rather unfavourable (teachers jumping, snowboarding, motor sports, football, hand- not so supportive and helpful – 85.7%, they feel over- ball, basketball). Th e data was collected using a semi- whelmed by learning – 71.5%). structured interview. All of the athletes who participated in the research: Instruments – were adults (over 19), Th e data was collected using a semi-structured interview – were identifi ed as talents in a specifi c sports disci- and the following questionnaires: Th e General Self-Effi ca- pline in the past, cy Scale (GSES), Th e Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). – practiced sports professionally (participation in com- A semi-structured interview: consisting of a demo- petitions at the international level) until then or had graphic survey (e.g., age, gender, parents’ age, number of practiced at least until 18 years of age, siblings, marital status, number of children, number of

8 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Dual Career Pathways: Psychological and Environmental Determinants of Professional Athletes’ Development coaches, education and academic degree, parents’ educa- Results tion and academic degree, parents’ vocation, the continu- ation of family tradition in sport practice, socio-economic Th e research allowed to determine the process of ath- status), and questions concerning the process of the ath- letes’ development (e.g., phases of development, turning letes’ development (e.g., main phases, pace of develop- points) and its relationship with the type of dual career ment, critical moments, persons perceived as important pathway. for career development, perceived coach’s support, future All the participants had been identifi ed in the past plans, level of realization of one’s potential in essential are- as gifted in the sport that became their target discipline. as of activity, achievements in sport, achievements outside All of them went through subsequent phases of sports sport) [Siekańska 2013]. Th e data was transcribed. development, i.e.: exploration years, phase of intensive Th e General Self-Effi cacy Scale (GSES): is a 10-item commitment, up to the level of profi ciency. Exploration instrument that is designed to assess optimistic self-be- (Since when? For how long?) comprises years of diversi- liefs to cope with a variety of diffi cult demands in life. fi ed activities, full of fun and enjoyment. Commitment Th e scale was originally developed in German by Matthi- (Since when? For how long?) is a stage focused on im- as Jerusalem and Ralf Schwarzer [Schwarzer, Jerusalem, proving skills by systematic and deliberate practice. Pro- Juczyński 2008]. Th e GSES explicitly refers to personal fi ciency (Since when? For how long?) means that an ath- agency, i.e., the belief that one’s actions are responsible lete participates in competitions at the international level for successful outcomes. and that sport becomes a dominating activity in the ath- Th e Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS): is a short lete’s life. 5-item instrument designed to measure global cognitive Participants were asked about critical moments in judgments of satisfaction with one’s life [Diener et al. their career development. Data analysis [Kvale 2004, 1985; Pavot et al. 1991; Pavot & Diener 1993]. 2010; Gibbs 2011] revealed turning points (two types) Th e quality of life includes two aspects, i.e. subjec- and crises in sports career development. Turning points tive (being satisfi ed with oneself and one’s life) and func- include positive experiences (e.g., signifi cant success; co- tional (being satisfi ed and self-fulfi lled with essential ar- operation with a new coach; signing a contract) and dif- eas of activity, i.e. in- and outside sport). Th e data was fi cult experiences that ultimately had positive consequenc- collected using SWLS and by assessing the level of re- es (e.g. injury, exhaustion, failure). Crisis points are per- alization of one’s potential in sport (0%–100%) as well ceived as negative experiences that increase the risk of as the level of realization of one’s potential outside sport premature resignation from sport (e.g. extremely diffi cult (0%–100%). experience, uncontrollable circumstances, accumulation of diffi culties, persistent stress). Analyses Th e level of competence was assessed on the basis of One-way ANOVAs were conducted to evaluate the re- sport achievements and the course of development at the lationships between the type of dual career pathway and highest, professional level of sporting competition. Th e the course of the developmental process (e.g., stages and following levels were distinguished accordingly: critical moments), the level of self-effi cacy, the quality of 1. Athletes Resigning Prematurely (N = 20) – in spite life, the level of competence, and environmental deter- of high competence and the ability to participate in minants (i.e., parents’ age, number of siblings, number competition at the highest level, athletes decide to of children, number of coaches, perceived coach’s sup- interrupt their sporting careers before the age of 30 port, number of persons perceived as important for ca- years; reer development). 2. Athletes Waiting for Success (N = 27) – competence Th e Hochberg’s GT2 method was applied post-hoc allowing them to participate in competition at the to determine which diff erences in the subgroups were re- highest level and achievements at an earlier stage but lated to one another. still without achievements at senior level (age < 30); 2 comparisons together with repeated measurements 3. Future Experts (N = 26) – single outstanding were computed for nominal data (i.e.: education and aca- achievements and the possibility of further develop- demic degree, education and academic degree of the moth- ment (age < 30); ers of the respondents, vocation of the mothers, the level 4. Experts-Champions (N = 22) – outstanding and re- of competence, early specialization, exploration years, mo- peated achievements (e.g. multiple medallists at the tives behind sport career termination). Ratio tests z with Olympic Games and world championships), practic- Bonferroni correction have been indicated in the percent- ing professional sport at least until the age of 30 years. age tables with subscripts a and b. Th e values of statistical- Th ere are both quantitative and qualitative diff erenc- ly signifi cant diff erences have been marked with disparate es between the above listed levels of competence. For this letters, e.g., if one value is accompanied with a, than it is reason – in order to ensure greater accuracy of the results diff erent from the value accompanied with b. – two types of analyses were used. In the fi rst case the

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 9 Małgorzata Siekańska, Jan Blecharz competence is treated as an estimated variable [Cohen & tential outside sport (p = .007) in comparison with the Cohen 1975] (Tables 1, 2, 3), while in the second – as sport-oriented group. a nominal variable (Table 7). Sport-oriented individuals were characterised by Table 1 presents means, standard deviations, and a greater sense of fulfi llment in sport than outside of minimum and maximum values of the variables that it, while people from the remaining groups had a great- demonstrate signifi cant diff erences F (Table 2) between er sense of fulfi llment outside sport than in sport. Th e three subgroups: balanced development, unbalanced devel- analyses additionally conducted within groups have opment-orientation to sport, and unbalanced development- shown that people of balanced development felt a sig- orientation to education. nifi cantly greater sense of fulfi llment outside sport than Descriptive statistics for all participants and within in it (Min = 75.42 vs. Moutside = 83.13; p = .026), sport- subgroups – means, standard deviations, minimum and oriented persons displayed a tendency to have a great- maximum values. er sense of fulfi lment in sport than outside of it (Min = Table 2 presents F values for psychological, envi- 79.12 vs. Moutside = 69.94; p = .056), while in the edu- ronmental, and developmental conditions in three types cation-oriented group the diff erence did not reach the of dual career development. A multivariate ANOVA level of statistical signifi cance (Min = 73.57 vs. Moutside = showed that athletes representing diff erent dual career 79.19; p = .270). pathways diff ered signifi cantly in: age (p = .018), family Besides statistically signifi cant diff erences, the two situation (i.e., mother’s age p = .046; number of siblings following tendencies between subgroups were noted. p = .019), the level of sport involvement after sport career Participants constituting the balanced development group termination (p = .002), the level of realization of one’s presented a higher level of satisfaction with life than ed- potential outside sport (p = .009), general self-effi cacy ucation-oriented athletes (p = .069), and a lower level of GSES (p = .022), satisfaction with life SWLS (p = .009), self-effi cacy than sport-oriented athletes (p = .072). the stage of profi ciency (i.e. since when? p = .005; for For nominal data, 2 comparisons were computed. how long? p = .022), number of turning points – diffi - Signifi cant diff erences between the subgroups emerged cult experiences (p = .029), number of crises (p = .029), for: athletes’ education and academic degree, education and the level of competence (p < .001). All statistically and academic degree of the mothers of the respondents, signifi cant values are in bold (Table 2). vocation of the mothers, the level of competence, ear- One-way ANOVA values for psychological, environ- ly specialization, exploration years, and motives behind mental, and developmental conditions in three types of sport career termination. Detailed results are presented dual career pathways. in Tables 4–10. To determine which diff erences in the subgroups As to education and academic degrees, the respond- were related to one another the Hochberg’s GT2 meth- ents were divided into four groups: vocational educa- od was applied post-hoc. Detailed results are presented tion, high school graduates, undergraduates, and univer- in Table 3. sity graduates. Th e diff erence between groups regarding Research showed that athletes who represented unbal- the level of education and academic degrees was statis- anced development-orientation to education were signifi cant- tically signifi cant (Table 4). Th e data pointed out that ly younger (p = .014), had younger mothers (p = .044), most of sport-oriented and education-oriented participants started the stage of profi ciency earlier (p = .005), and received high school education. In the balanced-develop- practiced sport at international level shorter (p = .018) ment group only every forth had high school education. than athletes from the balanced development group. Undergraduate education was the most popular in Furthermore, athletes oriented to education had the sport-oriented subgroup. In comparison with the two a lower level of competence than the sport-oriented group other subgroups – balanced development and education- (p < .001) and the balanced development group (p < .001). oriented – a signifi cantly smaller number of sport-oriented Th ey also declared a lower level of sport involve- athletes received university education. ment after sport career termination in comparison to the A statistically signifi cant diff erence was also observed sport-oriented group (p = .010) and balanced development in the education of the mothers of the respondents (Ta- group (p = .003). ble 5). Nevertheless, analysis with a Bonferroni correc- Education-oriented athletes had fewer siblings tion did not reveal particular diff erences among sub- (p = .017), reported lower self-effi cacy (p = .039), pre- groups. Due to the fact that the general eff ect was signifi - sented signifi cantly lower satisfaction with life (p = .008), cant, the description will be based on count proportions. experienced more turning points perceived as diffi culties In the school-oriented group more mothers of the re- (p = .029), and more crises (p = .026) than the sport-ori- spondents had undergraduate education, graduate edu- ented group. cation, and doctoral degree. Th e proportions of a par- Th e research also revealed that balanced development ticular academic degree of the mothers in the sport-ori- athletes presented a higher level of realization of their po- ented group and in the group of balanced development

10 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Dual Career Pathways: Psychological and Environmental Determinants of Professional Athletes’ Development

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for all participants and within subgroups – means, standard deviations, minimum and maxi- mum values.

Variables Subgroups N Mean SD Min Max

Balanced development 40 28.48 7.05 19 48 Unbalanced Orientation to sport 34 26.74 6.56 19 43 Age development Orientation to education 21 23.52 4.27 19 34 Total 95 26.76 6.57 19 48 Balanced development 40 54.68 7.45 44 74 Unbalanced Orientation to sport 34 53.71 8.68 40 72 Mother’s age development Orientation to education 21 49.48 6.80 35 64 Total 95 53.18 7.97 35 74 Balanced development 40 1.23 0.66 0 3 Unbalanced Orientation to sport 34 1.50 0.75 0 3 Number of siblings development Orientation to education 21 0.95 0.67 0 2 Total 95 1.26 0.72 0 3 Th e level of sport Balanced development 40 1.70 0.46 1 2 involvement after sport Unbalanced Orientation to sport 34 1.65 0.65 0 2 career termination* development Orientation to education 21 1.10 0.94 0 2 Total 95 1.55 0.70 0 2 Balanced development 40 83.13 14.92 50 100 Th e level of realization Unbalanced Orientation to sport 34 69.94 23.33 10 100 of one’s potential outside development Orientation to education 21 79.19 12.82 60 100 sport Total 95 77.54 18.79 10 100 Balanced development 40 31.15 3.53 23 40 Generalized Self-Effi cacy Unbalanced deve- Orientation to sport 34 32.82 2.77 28 38 Scale GSES lopment Orientation to education 21 30.62 2.92 23 36 Total 95 31.63 3.24 23 40 Balanced development 40 23.45 4.39 15 31 Th e Satisfaction with Life Unbalanced Orientation to sport 34 24.59 5.38 12 34 Scale SWLS development Orientation to education 21 20.52 4.13 13 27 Total 95 23.21 4.91 12 34 Balanced development 40 18.45 2.30 14 24 III. Profi ciency Unbalanced deve- Orientation to sport 34 18.82 2.29 15 28 (Since when?) lopment Orientation to education 21 16.81 1.97 14 22 Total 95 18.22 2.34 14 28 Balanced development 40 8.50 4.88 1 20 III. Profi ciency Unbalanced Orientation to sport 34 7.35 5.23 2 21 (For how long?) development Orientation to education 21 5.05 1.94 3 8 Total 95 7.33 4.69 1 21 Balanced development 40 .68 .69 0 3 Turning points Unbalanced Orientation to sport 34 .38 .55 0 2 – Diffi cult Experiences development Orientation to education 21 .90 .94 0 3 Total 95 .62 .73 0 3 Balanced development 40 .98 .83 0 3 Unbalanced Orientation to sport 34 .82 .76 0 2 Crises development Orientation to education 21 1.43 .87 0 3 Total 95 1.02 .84 0 3 Balanced development 40 2.93 .94 1 4 Unbalanced Orientation to sport 34 2.74 .99 1 4 Th e level of competence development Orientation to education 21 1.43 .60 1 3 Total 95 2.53 1.07 1 4 Note: *Th e level of sport involvement after sport career termination: 0 – none or no plans yet; 1 – community service; 2 – professional

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 11 Małgorzata Siekańska, Jan Blecharz

Table 2. One-way ANOVA values for psychological, environmental, and developmental conditions in three types of dual career pathways.

Variables F (2.92) p 2 Age 4.17 .018 .08 Mothers’s age 3.19 .046 .06 Father’s age 2.93 .058 .06 Number of siblings 4.14 .019 .08 Number of children 0.70 .500 .01 Number of coaches 1.02 .365 .02 Number of persons perceived as important for career development 0.55 .580 .01 Perceived coach’s support 0.62 .541 .01 Th e level of sport involvement after sport career termination 6.40 .002 .12 (0 – none or no plans yet; 1 – community service; 2 – professional) Th e level of realization of one’s potential in sport 0.89 .414 .02 Th e level of realization of one’s potential outside sport 5.02 .009 .10 Generalized Self-Effi cacy Scale GSES 4.00 .022 .08 Th e Satisfaction with Life Scale SWLS 4.91 .009 .10 I. Exploration (Since when?) 1.38 .257 .03 I. Exploration (For how long?) 0.90 .410 .02 II. Commitment (Since when?) 1.43 .245 .03 II. Commitment (For how long?) 2.24 .112 .05 III. Profi ciency (Since when?) 5.68 .005 .11 III. Profi ciency (For how long?) 3.96 .022 .08 Turning points 2.14 .124 .04 Turning points – Positive experiences 0.82 .444 .02 Turning points – Diffi cult experiences 3.70 .029 .07 Crises 3.69 .029 .07 Th e level of competence 20.46 <.001 .30 Note: p – signifi cance. Values in bold are statistically signifi cant.

are similar. In the balanced-development group half of the Th e education-oriented respondents presented ear- mothers had high school education. ly specialization pathway (Table 8) more often than the Th e next batch of data concerned the vocation of the sport-oriented and the balanced development groups. Th e mothers of the respondents (Table 6). Th e diff erence be- diff erence was statistically signifi cant. tween the groups regarding the type of vocation of ath- Th e athletes were also interviewed as to the nature letes’ mothers was statistically signifi cant. In the sport-ori- of their experience during the exploration stage (focus ented group – in comparison with the two other groups on one sport vs. involvement in several sports) (Table 9). – more mothers of the respondents had a sport-unrelated Th e research showed statistically signifi cant diff erenc- vocation. In the balanced-development group every sixth es between the subgroups. Th e balanced development re- mothers had sport-related vocation. A similar proportion spondents more often – than the two other groups – had was observed in the education-oriented group. diversifi ed activities in the exploration stage, but only in Th e diff erence between the subgroups regarding the the case of the sport-oriented group was the diff erence sta- level of competence was statistically signifi cant (Table 7). tistically signifi cant. Among the sport-oriented athletes Among the education-oriented athletes there were no Ex- more than half were focused on one sport early, which is pert-Champions and less Future-Experts than in the three times more frequently than in the balanced devel- sport-oriented group and the balanced-development group. opment group. Th e conducted studies also revealed diff erences be- Another variable taken into consideration was the tween the subgroups in the course of sports career de- motivation behind sport career termination (Table 10). velopment. Th e education-oriented athletes more often than other

12 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Dual Career Pathways: Psychological and Environmental Determinants of Professional Athletes’ Development

Table 3. The Hochberg’s GT2 post hoc test.

Factor level 95% confi dence interval Variables p Lower Upper 12 boundary boundary Orientation to sport .565 –1.87 5.35 Balanced development Age Orientation to education .014 .78 9.12 Orientation to sport Orientation to education .200 –1.08 7.50 Orientation to sport .933 –3.45 5.38 Balanced development Mother’s age Orientation to education .044 .10 10.30 Orientation to sport Orientation to education .151 –1.02 9.48 Orientation to sport .253 –.67 .12 Balanced development Number of siblings Orientation to education .381 –.18 .73 Orientation to sport Orientation to education .017 .08 1.02 Th e level of sport Orientation to sport .980 –.32 .43 Balanced development involvement after sport Orientation to education .003 .17 1.04 career termination Orientation to sport Orientation to education .010 .11 1.00 Th e level of realization of Orientation to sport .007 2.96 23.41 Balanced development one’s potential Orientation to education .803 –7.88 15.75 outside sport Orientation to sport Orientation to education .189 –21.42 2.92 Orientation to sport .072 –3.46 .11 Generalized Self-Effi cacy Balanced development Orientation to education .896 –1.53 2.59 Scale GSES Orientation to sport Orientation to education .039 .08 4.32 Orientation to sport .660 –3.81 1.54 Th e Satisfaction with Life Balanced development Orientation to education .069 –.16 6.02 Scale SWLS Orientation to sport Orientation to education .008 0.88 7.25 Orientation to sport .853 –1.64 .89 III. Profi ciency Balanced development Orientation to education .022 .18 3.10 (Since when?) Orientation to sport Orientation to education .005 .51 3.52 Orientation to sport .629 –1.43 3.73 III. Profi ciency Balanced development Orientation to education .018 .47 6.43 (For how long?) Orientation to sport Orientation to education .198 –.77 5.38 Orientation to sport .223 –.11 .70 Turning points – Balanced development Orientation to education .548 –.70 .24 Diffi cult experiences Orientation to sport Orientation to education .029 –1.00 –.04 Orientation to sport .810 –.31 .61 Balanced development Crises Orientation to education .119 –.99 .08 Orientation to sport Orientation to education .026 –1.15 –.06 Orientation to sport .746 –.32 .70 Balanced development Th e level of competence Orientation to education <.001 .91 2.09 Orientation to sport Orientation to education <.001 .70 1.91 Note: p – signifi cance. Values in bold are statistically signifi cant.

Table 4. Education and academic degree.

Subgroup Balanced Orientation Orientation Education and academic degree development to sport to education N % N % N %

Vocational 0a 0.0 1a 2.9 0a 0.0

High school 11a 27.5 24b 70.6 14b 66.7

Undergraduate 7a,b 17.5 8b 23.5 0a 0.0

Graduate 22a 55.0 1b 2.9 7a 33.3 Total 40 100.0 34 100.0 21 100.0 Note: 2 = 30.07; df = 6; p <.001 Cramér’s V = .39

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 13 Małgorzata Siekańska, Jan Blecharz

Table 5. Education and academic degree of the mothers of the respondents.

Subgroup Education and academic degree Balanced Orientation Orientation of the mothers of the respondents development to sport to education N % N % N %

Vocational 5a 12.5 8a 23.5 1a 4.8

High school 20a 50.0 15a 44.1 7a 33.3

Undergraduate 0a 0.0 0a 0.0 2a 9.5

Graduate 15a 37.5 11a 32.4 10a 47.6

Doctoral degree 0a 0.0 0a 0.0 1a 4.8 Total 40 100.0 34 100.0 21 100.0 Note: 2 = 15.57; df = 8; p = .049 Cramér’s V = .28

Table 6. Vocation of the mothers of the respondents.

Subgroup Vocation of the mothers Orientation Orientation Balanced development of the respondents to sport to education N % N % N %

Sport-unrelated 33a 82.5 34b 100.0 17a 81.0

Sport-related 7a 17.5 0b 0.0 4a 19.0 Total 40 100.0 34 100.0 21 100.0 Note: 2 = 6.96; df = 2; p = .031 Cramér’s V = .27

Table 7. The level of competence.

Subgroup Th e level of competence Balanced development Orientation to sport Orientation to education N % N % N %

1. Athletes Resigning Prematurely 3a 7.5 4a 11.8 13b 61.9

2. Athletes Waiting for Success 10a 25.0 10a 29.4 7a 33.3

3. Future Experts 14a 35.0 11a 32.4 1b 4.8

4. Expert-Champions 13a 32.5 9a 26.5 0b 0.0 Total 40 100.0 34 100.0 21 100.0 Note: 2 = 33.49; df = 6; p < .001 Cramér’s V = .42 respondents – balanced development and sport-oriented ber of diff erences between subgroups representing three – decided to resign from sport prematurely because of pathways of dual career. several reasons and new goals outside sport. In both the Th e common features cover the fi rst two stages of sport-oriented and the balanced-development groups, simi- development, number of turning points – positive ex- lar proportions were observed. periences, some aspects of family situation (i.e., marital status, number of children, father’s age, father’s voca- Discussion and conclusions tion, father’s education and academic degree, the con- tinuation of family tradition in sport practice, socio- Cross-subgroup comparison economic status), number of coaches and persons per- Th e results of the research described in this article in- ceived as important for career development, coach’s clude common features in the process of athletes’ devel- support, and the level of realization of athletes’ poten- opment and in the social environment as well as a num- tial in sport.

14 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Dual Career Pathways: Psychological and Environmental Determinants of Professional Athletes’ Development

Table 8. Early specialization.

Subgroup Early specialization Balanced development Orientation to sport Orientation to education N % N % N % Yes 10a 25.0 11a 32.4 17b 81.0 No 30a 75.0 23a 67.6 4b 19.0 Total 40 100.0 34 100.0 21 100.0 Note: 2 = 19.25; df = 2; p <.001 Cramér’s V = .45

Table 9. Exploration years.

Subgroup Exploration years Balanced development Orientation to sport Orientation to education N % N % N %

Focus on one sport 7a 17.5 18b 52.9 9a, b 42.9

Involvement in several sports 33a 82.5 16b 47.1 12a. b 57.1 Total 40 100.0 34 100.0 21 100.0 Note: 2 = 10.63; df = 2; p = .005 Cramér’s V = .33

Tables 10. Motives behind sport career termination.

Subgroup Balanced Orientation Orientation Motives behind sport career termination development to sport to education N % N % N %

Lack of sport goals 5a 62.5 4a 50.0 0b 0.0

Several reasons and goals outside sport 3a 37.5 4a 50.0 13b 100.0 Total 8 100.0 8 100.0 13 100.0 Note: 2 = 10.89; df = 2; p = .004 Cramér’s V = .61

Th e study revealed a distinctive characteristic of the between planned and structured actions associated with developmental process, family situation and psychologi- hard work on the one hand, and deliberate play accom- cal functioning specifi c to each of the dual career path- panied by pleasure and joy on the other. Losing the bal- ways. ance between these two forms of activity may diminish Th e process of athletes’ development. When taking into the interest in doing sports or even contribute to resign- account the age of starting and the duration of the fi rst ing from it altogether [Côté & Hay 2002]. Th e explana- two phases of development, no signifi cant diff erences tion above is also supported by the fact that the respond- were noted between the groups under the survey. Th e re- ents from the education-oriented group started competing vealed diff erences concern the character and range of ex- at the profi ciency level earlier, but their career in sport periences in the exploration phase. Athletes representing lasted for a shorter period of time. both the education-oriented and the balanced development Th e study conducted did not reveal any diff erences groups had an opportunity to try various kinds of sport in reference to turning points perceived as positive expe- and physical activities, but started professional training riences. Th e uncovered diff erences refer to diffi cult ex- earlier than other respondents. Th is fact can draw heavily periences and crises. Education-oriented athletes signifi - on the course of a future career, as the commencement cantly more frequently than sport-oriented respondents of a particular training is associated with greater sacri- were aff ected by situations accompanied with unpleas- fi ce (in terms of time and money), greater expectations ant emotions and situations demanding working out and greater eff ort. Sports activity obtains a more serious a new way of dealing with problems or asking for ad- character. Th erefore the risk is higher of losing balance ditional support. Overall, although not desirable (no-

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 15 Małgorzata Siekańska, Jan Blecharz body wishes for an injury or a failure after all), diffi cult up in families with a smaller number of children. Th is has experiences were regarded as important and valuable for a bearing upon the shape of social orientation and of par- development by the athlete. Comparing diffi cult experi- ticular traits, interests, ways of spending free time, com- ences and crises, it can be stated that in the case of the munication skills and interpersonal relations [Sękowski former, the athlete focuses predominantly on fi nding so- & Siekańska 2008]. Earlier studies indicate that siblings, lutions and possibilities to cope with the situation. Af- especially older ones, play a crucial role in shaping behav- ter such an experience the athlete draws conclusions for iours connected with doing sports [Côté 1999]. Th ey can the future, gains greater self-confi dence and “strength- also provide additional support, which is particularly im- ens the resources” [Blecharz & Siekańska 2007]. In the portant in the context of coping with diffi cult situations case of a crisis, on the other hand, an athlete considers and crisis moments. the possibility of resigning from doing sport, or even No correlation between the age, occupation, and ed- decides to undertake relevant actions and – temporar- ucation of the father and the type of a dual career path- ily or permanently – suspends sports activity. As a result way on the other hand was detected. It was, however, re- their career in sport is frequently pre-maturely terminat- vealed that mothers of education-oriented athletes are bet- ed. Surveys on professional athletes have indicated that ter educated than mothers of the remaining respondents, after the fi rst crisis, 3.3% of athletes end sports career. having much greater sports accomplishments. Similar re- Th is value soars if a second crisis is observed and reaches sults were obtained in a study conducted in Portugal. It up to 50%. Th e next crisis is not accompanied with such was shown, among others, that better-educated parents a sharp rise. As many as 55.5% of cases end with resigna- have greater expectations when the sports future of their tion [Siekańska 2013]. children is concerned [Gomes et al. 2009]. Psychological determinants. Analysing the results con- Th e quality of life. Th e quality of life encompasses cerning the reasons the sports career terminates, it can be general satisfaction with oneself and one’s life (the sub- noted that education-oriented athletes – contrary to the jective aspect) and the feeling of fulfi lling one’s abilities remaining respondents – never resigned due to the lack in sport and outside of it. Th e studies conducted have of sports goals. Th e reasons for resignation were complex shown that all respondents present a similar level of sat- and associated with lower general satisfaction with life isfaction and self-fulfi lment in sport (m = 76.34%). Th e and seeking new goals outside sport. diff erences revealed refer to general satisfaction with life Interestingly, education-oriented individuals, al- and the feeling of self-fulfi lment outside sport. Th ey are though presenting signifi cantly lower level of compe- the most noticeable in the sport-oriented group, which tence in sport than the balanced development and sport- declares the greatest satisfaction with life, the strongest oriented athletes, declare a similar level of the sense of feeling of self-fulfi lment in sport and the weakest feeling accomplishment in sport. Due to the fact that all re- of self-fulfi lment outside sport. Moreover, only in this spondents were identifi ed as budding talents in a specifi c group was the value related to sport higher than the value sports discipline and due to the fact that the diff erenc- referring to the remaining (i.e., outside sport) areas of ac- es in accomplishment were revealed only at the highest tivity. In the balanced development and education-oriented level of sports competition, a lower level of competence groups the diff erences between values were smaller. Sum- and yet the feeling of sport accomplishment may result ming up all the enumerated aspects of the quality of life from a given structure of abilities and interests going be- it can be stated that the balanced development group is yond sport. Th e sport-oriented group is diff erent, as fo- characterised by versatile and harmonious development. cusing on sport and connecting it to a person’s future is For the sport-oriented group the major area of developing easily observed. It seems that what is relevant to explain personal potential and the source of satisfaction is sport. the uncovered interdependency may at the same time be Education-oriented respondents are less satisfi ed with the way athletes perceive their own competence and the themselves and their life and display a tendency to seek ability to cope. Th e belief in one’s effi cacy seems to be in- goals outside sport. Th is may be connected with the con- teresting in this context. Studies have revealed that, com- sequences of diffi cult experiences and crises or the lack pared to the sport-oriented group, the education-oriented (or weakening) of belief in the possibility to obtain satis- respondents have signifi cantly lower conviction of their fying eff ects of activities undertaken in relation to sport. own effi cacy, which informs about the extent to which they feel responsible for successful outcomes and about Limitations of the study, future research how they assess their abilities to cope with diffi cult situ- and applications ations and crises. One of the limitations of the study is its retrospective Environmental determinants. Th e results of the stud- character. Respondents’ memory selection and rein- ies point to the existence of numerous interdependencies terpretation process could play a role in the results ob- between family situation and the type of a dual career tained. On the other hand the retrospective design in the pathway. Education-oriented respondents were brought current study was thought advantageous, as it allowed

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18 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Dual Career Pathways: Psychological and Environmental Determinants of Professional Athletes’ Development

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nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 19 Pierre de Coubertin and His Relation to the Catholic Church

Alois Koch

Summary Those who deal more closely with the person of Pierre de Coubertin (1863–1937) and with the Olympic ideology created by him, will come across his relations to representatives of the Catholic Church. There is mostly pointed also to the fact that central statements of Coubertin about sport and Olympism devel- oped in meetings with church representatives, for instance the Olympic motto “Citius, Altius, Fortius “, formu- lated by the Dominican Henri Didon. On the other hand there is often emphasized from the Catholic side, how one had nevertheless stood from the outset at Coubertin’s side, and had supported him in his ideas. The text will describe the Catholic Childhood and Youth of Coubertin, his special relations to the Jesuits and his time in the Jesuits College in Paris. In a special chapter Coubertin take position on Sport as “Remedy” against sexual aberrations in the youth, very engaged discussed on the beginning of the 20st century. Coubertin and his relations to representatives of the Catholic Church, especially concerning his visit by Pope Pius X in the Vatican in 1905, will be overestimated by Olympic historians. Much more important is Coubertin’s views on Christianity and its relation to the body and to physical exercises in general including his interpretation of his “Muscle Religion” as an aff ront against Christianity. The author evaluated great German Olympic philosophers (e.g. Lenk, Wirkus, Malter ). From special importance is Coubertin’s description of the Muscle Religion trough the participation of Arts in Olympism. Keywords: Coubertin, philosophy, Olympism, Catholic Church

Preliminary Remark Could it be that he – at least in the starting time – only looked for and found in the representatives of the Cath- Th ose who deal closer with the person of Pierre de Cou- olic Church possible or actual confederates? Do not es- bertin (1863–1937), the founder of the Olympiad of pecially some of his statements about “religion” indicate modern times, and with the Olympic ideology created that he had left the ground of the religion of his child- by him, will come across his relations to representatives hood and youth long since? Does not this dissociation of the Catholic Church – particularly in the time when manifest itself clearly in the setting up of the “muscle re- he began his project. ligion” of Olympism, with its “quasi-religious salvation Th ere is mostly pointed also to the fact that cen- promises”? [Alkemeyer 1996a, p. 162] tral statements of Coubertin about sport and Olymp- With these questions is marked the course of the ism developed in meetings with church representatives, following considerations. Proceeding from Coubertin’s for instance the Olympic motto “Citius, Altius, Fortius Catholic childhood and youth and his relations to repre- – Faster, Higher, Stronger”, formulated by the Domini- sentatives of the Catholic Church his views on the rela- can Henri Didon. Time and again there is referred also tion of Christianity to sport and sporting exercises are to to Coubertin’s meeting with Pope PIUS X (1903–1914), be stated and critically examined, his ideas of a “muscle who gave his “blessing”, as it were, to the Olympiad and religion”, and fi nally his eff orts to represent this “muscle to Coubertin’s conceptions. On the other hand there is religion” artistically. often emphasized from the Catholic side, how one had Th e investigations are limited to a large extent to nevertheless stood from the outset at Coubertin’s side, those writings of Coubertin translated into German. Th e and had supported him in his ideas. biography of Marie Th érèse Eyquem [1972], which al- Hence it is worthwhile to examine closer this par- most reads like a hagiography, has – as far as Coubertin’s tial aspect – the relation of Coubertin to the Catholic life is concerned – only limited value, likewise the state- Church – namely the question how this relation appears ments of Carl Diem on occasion of the 50th anniversary in Coubertin’s writings, and how it is understood there. of the IOC 1944 in Lausanne [Diem 1965].

20 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Pierre de Coubertin and His Relation to the Catholic Church

As Alkemeyer rightly states, the reader learns by these Enlightenment ideas in the family exerted a large them only quite conditionally something “about Cou- infl uence on him. bertin’s situation in the social area of French society”, Th at the religious attitude in Coubertin’s family was hardly something “about his position on the fi eld of edu- “strange”, follows from the fact that a grand-uncle from cational discussions at that time, about forerunners and the mother’s side, who was priest, has been “outlawed” contemporaries” etc. [Alkemeyer 1996a, p. 42]. in the family. Th e more is spoken about Coubertin’s “vocation”, Th is grand-uncle (he is named “this uncanny cler- about the “prophetic power of his genius”, and about his gyman”) was a friend and pupil of de La Menais (1782– “mental format of a universal historian”, in whom “the –1854), who mutated from an ultramontan royalist to ruler of fate” – thereby probably God is meant – “united a liberal, yes, socialist Catholic, and had been infl icted all those gifts that were necessary to recall one of the most several times with church sanctions, respectively indict- shining thoughts of occidental culture … into the light ments. of the world” [Diem 1965, p. 7, 8 and 9]. It is anyhow Th e judgement of the mother about this grand-uncle high time to bring out his fi gure “from the sacral twi- read, when the young Coubertin stood up to take care light” [Alkemeyer 1996a, p. 44]. of his neglected burial place: “How useless, his eternal Th e writings resp. statements of Coubertin are quot- damnation is certain to us all!” [Eyquem 1972, p. 36] ed only with the respective abbreviations. Th ese are to be In Pouret’s opinion this uncle had fascinated Coubertin taken from the bibliography. and inspired him to his “Novel of a Reconciled” [Pouret For valuable references and information for my essay 1973, p. 85] I return thanks to Professor Dr. Norbert Müller and to Hence one cannot help feeling that the young Cou- the archivist of the French Province of the Jesuits. bertin grew up in a religiously confl ict-loaded family. His “extremely pious” mother saw apparently therefore a way A Catholic Childhood and Youth out in sending her son to a Jesuit College, to heal him so from his heretical opinions. About Coubertin’s childhood (born in 1863) there exist apparently only few meaningful testimonies. He origi- Coubertin’s Relation to the Jesuits nated both paternal and maternal from an ancient stock, which – after the defeat of France in the French-Ger- Coubertin was pupil of the Jesuits led by Saint Ignatius man War 1870–1871 – mourned the good old days. One College in Paris, Rue de Madrid. Here he got – as Krüger could not make friends with the Republic. Th ereby one means – a “one-sided education” [Krüger 1980, p. 522]. was in good society – for just the French Catholics were But it is not proved wherein this “one-sidedness” lay. Royalists. In Eyquem’s Coubertin Biography is indicated that Th e Catholic religion was apparently natural for he in the High School could “even be less himself than Coubertin’s family. About the mother is said that she was at home”; this is substantiated with, “it would not have “extremely pious”, “Pierre had very soon understood that been advisable to express one’s own ideas, yes, to express his mother professed her belief in a Credo at the dogmas something independent at all” [Eyquem 1972, p. 33]. of which there was no shaking” [Eyquem 1972, p. 21]. Here too, detailed references are missing. In another place is said, “Pierre was educated as Catholic Eyquem indicates then particularly that there was ex- and like his parents a faithful follower of the Pope, but acted from each pupil a “strict self-discipline, good be- in his way” [Eyquem 1972, p. 25]. But it is not told in haviour and daily prayer”: what respect he was “in his way” a faithful follower of the “Th ere prevailed a moral that knew no diff erence Pope. It is indicated that he had been already as a small with those who did good or bad, or thought it, a mor- boy urged by his pious mother to “play mass”; but that he al that anticipated already God’s judgment … Th e doc- gave up “mass playing” when he noticed that his mother trines of the church became the basis for everyone, and at had gladly seen him as monk or priest. any time the obligatory way of life … Th e Jesuit Fathers But that the family seemed to be not so “complete- insisted … on dogmas, moral, manners and good behav- ly” Catholic follows from some remarks. About a grand- iour.” [Eyquem 1972, p. 33–34]. father is said, he had been a freemason. Th at would What is meant by the cryptic suggestions about self- mean that the grandfather was anti-clerical and anti- discipline, good behaviour, manners and moral, is not church, yes, perhaps even anti-Christian. Th e French explained; also not, wherein the “critical state” of these freemasons’ lodges were still shaped by the thoughts of educating principles lies. Enlightenment, and represented religiously a deism – About the Jesuit College Saint Ignatius in the Rue de hence a view of religion that rejected central Christian Madrid for foreign pupils there is a detailed description dogmas. If one bears in mind Coubertin’s later religious by Delattre [1955, p. 1392–1422]. Th e institute existed development, then one would almost like to assume that from 1874–1908. For the erection of the necessary col-

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 21 Alois Koch lege buildings was intended – among other things – also – that country the discordant provinces of which were a “gymnasium” (= “gymnase”). For the plays of the pupils united peacefully by the call of one place only, by the call on the campus there were available six “playgrounds” (= of Olympia” [Eyquem 1972, p. 34]. Pouret says that Fa- “cours”) on which the individual “departments” did their ther Carron had imparted to the young Pierre the knowl- games; these were obligating for everyone. edge “of the history of Greece and Rome, and with it Th e report of a former pupil names a set of plays: a very solid classical education” [Pouret 1973, p. 81]; he Catch, walking on stilts, wall ball, diff erent “war games”, had opened his eyes “for the beauty of the Greek culture” in the winter particularly skating on the frozen-over play- [Pouret 1978, p. 124]. grounds [Delattre 1955, p. 1403]. Another former pupil Alkemeyer points to another “absurdity” in Couber- reports: “I remember the frolicsome plays that we did tin’s relationship to the Jesuits. For Coubertin the Brit- with passion; and I am always surprised to hear, as today’s ish colleges were places of an exemplary permanent com- sportsmen explain solemnly, that the college pupils could petition, of “a system of constantly revisable self-rating, not play” [Delattre 1955, p. 1403]. according to the performance in the school hierarchies”; Perhaps this is a reference to the later devaluing pub- but what he named a “typical British idea”, this “merito- lic expressions of Coubertin about the “plays” at his col- craty” (according to one’s merits), he got to know in his lege in the starting time of the institute. Th ere is never- college in the Rue de Madrid; he has obviously integrat- theless an interesting reference to the “Baron de Couber- ed the “competition system dominant in Jesuit Colleges, tin” in the report of a former schoolmate from the year of and their elitism into his own reform proposals” [Alke- his death 1937: “I see still before my eyes how Baron de meyer 1996 a, p. 82]. Coubertin with outstanding clarity recited a fable of La At the age of twenty Coubertin went in 1883 to Fontaine.” A further remark is probably just as informa- Great Britain, where he – probably by intercession of his tive, because it refers to the instruction in the old lan- former teachers – got to know diff erent boarding schools guages Greek and Latin, of the Jesuits; about one of them – Diem calls it incor- for the imparting of which one exuberantly returns rectly “Jesus Kolleg” [Diem 1959, p. 9] – he writes in de- thanks [Delattre 1955, p. 1405]. Obviously here is relat- tail: “First I visited the Jesuit College of Beaumont in the ed to Father Jules Carron. neighbourhood of Windsor” [“Kampagne”, p. 12]. Coubertin visited the College Saint Ignatius from Th is boarding school of the Jesuits left a deep im- 1875–1880. A document of the archive of the French pression on Coubertin. He heard from a Polish friend, Jesuit Province says, Coubertin had taken part in the “that that aura of liberty and individualism, that began “philosophy class” and completed it. For the pupils there to spread over the English colleges had already reached was in the curriculum – apart from the plays in the spare Beaumont” [Eyquem 1972, p. 45]. From his friend he time – no mandatory instruction for “physical exercises”, heard also that in the college newspaper the best swim- only a facultative off er for fencing and “gymnastic”. With mer was mentioned, who would get a price from the security Coubertin’s appreciation of fencing is based on association of former pupils on occasion of a banquet: his participation in this facultative off er. But what the “A dozen of Jesuit Fathers will be present there, and by things named “gymnastic” really were cannot be found their humour and their free and easy nature they will cer- out. Nevertheless there were “plays” in the spare time ob- tainly cause a sensation” [Eyquem 1972, p. 45]. ligatory for all pupils. Particularly the acquaintance with other British Considering the negative judgements in the biogra- boarding schools, above all with the College of Rugby, phy of Eyquem and of historians about the school life in which had been crucially moulded by the headmaster the College Saint Ignatius, one is surprised then to some Th omas Arnold, inspired him for his own educational extent, when, as it were, in the same breath is said Cou- ideas. Th e sport at these schools became for him, as it bertin had marvelled at his teachers “above all their edu- were, the “means” to overcome the backwardness of the cation, their educational skill, their piety and self-assur- colleges in France. But by the pursuit of this aim there ance”; they succeeded “with large power of persuasion”, arose many diffi culties for him. Just the church colleges “so that Pierre willingly followed them”; but “their exam- closed to a large extent their mind to Coubertin’s reform ple had changed nothing on him at all” [Eyquem 1972, ideas. Th us the Jesuits of his old college in the Rue de p. 33–34]. Madrid were deaf to his ideas: He admired especially his teacher of many years in “Of the Jesuit Colleges I knew that they observed the humanistic subjects and in rhetoric, Father Jules Car- the spreading reform with the largest aversion. Never- ron (1839–1923). He “exerted … a very strong infl uence theless I made the attempt with the day college in the on him. He awoke in him the sense for measure, and Rue de Madrid, which I had visited. But I met an abso- the love for that country whose philosophers were po- lute ‘non possumus’. Yet the Jesuits fancied, which was ets, writers and artists, and which had been ready for the by no means justifi ed, to impart in their colleges the per- fall, in order to conquer then the whole world: Greece fect physical training, because many of them took ea-

22 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Pierre de Coubertin and His Relation to the Catholic Church gerly part in the plays of their pupils. But they were not Coubertin expresses his views to this topic under the inclined to go beyond those childlike plays, and rejected heading “moral instruction and religion”. Th ere he writes: in principle any sport done under the direction of pupils, “Remarkable and too little noticed treatises have referred because this would bear the consequence that the young to the importance of this diffi cult problem. Each accu- people would meet by the contests with other young peo- mulation of boys harbours the danger of a premature ple who went to public or non-denominational schools” awaking of the sexual instinct, according to a gener- [“Kampagne” p. 19–20]. ally confi rmed law (often observed by animals), and Th ese statements show a Coubertin who was obvi- the danger is quintupled by stimulating the fantasy, done ously annoyed about the fact that his educational ide- by today’s so widely spread pornographic publications, as did not fi nd applause in his old college. He acknowl- against which one cannot completely protect the youth. edged that the Jesuits took care of the physical training Climatic and race characteristics seem secondary, as of the pupils. But the fact that one did not want to join one would like to assume, and the colleges in the north public play and sport activities was for him the stum- are not ahead to those in the south, as they allege so bling-block. He had no understanding for the HYPER- readily. LINK “http://www.con-spiration.de/koch/english/feld- From the well-tried remedies supervision is one of kirch-e.html” special way of the Jesuits’ boarding schools, the most ineff ectual. As severe as it is, it will be broken. which e.g. had also been taken in other countries [Koch Th e fear of God in which the church colleges trust, does 2003]. In no case however the refusal of Coubertin’s ide- not work better. Th e bad habits fl ourish at those colleges as can be interpreted as a general refusal of physical train- just as well as at others, and it looks as if a certain mys- ing or as body enmity. ticism would sometimes favour their developing. Th ere It could also be possible that Coubertin regarded are nevertheless remedies. Th e life of day-pupils is one of the “physical training” and the “childlike plays”, as they them, but only as long as the family – conscious of its re- were usual in his old school, as not up-to-date, because sponsibility – dedicates its whole attention to this part of he considered fi rst of all the “combat-emphatic”, the “ag- its very delicate task, and does keep in mind the dangers onal character”, and the “nimbus of danger” of sport; of the daily way from the school to the parents’ house in therefore for him even gymnastics were only “disciplines a more or less spoiled atmosphere of a city. hindering and restricting the individual action and ef- Generally spoken, all the things suitable to fi ght fi ciency”, respectively other kinds of sport [Alkemeyer boredom and anaemia, those two large promoters of im- 1996a, p. 90–91]. Only the “sport” understood in this morality in colleges, are the best means against immo- sense, hence the “pedagogy … of the total risk” [Alke- rality. Nothing excels a healthy, balanced, cheerful exist- meyer 1996a, p. 96], had for him the characteristic of ence. Th e importance of such a topic cannot be pictured “productive pedagogy” (“Ol. Gedanke” p. 115]. in one volume, because it exceeds the task of this writing. Coubertin was convinced that “his” sport “was bound If I touched it by the way, so only because I noticed eve- to an unbridled contest” and “lived from the freedom to rywhere that the evil exists, and that one takes the wrong let one’s steam off ” [Lenk 1976, p. 405]. Th e “physical steps by appealing to moral control in order to redress it, exercises” practised by the Jesuits in their colleges were while the best means to oppose it is a successful hygiene therefore only “pastime” for him, whereas his “sport” of spirit and body” [“Schule”, p. 158 f]. must seem to his old teachers as an educational precarious In this opinion Coubertin is obviously aff ected by thing, yes, as something that had to be rejected. his view on education in English boarding schools. Th ey were to him exemplary, while his judgement on French Sport as “Remedy” Against Sexual high schools was scathing. Th us Coubertin regarded the Aberrations in the Youth Rugby College, which had been moulded by the peda- gogue Th omas Arnold, as an exemplary college. Arnold At fi rst sight it seems as if this section had hardly some- had succeeded in fi nding “the precise formulation of the thing to do with our actual topic, Coubertin’s relation to threefold role of sport for the pedagogy: Its physical role the Catholic Church. But that is not the case, because as consists in bringing the body into balance, to strength- one of the reasons why the accusation of disdain and en- en the muscles, to soothe the senses and the imagina- mity against the body is raised against the church, is re- tive power” [“Schule”, p. 97]. Th is “calming down” of peatedly named its enmity against sexuality. the senses and the imaginative power is certainly also dif- Th erefore it does surprise when one fi nds in the edu- ferently interpreted. In reality Rugby was rather a “sexual cational writings of Coubertin, who would probably by concentration camp”, as Alkemeyer remarks; nobody named ‘enemy of sexuality’, remarks which refer Arnold, allegedly so liberally minded, was the advo- “moral” largely to the fi eld of sexuality, and which say that cate of a strict observance of behaviour, custom and mor- the dangers of the sexual instinct were to meet by a “suc- al: “His main enemies were called masturbation and ho- cessful hygiene of spirit and body” [“Schule”, p. 159]. mosexuality” [Alkemeyer 1996 a, p. 73].

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 23 Alois Koch

Hence Coubertin’s views of a sporting education re- this connection to be named especially the Dominican fer not only to the body, but also to the “moral” – an Father Henri Marie Didon [Diem labels him incorrect opinion that runs at the bottom through Coubertin’s en- “Jesuit”: 1965, p. 22], Cardinal Merry Del Val, Perma- tire educational thinking about the eff ect of body educa- nent Under-Secretary under Pope Pius X, Pius X, and tion; the sportsman trains together with the physical also Cardinal Mercier of Mecheln. Only short mentioned are a “mental-moral musculature” [“Schule”, p. 110]. Only Cardinal Henry Newman, whom Coubertin met by his the control of the own “unsettled passions”, above all of visit in England [cf. Eyquem 1972, p. 57], Pope Leo XIII sexuality, would elevate man over the mere animal [Alke- (1878–1903), about whom is said however that “these meyer 1996 a, p. 97f]. things were totally foreign to his nature” [“Kampagne”, Critical for Coubertin is above all the time of puberty, p. 144], and Pope Pius XI (1922–1939). in which the juvenile has already the body of a man, but is Father Didon (1840 –1900), in France a well-known still controlled and confused by “malicious instincts [cited writer and preacher [cf. Platz 1931], was probably the by Alkemeyer 1996 a, p. 126]. It is necessary to overcome fi rst notable church representative who entertained sym- quickly this unstable condition, and to lead from the sta- pathies for Coubertin’s educational ideas: “Only Father tus of the still instinct-controlled boy to “true manliness”. Olivier, … director of the college of Juilly, and Father Coubertin regarded as touchstone the probation in Didon showed cautious interest.” [Eyquem 1972, p. 79]. the sporting fi ght. In contrast to the amusements which Yes, Coubertin attributed the progress of sports in “degrade” the young man, the pleasure of sport con- Catholic private colleges to Didon’s infl uence, since he tributes to his perfection and refi nement; therefore the had become Rector of the college of Arcueil in the neigh- sport is “so closely linked with moral” [“Ol. Gedanke”, bourhood of Paris. On his visit in Arcueil 1891 Didon p. 105]. Th e discipline practiced in sport “does … not … invited Coubertin to the foundation of the college sport bend and suppress the human instincts, energies and pas- association; both took part in the following “paper-chase” sions, but collects and canalizes them into the individual [“Schule”, p. 50f]. “It was Father Didon who described accomplishment of the tasks and examinations” [Alke- the nature of sport with those three words, which he let meyer 1996 a, p. 99]; the sport is “a school for a noble embroider on the pennant of his school sport associa- mind and for moral purity” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 116]. tion in Arcueil: Citius, Altius, Fortius” [Eyquem 1972, Th ese statements of Coubertin on “moral”, respec- p. 135]. tively on the “dangers of the sexual instinct” for young Coubertin, as you know, suggested 1894 on the people, are obviously common property of the contem- foundation congress of the IOC in Paris’ Sorbonne suc- porary pedagogy. Th ese statements do hardly diff er for cessfully this motto. Two years later the fi rst Olympiad instance from the opinions of Catholic pedagogues and in modern times took place in Athens, and Didon sat as moral theologians. For them too the sporting exercises honour guest beside the Greek king. In Athens he also are considered as a proven means against the dangers and preached at Easter day a much noticed sermon in the aberrations of sexuality [Koch 2002 a, p. 82–86]. Hence Catholic Church. He spoke therein of his admiration this view is not only to be found by Christian authors. for the classical education of the Greeks; it included and Th at Coubertin takes this view relativizes also his re- taught the physical strengths. Th is education must en- proaches directed at Christianity, respectively the (Cath- ter again into the education of young persons [cf. Müller olic) church that they devaluated the bodily-physical re- 1996, p. 57]. ality, and therefore also the physical exercises. One year later Didon will be the celebrated orator By Coubertin’s statements about sexual moral some- of the Olympic congress of Le Havre. Coubertin reports thing becomes clear yet, that determines his entire view that Didon “put lots of people into ecstasy by his fl aming of the aim of education. “Sport” is for him an “instru- speeches – a special charisma of him” [“Erinnerungen”, ment” in the “service” of human formation. Hence it is p. 53]. Topic of the “grandiose lecture” [“Kampagne”, p. about a “functional” understanding of sport activities. 107] were the character-moulding characteristics of sport Th e actual characteristic of sporting activities, the play – hence experiences gathered by him during his term of character, does not exist in this system of pedagogy. Th e offi ce in Arcueil: “Th e moral eff ect of physical exercis- fact that “physical exercises” feed on the impetus of life es on children and young people, and the infl uence of lies outside of this approach. eff ort on character formation and personality develop- ment” [Lochmann 2000, p. 15] Coubertin and his Relations to Repre- Whether Coubertin has been, as Müller means, “cru- sentatives of the Catholic Church cially moulded” by Didon in his educational ideas, es- pecially in those concerning the sporting exercises, and Obviously Coubertin tried during his whole life to fi nd whether Didon “supplied Coubertin with the model for confederates for the realization of his reform ideas. From his considerations about the importance of eff ort, self- the representatives of the Catholic Church there are in conquest and persistence for the sporting contest, in

24 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Pierre de Coubertin and His Relation to the Catholic Church a word: about the moral forces of modern sport” [Mül- When Coubertin in this connection says, there is ler 1996, p. 61], may be left undecided. But it is hardly a “Bible word which can be interpreted as complete con- imaginable, that Didon would have given his blessing to demnation of sports”, and quotes as authority the pas- the inhuman consequences of sport, which are system- sage about the “haughtiness of the body” as “one of the immanent to Olympism and which become more and worst sources of sin” [“Kampagne”, p. 143], then there more evident today but which originate without doubt is at the bottom of it obviously a wrong understanding in Coubertin’s ideas: of the concerned text, or a wrong German translation “Th e attempt to impose on the combatant sport [cf. Schwank 1979, p. 211, note 52]. At other places the a guideline of obligatory moderation is a utopia. Its fol- words “life pride” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 54] or “haughti- lowers need unrestrained liberty. Th erefore one has given ness of life” [“Schule”, p. 93] are used by Coubertin. them the motto: Citius, Altius, Fortius” [“Ol. Gedanke”, St John’s First Letter (2:16) speaks of the “lust of the p. 151]. “Hence yield to it, you disciples of unnatural be- fl esh, the lust of the eyes, and of the boasting of life”. lief in moderation: We will continue to put that motto Th ereby “lust of the fl esh” means in no way sporting ex- into practice which Father Didon once gave his pupils ercises; not even the disorder and the endangering caused on their life way, and which became the motto of the by the sensual animal instincts are meant [Coubertin Olympic thought: Citius, Altius, Fortius” [“Erinnerun- calls them the basic dangers just of juveniles], but gen- gen I”, p. 216]. erally any action against God’s commandments. Hence Several times Coubertin reported about his Rome the quoted text is by no means directed against the “joy visit in 1905 [cf. Schwank 1979, p. 210–213, and of life”, which is – according to Coubertin – “the nature 1996, p. 30ff ]. On the one hand he was interested in the and characteristic of sport” [“Kampagne”, p. 143]. planned realization of the Olympiad in 1908 in Rome; In Coubertin’s report about his Vatican visit is then on the other hand in (as he meant) a necessary acknowl- said that Merry Del Val had spoken about “sport with edgment of sport by the Catholic Church. Coubertin’s the understanding of a man of world and of a grand sei- interlocutor was fi rst probably Cardinal Undersecretary gneur”. of State Merry Del Val (1865–1930). Coubertin notes Th en is said: “Hence it was easy for me to get from that the Cardinal had been a pupil of Eton [“Erinnerun- the Pope words full of benevolent sympathy for the gen I” p. 77]; he had told him that Pope Pius X (1835 – Olympic spirit revived again. Pius X seemed to be quite –1914) had as archbishop of Venice acknowledged and interested in the Roman Olympiad. Th ere was no doubt promoted the performances of the Gondolieri; he had, that the Catholic groups of the Italian youth welfare or- shortly before Coubertin’s Rome visit, also permitted ganizations would have gotten permission for their par- a gym association, “to show him in the Vatican Gardens ticipation” [“Kampagne”, p. 144]. its abilities” [“Schule”, p. 144]. Similar one reads in the “Memories”: “Th e head of Coubertin’s alleged object by his Vatican visit was the Catholic Church was interested in the plan of a Ro- – as already mentioned – above all that the Catholic man Olympiad and spoke extraordinarily kindly about side should be interested in “pleading for the matter of it. He promised also a tangible proof of his feelings in the sport, or in supporting its practice. Th e excommunica- near future” [“Erinnerungen I”, p. 77]. tion which had been infl icted formerly on the antique Whether Pius X however, as Coubertin writes many Olympiads – was it really directed against the pagan cus- years later in 1929, did bless “my renewal founded on toms only?” [“Schule”, p. 143] In his “Memories” is said paganism”, is a statement which can be duplicated only that Coubertin had been interested in getting “from the with diffi culty [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 136]. In case Couber- Vatican the abolition of a kind of prohibition (interdict) tin understood his demand for a “return to paganism … which in many clerical circles had impeding eff ects in as the cult of humankind, or better: as cult of this (earth- regard to sport pedagogy”; this aim has been “perfectly” ly) life” [“Achtung”, p. 22], and wanted and got for that achieved [“Erinnerungen I” p. 75]. the Pope’s approval, then Pius X would have given up Of course, here has to be noted that, as far as the an- fundamental faith teachings. Coubertin obviously inter- tique Olympiads are concerned, not any excommunica- preted the “papal benediction”, usual given at the end of tion has been infl icted (excommunication is infl icted on an audience, as consent to the views represented by him persons); the prohibition of the plays in Olympia comes – this is in no way justifi ed. from the Emperor Th eodosius I (379–395). Th ere is not Th ere will be again told in detail about a high church any canon of a church synod that infl icts the plays with dignitary, namely Cardinal Mercier (1851–1926), Arch- the anathema, but there are surely canons against the bishop of Mecheln, on the occasion of the Olympiad in participation, respectively against those who take part in Antwerp 1920. In the morning of the opening of the these plays. But also in modern times there is no church plays Cardinal Mercier held a service in the cathedral; prohibition or “interdict” [so translated in “Erinnerun- but it was no public, obligating service for the partici- gen” p. 70] regarding the sport pedagogy. pants.

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 25 Alois Koch

Coubertin substantiated this procedure with the expresses himself – of the Christian “doctrine”. Eyquem fact that an obligation could “displease mature men …”. cites statements of Coubertin, that he “could hardly im- “But if one invited them outside of the plays to a celebra- agine a more backward and more intolerant program” tion into the church, then we just granted religion – like [Eyquem 1972, p. 65]. Th is negative view of the Chris- all other moral strengths of mankind – a place within tian “doctrine” is most clearly expressed in his thoughts the Olympiad. But the celebration had to be neutrally in on “school, sport and education”. But also in many oth- its form, in order to stand above all denominations. No er places are critical expressions of Coubertin about this mass, no marching in of priests into the sanctuary. Th e topic. ‘De Profundis’ as remembrance hymn for those who had Coubertin treats the “history of humankind” in two in the last four years dropped out, and the Tedeum as chapters of the mentioned writing [“Schule”, p. 58–77]. hopeful hymn for success. One could name them world- Th e statements concerning our topic begin with the de- ly hymns that gave opportunity to a beautiful musical re- scription of the situation of the Christians in the Roman production. Empire. Th ere one is surprised by the following sentence: A speech could follow, provided that it was free- “Opinion and faith are free; the Christians too do en- thinking. Th is unusual program had a fast eff ect on spir- joy the same liberty as the remaining people, and Christ it and heart of Cardinal Mercier. By the tragic fact that takes his place in the Pantheon, if his followers are ready this time the list of the Olympic dead was so frightening to grant a place in their services not just to the idols but long, the celebration became particularly large and sol- to the emperor as living idol” [“Schule”, p. 65]. emn. I believe that all those who were present got a deep Apart from the philological question whether this impression from the words which were spoken by the fa- sentence is to be understood conditional or as statement: mous prelate and which were framed by the wonderful Th e Christians were not ready in the fi rst centuries to en- harmonious sounds” [“Erinnerungen I”, p. 160–161]. ter in any form into the emperor cult. Th e many mar- Th is passage from Coubertin’s “memories” betrays tyrs paid with their blood and life. To sacrifi ce before the nevertheless loud and clear, which rank the “relations” picture of the emperor was not an insignifi cant religious to the Catholic Church had for him. It was opportune ritual for them (which could be done also by “atheists”); in those fi rst years to win the representatives of a “large for them it was equivalent to apostasy from the Christian moral power within humankind”. Th is aspect was obvi- faith. Christianity did not understand itself primarily as ously crucial for Coubertin. He had long since left the “religion” (the Christians were suspected even of atheism ground of the religion of his childhood and youth. Th is is and were accused of “irreligion”: cf. to it Ratzinger 1968, proven less by positive statements against clericalism and p. 118), but as “faith”. dogmatism especially in the Catholic Church, but rather In his overview about the medieval history the far- by his views on religion in general. reaching infl uence of Christianity on man is hardly men- In the light of those statements the representatives tioned by Coubertin. Th at changes when he comes to of the church appear therefore only as welcome confed- speak about the Reformation. It read: Th e Reformation erates, as docile assistants in the pursuit of the Olym- brought in its wake an opposite movement, namely “the pic ideas and as unsuspecting promoters of the Olympic establishment of the ‘Society of Jesu’ and the Council of ideology or “religion”. Only once Coubertin mentions Trent. Th e Council of Trent is perhaps one of the most a contact with the Vatican in April 1923: “Th e members important movements of modern times.” of the IOC … went into the Vatican. Th ere their presi- It changed “religion, politics and philosophy as well dent after a previous long audience received from Pope as literature … Against the exaggeration of the Refor- Pius XI again the assurance that the Olympic thought mation it set the exaggeration of a new dogmatic and ir- had his whole sympathy” [“Erinnerungen I” p. 180]. But reconcilable Catholicism. It drove away the philosophers details of this “long audience” are not known. who had been up to then the worldly companions of theology. It created the index, this dungeon of thoughts, Coubertin’s Views on Christianity and the inquisition, this bloody parody on jurisdiction. and Its Relation to the Body and Finally it killed the Greek genius, banished the ortho- doxy into the Slav world, and let revive Latin infl uences, to Physical Exercises which were refl ected in the following century in literary works of such beauty that the delighted world forgave Time and again Coubertin dealt in his writings with them their emotionally coldness” [“Schule” p. 73–74]. Christianity and its relation to the body and to physical Th e qualifi ed and unqualifi ed reproaches mentioned exercises. As much as he on the one side speaks highly in these sentences, as it were, in one breath, can take of individual personalities and representatives of Chris- away one’s breath. Th e Jesuit Order was in no way found- tianity because of their positive attitude, he has on the ed for the protection against the Reformation, although other side then an almost fundamental distrust – as he it carried later the “counter-reformation” decisively. Th e

26 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Pierre de Coubertin and His Relation to the Catholic Church oldest “index” of books infl icted with censure was pub- body lie precisely in the Greek-Platonic understanding of lished 1544 by the theological faculty of the Paris Uni- the body, in no case however in the Biblical view. Th ere versity; the Trent “index” dates only from the year 1564. the human being is seen in its oneness and wholeness [cf. Th e “inquisition” is not a “child” of the Trent Council, for this Koch 1965 and 1978]. Th e body undervaluation, but came into being already in the time of the high Mid- which is quite present in Christianity up to our time, is dle Ages; in 1231 it got by Gregor IX as its actual task the to be attributed above all to the “Greek genius” sworn to fi ght against the heretics. by Coubertin. His reproach: In any case the inquisition can naturally be charged “One cannot put for centuries the fl eshly human be- with much wrong, so the burning of Giordano Bruno ing under a ban, and then assume the child would not and the condemnation of Galileo’s opinions. But what suff er under this constant curse. One cannot declare hu- is meant with the killing of the “Greek genius” and the mility, obedience and self-degradation to corner pillars “emotional poverty” of the Latinists (the Latin Church?) of the progress of humankind, without steering pedago- as consequence of the Trent Council is nowhere verifi ed. gy into an unnatural direction” [“Schule”, p. 23], (this Which concerns the philosophers who were “driven sentence) is directed against Coubertin himself; this view out” can hardly refer to Descartes, who was a quite faith- is, by the way, in clear contrast to his opinions (stated ful son of the church; and just as little to Blaise Pascal. above) about human sexuality and the education of chil- In the section “Th e Sport in the Change of the Cen- dren and young people, where clearly an “antagonism”, turies” [“Schule”, p. 86–100] Coubertin treats also the yes, even a “dualism” is held. role of the (medieval) church. Th e “sport impulse” of hu- As for the Middle Ages, there Coubertin’s judge- man beings had met an “enemy” that was not less to be ments are wrong. Th e diff erent “physical exercises” were dreaded than the feudal exclusiveness: the church. “From deeply rooted in people’s life and were cultivated over the beginning Christianity has met athleticism with re- centuries. Hence the human body was “neither … rigor- fusal” [“Schule”, p. 92]. ously negated and on principle despised”, but also not, “It fi lled people with more than disdain of their bod- “in the sense of a much later time, regarded as a value ies, namely with disregard. It taught about this body not in itself” [Körbs 1938, p.11]. Obviously Coubertin did only that it was bad from the beginning, but that it was not know the corresponding facts or ignored them. In fi lled with sinful tendencies which were pitfalls for the each case his negative judgements about the Middle Ages soul … Its teachings … caused an imbalance in the hu- show that his historical knowledge is doubtful and be- man nature, the far-ranging consequences of which reach trays clearly the dependence on anti-Christian prejudices up to our days yet.” of the time being. Th ese consequences showed themselves clearly in the Here are added and commentated still other state- “antagonism of spirit and fl esh” [“Schule”, p. 93–94]. ments of Coubertin, which shall prove his view of a sport Th e “contempt” of the body, typical for the Middle Ages, and body-hostile Christianity, respectively church. was a “tremendous mistake” with not to be foreseen “sci- In 1895 he writes in the “bulletin” of the IOC: entifi c and social consequences” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 6]. Th e antique “athleticism let degrade itself to get into For Coubertin it was quite certain anyhow “that Christi- the Roman circus arena. Christianity fi nished it” [“Ol. anity was responsible for the division of man in body and Gedanke”, p. 8]. Similar it read later, “Christianity ex- spirit” [Alkemeyer 1996a, p. 151]; it is about time, “after stinguished fi nally the fl ames on its (i.e. athleticism’s) al- a long and body-hostile and spirit-directed ‘wrong’ age tars” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 129]. Th e Greek “athleticism” of ‘asceticism’ to realize the harmony of body and soul” and the Roman “circus” were two completely diff erent [Wirkus 1992, p. 309]. things. Th at is by the way also the reason why the Greek Th at the Church Fathers rejected the late antique “athletics” survived the Roman “circus” – for instance in athleticism is an uncontested fact. With this refusal the “Olympiads” living on in the neighbourhood of An- they were in “good society” – for instance of a Seneca or tiochia in Syria. a Marc Aurel. Th eir refusal was thereby however primar- In connection with his visit by Pope Pius X in the ily for the cult of idols, which was e.g. connected with year 1905 Coubertin writes that there existed a “Bible the antique plays, but also for the brutal and degenerate word which can be interpreted as complete condemna- business of the gladiators. Th at they condemned there- tion of sport”; as proof he cites the expression “pride fore also body care and physical exercises, yes, even called of the body”, “one of the worst sources of sin” [“Kam- the body in itself wicked, is not only an unproven asser- pagne”, p. 143]. tion, but has to be decidedly rejected on grounds of the A speech in 1918 in Lausanne reads likewise, “Chris- evidence of the Christian literature. tianity has given athletism ‘the mortal blow’”. Th en he What is more, if there are statements of Church Fa- says: “It is remarkable to see that the church … showed thers and church writers with a body-devaluating ten- itself severe toward the physical culture, for it pursued dency, then the reasons for this undervaluation of the here the source of that ‘pride of life’ which the scripture

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 27 Alois Koch condemned” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 53f] Above [p. 47] has delightful experiencing of that desired harmony, “an ex- been stated already that this interpretation does by no perience of earthly bliss, a paganism which has to retain means justice to the matter treated in the text. humanity, because it represents an ideal of human life In the same speech of Coubertin is said further: fulfi lment” [Malter 1996, p. 10–11]. “Th e sport impulse would have spread in the Middle Whether Coubertin’s conceptions of a “harmony be- Ages over whole Europe. But it was oppressed by feudal- tween spirit and body” and of a “eurhythmics of life” lead ism, and after the church had broken away from chival- nevertheless to a “cult of the body”, hence “get stuck in ry, it returned again to its distrust of physical culture in the body cult”, one may diff er in opinion. Laudable is which it seemingly noticed a dangerous forerunner of in- at any rate Coubertin’s conviction that the sportsman is dependent thinking” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 55]. a “human being of discipline and knows the borders of How far the church (just in the high and late Mid- mere sensual happiness”; the sport saves from “the intel- dle Ages it was a very heterogeneous creation – according lectual-arrogant contempt of the body, and what is more, to the countries in which it existed) had in the physical from the destruction of body and spirit by sensual plea- culture to fear a “dangerous forerunner of independent sure” [Malter 1996, p. 14–15]. thinking”, one were glad to hear. But there are no ade- quate proofs, because there are none. Coubertin’s “Muscle Religion” – Th e time of Renaissance was deeply moulded by an Aff ront Against Christianity Christianity and nevertheless not an enemy of “indepen- dent thinking” [cf. Körbs 1938]. As you know, Coubertin understood Olympism as “re- Th at Coubertin criticizes the Christian view of the ligion”: “Th e fi rst and substantial element of the old as body, respectively its body undervaluation is indisput- well as of the new Olympism is: to be a religion” [“Erin- able. In many details this criticism is certainly also cor- nerungen I”, p. 217]. Yes, he calls Olympism a “philo- rect and qualifi ed. He does it however on the background sophical religious doctrine” [cited by Eyquem 1972, p. of his own clearly dualistic view of man’s bodily being. 243]. Th e members of the IOC represent for him a “col- Characteristic for that is this statement: legium of priests”, that has however to keep its independ- “Spirit-soul and character are riders who ride the ani- ence and may neither let itself be guided “by a fl at pursuit mal body that is stronger than they, and to the arbitrari- of profi t nor by artifi cial cravings for acknowledgment” ness of which they would fi nd themselves delivered, if they [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 143 f]. would not bridle it with an art that suffi ces to steer and But this view of Olympism as religion does not drop tame its strength” [cited by Malter 1971, p. 28, note 42]. “from the sky”; it is rather prepared in his thinking, i.e. in Even clearer, and more shocking reads another text: his mental development. Hence it is appropriate to take “Now fl esh, feeling and instinct gain the victory, now it fi rst notice of Coubertin’s view on “religion” generally. is gained by spirit, will and consciousness; because exact- Important statements are in his contribution “Moral In- ly these two despots are fi ghting in us for the fi rst rank, struction and Religion” [“Schule”, p. 150–159]. and their quarrel tears us often up in a cruel way” [“Ol. In his understanding of “religion” he is obviously Gedanke”, p. 127]. Also Plato could not have formulated crucially infl uenced by August Comte (1798–1857) and the anthropological dualism more clearly. Hippolyte Taine (1828–1893), who lectured at the “Col- Malter refers in this connection to the origin of this lege for Political Sciences” in Paris and was a representa- view, hence from where this dualistic conception of hu- tive of “applied positivism” [Boulongne 1996, p. 39]; at man nature comes. Coubertin was rooted in the Carte- this “school” Coubertin got his academic formation. sian view: “His considerations” were “always lead by Des- For Coubertin it is necessary to direct the view not cartes’ duality of res cogitans and res extensa”; the “unity “rigidly to the religion familiar to him”; he had to shake of man” was “a totality consisting of two parts” [Malter “the barriers into which the churches tried to restrain 1996, p. 9]. Hence one demanded the “harmonization” the thirst for knowledge”. As chains proved for him the of body and spirit: church “doctrine” or the “dogma”, as it is expressed espe- “Not according to the subjective intention, but cially in the “Credos”; they are too close “for a half-way probably to the matter in question Coubertin’s ‘Olymp- emancipated thinking, and for research: For people with ism’ is the doctrine of ‘brotherhood between spirit and a free spirit the doors of the houses of God closed. … body’. Hence the attempt to overcome the Cartesian de- Th ey do no longer try to get into the places of worship spair at a seemingly indissoluble aff air – the separation but meet all around. Th ere some of them erect lonesome of res cogitans and res extensa – by practising (sport)”; altars. … Th e service to the ‘universal God’ is born.” Sporting activities off er people the possibility to bring Th is change, comparable to an earthquake, had hap- to an end this separation of body and spirit”: “Sport can pened by the infl uence of science, and had not stopped impart the experience of a completed harmony between before the churches. “Here does not emerge a new re- spirit and body.” Th e “eurhythmics of life” is the bodily- ligion, but new views of religion and its practice, new

28 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Pierre de Coubertin and His Relation to the Catholic Church kinds of faith and hope.” In any case, one can see “the only one cornerstone, only one principal stay, namely strengthening and renewal of the religious feeling, a fact the Dead cult. All institutions – dogmas, rites, priests – the importance of which for pedagogy may not be ig- strive for this aim, to draw time and again strength there” nored” [“Schule”, p. 150–152]. Into which “direction” [“Achtung”, p. 17]. Th us this “Dead cult” implies “the the eff ort is to go, Coubertin says in the following sen- highest religion of mankind, it stands above all church- tence: es … and neither logic nor refl ection, nor any discov- “I do not belong to those who believe that mankind ery can stand their ground against it” [“Achtung”, p. 16]. can get along without religion. I take the word here in “A church is a union of people who are united by hope.” its most general sense, not as belief in a certain form of Th is “hope for a subsequent existence” is the “large res- the divine reality, but as turn to the ideal of a higher life, ervoir of religious thinking” [“Achtung”, p. 18]. Also the as the desire for perfection” [cited from Eyquem 1972, Christian religion with its diff erent ramifi cations is the p. 109]. materialization of that thinking. For the education of the juvenile conscience above To this view of Coubertin is to be said fi rst: Th ere all “the idea of God, in its superabundance and its natu- is a large diff erence between the “hope for an eternal ral purity” is indispensable. Th is “moral instruction” may life”, as it is characteristic for Christianity, and the “Dead however in no way be guided “by the dogmatic teaching cult”. Th is is – at least in the modern religion sociology method of the church. … – understood as “ritual actions on dead human beings” It is not his task to enumerate dogmas and even less and as “post-mortal ritual veneration” [Bürkle 2001, p. to compare them with each other”; what young peo- 127]. In this sense the “Dead cult” has certainly a great ple need is “a clear and worthy representation of moral, importance in many religions, particularly in the “nature based on the idea of God” [“Schule”, p. 157]; a “moral religions”, the more so as to the dead is attributed an im- instruction under exclusion of the idea of God” is impos- portance for their descendants. Of course, the Christians sible [“Schule”, p. 196]. too kept the memory of the dead in honour, for instance Th ese statements of Coubertin about “religion” are by the celebration of the “All Soul’s Day” or “Memorial not the attempt to defi ne “religion” from “religious con- Day”. Th e reference point or the actual “reference per- tents”, but rather from its “functions”. For him above son” of the Christian faith is however not a dead body all the imparting of moral belongs to these “functions”; but a “living person”. Th erefore Coubertin’s thesis that from this viewpoint the Christian religion can only ap- also the Christian religion originated in the Dead cult pear as a “divine educational establishment”. Hence it fi nds no support in the modern religion sociology. is not the duty of the priest “to preach the gospel but to It is to be pointed to a further important diff erence preach the moral law”; in this task he may not let himself of “Olympismus” to Christian thinking yet. Th e histori- be lead “by the dogmatic teaching method of the church” cal understanding in Christian thinking is “linear”, “es- [“Schule”, p. 157]. Th e Christian religion is reduced for chatological”: Th e historical time moves toward an end. Coubertin to the love of one’s neighbour. Eyquem writes But Coubertin’s historical understanding is “cyclic”: in her biography: “Love of the neighbour is the main- “Th e affi nity to a … revolving time model is unmistak- stay of Coubertin’s whole work. He is deeply moulded by able” [Alkemeyer 1996a, p. 154]. One could interpret Christ’s teachings, even if he makes reservations to what therefore this view as a relapse into mythic thinking. In has become of it in the course of time” [Eyquem 1972, p. “Olympism” appear – in view of disenchantment and 126] He does not want to be argued out of acknowledg- diff erentiation, rationalization and mechanization – “the ing “the good that the spirit of the gospel created in re- longings for a remythologization” [Alkemeyer 1996a, p. gard to the social reality” [“Achtung”, p. 29]. 161–162]. Th e “mythic thinking” is represented “by the Here it becomes clearly recognizable how Coubertin course of the stadium, a course that returns to its begin- is coined by the ideas of the French “Enlightenment”. Th e ning” [Gebauer 1996, p. 15]. Christian revelation religion had lost for him all “super- In Coubertin’s statements about “religion” appears natural” elements, and is limited to a few, rationally com- a fundamental diff erence of thinking. “Religion” is for prehensible and approachable truths, namely fi rst to the him primarily – as has already been explained – a “reli- existence of a God, who is understood as the highest and gious feeling” which manifests itself in “rituals” and “cer- infi nitely good being, and as guarantor of moral, and then emonies”, not least in the love of one’s neighbour. to the obligation of all people to love and respect each Th e concept “religion” includes however more, and other. Religion and Christianity have for Coubertin only something else. “Religion” is a way of human existing by a “social integration value” [Alkemeyer 1996b, p. 76]. the relation to a last “sense reason”, which as the creating Characteristic in this connection is also Coubertin’s and sense-giving absolute reality concerns the interpreta- view of the nature of the Christian churches. For him it tion of all beings. Th is existing by a ‘sense reason’, expe- seems to be a fact that the churches (like all “religions”) rienced and accepted as “absolute”, respectively “uncon- developed on the ground of the “Dead cult”: Th ere was ditioned” valid, corresponds to the existential reference

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 29 Alois Koch to a “sphere of the absolute”. In this sense also “atheistic” ing up Olympic fi re” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 133]. Charac- world views are to be understood and named as “religion”, teristic is also his “Ode to the Sport”, in which the “reli- if they want to impart to their “faithful” a “sense of life”. gion of muscle power” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 47], hence of Here has also to be pointed to an important fact. a biologism of Darwinian coinage, is clearly expressed. Christianity did not defi ne itself with the term “religion” Coubertin is in no way interested in any kind of tran- (as it e.g. applies to Greece and Rome), but with the term scendence, but in the “cult of man”: “faith” [cf. Ratzinger 1968, p. 25]. “Th ere is “a paganism – the true one – from which “Religion” and “faith” are in no way identical. Th e mankind will never free itself and – I dare the seeming Christian “faith” does not exist primarily in a system of blasphemy – from which a release would by no means be rites and behaviours which express a “religious feeling”; good: I mean the cult of the ‘human being’, of the hu- it means rather the option that the reality which makes man body, of spirit and fl esh, feeling and will, instinct possible a true human existence is a personal vis-à-vis and consciousness” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 127]. who revealed itself in Jesus of Nazareth and with whom One gets indeed the impression, as if even the men- the believer gets in touch. tion of God’s name in the early years (as the “reason” of Coubertin’s “religion” or “Olympism” has nothing to any moral) was later replaced by the cult of the “human do with the Christian view of religion and faith; one may being”: man should be for man “the highest being”. To not lose sight of that, as it apparently happens by Hör- adapt the sport religion of neo-Olympism to the mod- rmann [1968] [cf. Spitzer 2003, p. 68–69]; it gets along ern times “Coubertin replaced the gods of the antique without “transcendence”, hence “without a revealing by myths of the modernity: on the one hand by ‘na- God”. What Coubertin understands “as religion must be tion’, on the other hand by the universal concept ‘high- considered as an atheistic atrophy stage of a phenomenon est being=human being’. In neo-Olympism sport is in- that has been handed down within the history of civiliza- terpreted by Coubertin simultaneously as service for tion” [Stygermeer 1999, p. 157]. the ‘native country, the race and the fl ag’” [Alkemeyer We meet these ideas of Enlightenment also after the 1996a, p. 179–180]: French Revolution, e.g. by Augusts Comte who wanted “Th ere is only one cult that can cause today a durable to establish his sociology as a “human science similar to connection of the citizens, namely that which will devel- religion, and as the crown in the hierarchy of all scienc- op around the sporting exercises of the youth, the sym- es” [Weis 1995, p. 139], and who had a large infl uence bol of the unrestricted survival of the race and the hope on Coubertin with his “religion of humanity”. Th e ad- of the nation” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 67]. miration of the “great nature” of humankind stood in its Do such expressions not arouse the impression of center. Th is “religion” (Comte speaks of the “religion ter- a proximity to an intolerable “social Darwinism”? If the restre”, hence an “earthly religion”: Malter 1971, p. 19) unrestricted “fi ght for existence”, the “struggle for live” is serves the acting of people for the public weal, for which proclaimed [“Kampagne”, p. 146], where remains then he used the expression “altruism”. By it becomes clear the an area for the unfi t, the failures and losers yet? Are “full close “relationship” of Coubertin’s “sport religion” with human beings” only those “who in measuring their abili- Comte’s conceptions of a “civil religion”. ties in the contest with nature and their peers will stand Coubertin followed Comte just in the view that the their ground?” [Herms 1997, p. 66] morbid condition of society could only be overcome when people in a “full altruism” place their strengths to The Presentation of the “Muscle the service of the whole: “Th e society of the future will Religion” in Art be HYPERLINK “http://www.con-spiration.de/texte/ english/structure.html” \l “love” altruistic or it will no In Coubertin’s view of religion became apparent that he longer exist: one has to choose between altruism or cha- was not so much interested in the development of scien- os” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 142]. In another place Coubertin tifi c or philosophical “teachings”. For him “the aesthetic speaks of the “cult of the present life” [“Achtung”, p. 22]: expression and the cult rituals and symbols of the Olym- “Th e cult of the earthly-bodily existence, which con- pic ceremony were far more important than precise defi - sists in the eff ort and in the meditation of this eff ort by nitions of the ‘Olympic idea’”. For this reason he set hi- means of imagination, gets the character of a happening ghest value on the “chapter about the ceremonies” and from which salvation is hoped by the enhancement of the “splendour … of a powerful symbolism” [“Ol. Ge- life” [Malter 1971, p. 21]. danke”, p. 40]. Th is view of “religion”, as it can be seen also by Cou- But how can be represented this hope to heal by bertin [cf. Koch 2002b, p. 93–94], manifests itself in its sport a society threatened by degeneration, and with it understanding of Olympism as “religio athletae” [“Erin- the “cult of the ‘human being’”? For Coubertin therefore nerungen I”, p. 218]. He recommended to a secularized “the chapter about ‘ceremonies’ is … one of the most im- world the “continuation of the service at the again light- portant that we have to arrange” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 40].

30 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Pierre de Coubertin and His Relation to the Catholic Church

According to his opinion this is only possible by the shaped by the National Socialists. Already in the forefi eld interaction of the arts. He sees in the diff erent arts the of the Berlin “plays” he said to Diem in September 1934, guarantee to save the Olympiads “from the everyday life “that he could rely for the time being only on Germany of life purposes, dissonances and discordant notes”; the as guardian of Olympism, because it alone would under- “plays” should penetrate the place and the people with stand the Greeks and would create the new man” [cited a spiritual strength “that fi lls everything and makes di- by Lennartz 2000, p. 211]. vine the whole” [Alkemeyer 1996a, p. 149–150]. After the Olympiad he said enthusiastically that it In the fi rst place Coubertin has in mind there- had been illuminated “by Hitler strength and discipline” by architecture; he demands the spatial separation be- – so in his vote of thanks to the Berlin organizers [cited tween “altis”, i.e. the holy district, and the “profan city”, by Gebauer & Wulf 1996, p. 251]. Hence it does also as it was realized already in the antique Olympia [“Ol. not surprise that Coubertin suggested to the Reichssport- thought”, p. 29]. Architecture should attract “the visi- führer (leader of the German sports) von Tschammer and tors like a place of pilgrimage”, and should inspire “rever- Osten in March 1937 to “establish an institute in Ger- ence” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 27]. many, to which he wanted to leave his letters, record- Whether and to what extent Coubertin was inde- ings and manuscripts about Olympism and the plays” [so pendent in regard to the “Olympic ritual” and his “cer- Diem by Lennartz 2000, p. 219]: emonies” or was infl uenced by contemporary, especial- “I believe that a Centre of Olympic Studies would ly sociological ideas cannot be proved in detail. But fact help … more than anything else to keep alive and to pro- is that there are not only striking parallels in the “pseu- mote my work, and to save it from wrong tracks, as I fear do liturgies” of the French Revolution [cf. Pieper 1964, they might happen” [cited by Lennartz 2000, p. 219 and p. 97–104] or in August Comte’s “Religion of Human- 242]. ity”, in the centre of which stands the ritual veneration of Th e suspicion is not unfounded. All these expres- the “great being”, of mankind [cf. Alkemeyer 1996a, p. sions revealed an essential relationship between Olymp- 163–167]. Above all there are parallels with the sociolo- ism and National Socialism, respectively between those gist Emile Durkheim (1858–1917). two ideologies [cf. also Teichler 1982]: “Th ey met in the For him symbols and rites have a great importance adoration of the body.” [Gebauer & Wulf 1996, p. 16]. for each society. “Only by symbols, rituals and collective customs … can be given to an otherwise abstract com- Recapitulatory Valuation munity a sizable reality” [Alkemeyer 1996 A, p. 168]. Among the diff erent arts Coubertin intended an im- Upon the background of the statements just made in the portant role for music in the Olympic ceremony. Hence last section are to be evaluated the single aspects treated it is not by chance that Coubertin found crucial sugges- in the preceding chapters. tions for it by Richard Wagner (1813–1883). As you Obviously Coubertin has already early given up the know, he was deeply impressed by Wagner’s music dra- faith of his childhood and youth. So it is quite astonish- mas. In 1904 Coubertin did not participate in the Ol- ing that he did not know or ignore e.g. the Christian ympiad in Saint Louis. Instead he was with his wife in doctrine that God’s creation as whole is good, hence also Bayreuth, and became enthusiastic at the “deeply moving the human body. Responsible for that could primarily be sounds” [“Erinnerungen I”, p. 70] of Wagner’s “Lohen- his study at the “University for Social Sciences”. He ad- grin”. Hence Wagner’s music dramas inspired him for his mits: “I left the university as an enlightened spirit” [cited conceptions of Olympic “ceremonies”. Obviously he had from Eyquem 1972, p. 64]. a liking for the “Wagnerian aesthetics” – for him “a dog- Coubertin was pupil of the Jesuit College Saint Igna- ma that gets more and more convinced followers” [“Ol. tius in the Rue de Madrid in Paris. By his former teach- Gedanke”, p. 42]. ers he met deaf ears with his ideas of “school sport” and Th at means for Alkemeyer: “In deliberate contrast to “physical culture”. One gets the impression that he to all a word- and writing culture led by the intellect, Couber- those who did not agree to his educational opinions im- tin designed the Olympic ceremony therefore as Wagne- puted a fundamental refusal of body care and physical rian synthesis of the arts. In Wagner’s Bayreuth … the exercises. Add to this that the concept “sport” was (and ‘Olympic horizon’ had opened to him for the fi rst time is) so imprecise that by it could be understood very dif- before his mental eye”. [Alkemeyer 1996a, p. 148]. ferent exercises, plays and competitions. Just Coubertin Wagner intended and aimed at “an alliance of art is a good example for the fact that the most diff erent and cult”; for him it was a matter of a “lively represented forms of physical exercises – particularly in the fi rst years religion” [Alkemeyer 1996a, p. 151]. Here lies the origin of his “campaign” – were termed “sport”. Th at his for- for the arrangement of the Olympic ceremony. mer teachers did not want to “give their blessing” to ev- No wonder that Coubertin was deeply impressed by erything is therefore quite understandable. Th ereby one the opening ceremonies of the Olympiad 1936 in Berlin, should also consider that Coubertin’s “evaluations” of the

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 31 Alois Koch plays in the Jesuit Colleges were made from the distance are the “icons”, the “incarnations”, the “sample copies” of twenty fi ve years. of mankind” [Alkemeyer 1996a, p. 182]. “Sport is trans- Contrary to the Jesuits who obviously did not share fi gured … to the source of all good deeds, to the spring Coubertin’s view of “sport”, he praised several representa- of beauty and justice, courage and honour, fertility and tives of the Catholic Church, particularly the Dominican progress, peace and joy” [Alkemeyer 1996a, p. 87] Th is Henri Didon and Pope Pius X. In them he found – that “message”, this “sporting gospel” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 52], was his impression – promoters and advocates of his ed- this “model of modernity which should get a sense caus- ucational ideas about school sport and sport in general. ing function” [Alkemeyer 1996b, p. 79], is unacceptable But to fi nd out which “motives” both sides had in not only for Christians. their meetings is very diffi cult. Th e suspicion that Cou- Th at Coubertin possessed “the mental format of bertin looked for allies for his eff orts cannot be denied. a universal historian” as Diem writes [1965, p. 8], seems One has nearly the impression he had “pocketed” the quite doubtful when one reads his historical studies deal- representatives of the church for his movement. Th is ing with the valuation of body care and physical exercis- assumption is also suggested by the statement of Carl es. His statements have substantial shortcomings – not Diem, Coubertin’s personal friend, that Coubertin had only because he could not know some research results been a clever tactician; he had been blessed with the yet, for instance Körbs’ studies about the Middle Ages “smartness of an advocate”, and had skilfully “camou- and Renaissance [Körbs 1938], but also for the reason fl aged” his projects [Diem 1971, p. 1136]. What is more, that he mostly did not prove his assertions. Lämmer says Coubertin had “in a mixture of cleverness Th ere is e.g. no text of a Christian writer of the an- and romantic glorifi cation … straightened the antiquity tiquity and the Middle Ages, that says that the human so as he needed it for his noble aims” [Lämmer 2003, p. body is in itself bad or wicked. One fails to see in this 136]. connection the appropriate detailed authorities, and the Reversely one can certainly assume that Didon and naming of the authors who represented these “doctrines”. all the more Pius X did probably not see what really mat- Obviously Coubertin dealt “very freely with the histori- tered to Coubertin; that they understood by “sport” cal truth, partly from ignorance, partly from calculation” something else; that one wanted to “attach oneself” per- [Lämmer 2003, p. 135]. haps from opportunism to the Olympic movement, in Coubertins sweeping statements disqualify him order not to lose the connection to the modern time. But therefore as historian. He got his ‘knowledge’ seemingly at any rate, one cannot duplicate Coubertin’s statement only from a – also for the historian doubtful – second- from the year 1929, that the Pope had given his bless- ary literature. Yet the source material would have been at ing to his “renewal based on paganism” [“Ol. Gedanke”, his disposal, especially the Christian texts of the fi rst mil- p. 136]. Th en indeed Weis would be right with his re- lennium in the Migne volumes. In this connection the mark that Christianity had obviously no longer protest- statement is of interest that Coubertin’s knowledge of the ed “against the modern humanistic athletic neo-pagan- Greek antiquity consisted “obviously substantially from ism” [Weis 1995, p. 139]; it had betrayed and forgot- the Greek and Latin school reading, the rhetoric and his- ten the overcoming of the mythical thinking of antiquity, tory lessons at the Jesuit College in Paris” [Müller 1997, reached by many fi ghts and victims. p. 7]. Diem already had noticed by a visit in Lausanne: At many points becomes clear: the Olympism, as “Th e library is rather thin – only a large chest of drawers” Coubertin wanted and understood it, does not know [cited by Lennartz 2000, p. 202]. transcendence in the Christian sense. Christianity and Obviously Coubertin is so prepossessed in favour of the Christian churches with their faith convictions are his Enlightenment prejudices that he is unable critical- therefore by Coubertin in increasing measure misunder- ly to question or verify his judgements. History is ap- stood, yes, even clearly refused. To call him even a “con- parently for Coubertin only interesting as “instrument vinced Christian” [see Stygermeer 1999, p. 158], is there- of a present-referred moral-social activism”, hence in its fore impossible. Th e Christian transcendental thinking “usability for the present” [Malter 1971, p. 4], and thus is foreign to him; yes, he stands in a clear “opposition to only as “means” to justify his reform ideas, in particular the genuine religiosity of transcendence” [Wirkus 1990, his Olympism: “To celebrate the Olympiad means to ap- p. 119]. peal to history” [“Ol. Gedanke”, p. 154]. Th e character- Th is fact of an internal distance to Christianity can- ization just of this procedure by Wirkus is therefore cor- not be overlooked. “In Olympia the people celebrate rect: “Coubertin’s conception of history is from the be- themselves. A religion without God leads to the divin- ginning ‘coloured’ by his aim utopia” [Wirkus 1992, p. ization of man and its performance.” [Moltmann 1989, 308]. He was not interested in a rational analysis of facts, p. 435] Th e Olympic top-performance sportsmen are but in changing the existing conditions. He is “pragma- therefore for Couberitin “the earthly representatives of tist and voluntarist” [Wirkus 1990, p. 112], who as a “re- the highest being of the Olympic muscle religion”; they viver … did only obey his instinct that was even more

32 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Pierre de Coubertin and His Relation to the Catholic Church powerful than his will” [cited by Zentner 1935, p. 45]. Secondary Literature Th is characterization too refers to an internal relation- Alkemeyer T. [1996a] Körper, Kult und Politik. Von der “Muskel- ship with National Socialist conceptions. Religion” Pierre de Coubertins zur Inszenierung von Macht With his historical judgements about religion and in den Olympischen Spielen von 1936, Frankfurt/Main. Alkemeyer T. [1996b] Die Wiederbegründung der Olympis- Christianity in general and about the valuation of the chen Spiele als Fest einer Bürgerreligion. Olympische Spiele body and the physical exercises above all by the Catho- – die andere Utopie der Moderne, Gebauer G. (ed.), Frank- lic Church, Coubertin infl uenced and moulded genera- furt/Main, pp. 65–100. tions of sport scientists. Here has certainly to be named Archiv der Französischen Jesuitenprovinz Paris: Mitteilungen Carl Diem. But even still in recent time the long-known vom 19.11.2002 und 10.01.2003. thesis of a body-hostile Christianity is repeated; so when Boulongne Y.-P. [1996] Coubertins multikultureller Olympis- Jacob denounced “the still today substantial body hostil- mus. Auf der Suche nach der Olympischen Idee, Müller N., ity” especially of the Catholic Church [Jacob 1994, p. Messing M. (eds.), Kassel, pp. 39–47. 210]. It is time to dissociate oneself from those inappro- Bürkle H. [2001] article “Totenkult”. Lexikon für Th eologie und Kirche, (3. edition), vol. 10, Freiburg, pp. 127–129. priate sweeping statements. Still the false conclusion is Delattre P. [1955] Les établissements des Jesuites en France depuis drawn, the lower valuation of the human body (in rela- quatre Siècles. Tome 3, Wetteren (Belgien). tion to the spirit or soul) meant contempt of the body or Diem C. [1965] Pierre de Coubertin: Diem, C., Gedanken zur hostility against it, and therefore the condemnation of Sportgeschichte, Schorndorf, pp. 7–29. physical exercises. Diem C. [1971] Weltgeschichte des Sports, 2 Bände. Stuttgart. One is unable to resist the impression that Cou- Eyquem M.-T. [1972] Pierre de Coubertin. Ein Leben für die Ju- bertin – convinced of the “gospel” of Olympism, and gend der Welt, Dortmund. seeing himself in the role of the “preacher” – saw his mis- Gebauer G., Wulf C. [1996] Olympia als Utopie. Olympische Spiele – die andere Utopie der Moderne, Gebauer G. (ed.), sion therein to convert everybody to the “universal re- Frankfurt, pp. 9–23. ligion of Olympism”. He knew only “confessors”. Th e Gebauer G., Wulf C. [1996] Die Berliner Olympiade – Spiele sceptics and doubter, the denier of his “gospel” are ‘sen- der Gewalt. Olympische Spiele – die andere Utopie der Mod- tenced’: they did not recognize the signs of the time. erne, Gebauer G. (ed.),Frankfurt, pp. 247–255. Finally there suggests itself still another conclusion. If Herms E. [1997] Die olympische Bewegung der Neuzeit. So- in the few points addressed in this essay, already several er- zialpolitisches Programm und reale Entwicklung. Olym- rors, misunderstandings and unproven statements are evi- pischer Sport. Rückblick und Perspektiven, Grupe O. (ed.), dent, then that may be the case in other problem fi elds too. Schorndorf, pp. 53–69. It is time to make this critical “stock-taking” of Cou- Hörrmann M. [1968] Religion der Athleten, Stuttgart. Jacob S. [1994] Sport im 20. Jahrhundert, Münster. bertin’s thinking. By it would also be seen that the found- Koch A. [1965] Die Leibesübungen im Urteil der antiken und er of the modern Olympiad had neither the quality of frühchristlichen Anthropologie, Schorndorf. a “genius”, nor that of a “universal historian”. [cf. Diem Koch A. [1978] “Leibesübungen” im Frühchristentum und 1965, p. 7–9] in der beginnenden Völkerwanderungszeit, Geschichte Th en his fi gure will step out “from the sacral twi- der Leibesübungen, Ueberhorst H. (ed.), vol. 2, Berlin, p. light” [Alkemeyer 1996a, p. 44]. 312–340. He will appear then as a man who – despite his due Koch A. [2002] Das biblische Menschenbild und seine Bedeu- to present-day conditioned conceptions and ideas, yes, tung für die Wertung der Leiblichkeit und der Leibesübun- despite various mistakes – was one of the great activators gen. Begegnung, Schwank W., Koch A. (eds.), Volume 2, Aachen, pp. 51–78. for the cultivation of physical exercises and today’s sport. Koch A. [2002a] Leibesübungen, Spiel und Sport im Urteil ausgewählter Schriften der katholischen Moraltheologie. Begegnung, Schwank W., Koch A. (ed.), vol. 3, Aachen, References pp. 64–95. Koch A. [2002b] Sport als säkulare Religion, Stimmen der Zeit, Writings of Pierre de Coubertin 127, pp. 90–102. Hojer E. (ed.) [1972] Schule, Sport, Erziehung. Gedanken zum Koch A. [2003] Spiel und Sport am Jesuitenkolleg “Stella Ma- öff entlichen Erziehungswesen cited “Schule”, Schorndorf. tutina” in Feldkirch. Begegnung, Schwank W., Koch A. Einundzwanzig Jahre Sportkampagne (1887–1908) [1974] (cit- (eds.), Volume 4, Aachen, pp. 13–35. ed “Kampagne”), Ratingen. Körbs W. [1938] Vom Sinn der Leibesübungen zur Zeit der ital- Die gegenseitige Achtung [1988] cited “Achtung”. St. Augustin. ienischen Renaissance, Berlin. Diem C. (ed.) [1959] Olympische Erinnerungen (2. edition), Krüger A. [1980] Neo-Olympismus zwischen Nationalismus cited “Erinnerungen I”). Frankfurt/Main. und Internationalismus. Geschichte der Leibesübungen, Ue- Diem C. (ed.) [1996] Olympische Erinnerungen (cited “Erin- berhorst H. (ed.), vol. 3/1, Berlin, pp. 522–568. nerungen II”). Frankfurt/Main. Lämmer M. [2003] “Ewiges Olympia?” Entstehung und Zer- Diem C. (ed.) [1967] Der Olympische Gedanke. Reden und Auf- fall eines kultischen Sportfestes – Die olympische Idee der sätze. (cited “Ol. Gedanke”), Schorndorf. Neuzeit. Griechenland. Begegnung mit Geschichte, Kultur

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 33 Alois Koch

und Menschen, Gallas K., Klemm U.-D., Stuttgart, pp. Pouret H. [1973] Les maitres à penser de Pierre de Coubertin. 133–151. Olympic Academy Report (French edition). (pp. 80–88): Lenk H. [1976] Zu Coubertins olympischen Elitismus, likewise Athen 1978, pp. 123–127. Sportwissenschaft, 6, (1976). Ratzinger J. [1968] Einführung in das Christentum, München. Lennartz K. [2000] Begegnungen. Carl Diem und Pierre de Schwank W. [1979] Kirche und Sport in Deutschland von 1848– Coubertin. Stadion, 26, pp. 193–244. 1920, Hochheim. Lochmann M. [2000] Die pädagogische Grundlage des olym- Schwank W. [1996] Pius X. und Pierre de Coubertin – ein pischen Wahlspruchs “citius, altius, fortius” im Werk Begegnung im Zeichen Olympias. “Forum Kirche und seines Urhebers Henri Didon. Begegnung, Schwank W., Sport” – Schriftenreihe der Wissenschaftlichen Kommission Koch A. (eds.), vol 2, Aachen, pp. 9–34. des Arbeitskreises “Kirche und Sport” der katholischen Kirche Malter R. [1971] Der “Olympismus” Pierre de Coubertins, Köln. Deutschlands, vol. 2, Düsseldorf, pp. 29–56. Malter R. [1996] “Eurhythmie des Lebens” als Ideal menschli- Spitzer G. [2003] Baron Pierre de Coubertins Konzept der cher Existenz. Auf der Suche nach der Olympischen Idee, Religion der Athleten und die Rezeption in Kirche und Müller N., Messing M. (eds.), Kassel, pp. 9–15. Sport. Körper, Sport und Religion – Interdisziplinäre Be- Moltmann J. [1989] Olympia zwischen Politik und Religion. iträge, Ulrichs H.G. (ed.), Idstein, pp. 67–82. Concilium 25, pp. 432–437. Stygermeer M. [1999] Der Sport und seine Ethik. Zur Grundle- Müller N. [1996] Henri Didon. Der Urheber der olympischen gung einer Dogmatik des Sports, Berlin. Devise “citius, altius, fortius”. Auf der Suche nach der Olym- Teichler H.J. [1982] Coubertin und das Dritte Reich, Sportwis- pischen Idee, Müller N., Messing M. (eds.), Kassel, pp. 49– senschaft, 12, pp. 18–55. –62. Weis K. [1995] Sport und Religion. Sport als soziale Institu- Müller N. [1997] Coubertin und die Antike, Nikephoros 10 (p. tion im Dreieck zwischen Zivilreligion, Ersatzreligion und 289 ff .). Here cited from the manuscript, pp. 1–15. körpererlebter Religion. Soziologie des Sports, Winkler J. Müller N. [1981] article “Olympische Erziehung”. Lexikon der (ed.), Opladen, pp. 127–150. Ethik im Sport, , Grupe O., Mieth D. (eds.), Schorndorf, Wirkus B. [1992] “Werden wie die Griechen”, Stadion, 16, pp. 385–395. pp. 103–128. Pieper J. [1964] Zustimmung zur Welt. Eine Th eorie des Festes. Wirkus B. [1992] Olympismus als Geschichtsphilosophie und (2. edition). München. Ideologie: Koordinaten einer philosophischen Standort- Platz H. [1931] Ein französischer Vorkämpfer des katholischen bestimmung. Stadion, 16, pp. 302–325. Fortschritts: Henri Didon. Hochland, 28 (1931), pp. 338– Zentner K. [1935] Pierre de Coubertin. Ein Beitrag zur En- –351. twicklung des modernen Sports, Borna-Leipzig.

34 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Olympism and Olympic Education in Poland – State of Art

Michał Bronikowski*, Małgorzata Bronikowska** * Department of Methodology of Teaching Physical Education Eugeniusz Piasecki University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland ** Department of Olympism and Ethnology of Sport, Eugeniusz Piasecki University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland

Summary Paper describes situation of research studies, educational and organizational activities concerning Olympism and Olympic Education undertaken in Poland in the last two decades. It begins with a short outline of selected historical facts on developing Olympism in Polish political and social circumstances, coming to the defi nition of Olympism and Olympic education from Polish perspective. In the next paragraphs authors describe programmes, activities, and other initiatives related to promotion of Olympic idea in educational contexts. This part provides also critical revision of teaching resources available for teachers, educators but also institutions dealing with youth sports. Finally, there are the most important research fi ndings concerning various age categories, presented in table in a concise form. Keywords: Olympism, Olympic education, state-of-art.

Introduction whole ‘land’ of human physical culture. He also warns against misinterpreting sport education and Olympic ed- Th e offi cial defi nition of Olympism and Olympic educa- ucation. Th ose two pathways in educations can only be tion from the IOC Charter is widely recognized and ac- put together (or parallel as complimentary forms of edu- cepted in Poland: cation) if they are built around the same universal values Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and com- that apply to all domains of human activity and if they bining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will comprise the same behaviours. However, if sport educa- and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, tion shifts away from universal values, creating ‘a zone of Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of sport-specifi c regulations’ which does not apply to the eff ort, the educational value of good example, social re- life outside the sporting arena, it teaches young athletes sponsibility and respect for universal fundamental ethi- that there are two levels of norms and values. If we ex- cal principles [Olympic Charter 2013]. pect them to behave accordingly to Olympic one which Żukowska [1994] sees Olympic education as a pro- is Fair play as a code of behaviour we need to deliver it cess which needs to be considered at two diff erent levels: to them fi rst. One can easily observe that sport education I) as a part of overall preparation system for the Olympic tends to be less demanding in cultural, moral and social Games happening in the cities (more often countries) or- aspects but more demanding in biological ones. Th ere- ganizing particular games; II) as a part of general educa- fore, it is no wonder that youths often choose to follow tion system aimed at self-development of certain (Olym- the ‘winning at all cost’ Lombardian philosophy of play- pic) standards of behaviour in youth achieved by an inte- ing and strict sport competition with a fi nal segregation grated, refl ective teaching of values. on winners and losers that drains the rest of their moti- Lipiec [1999, 2007] extends this defi nition when he vation, disabling them to climb the ‘steep hill’ of uni- says that modern Olympism covers all facts in the do- versal values. Th us there is a space for Olympic educa- main of human physicality, ranging not just over the tion, which includes the need for education around the ‘territories’ mapped with the Olympic logo, but also far universal values (peace, love, solidarity), through those beyond the notion of sport (Olympic sport), over the values and to the Olympic values like excellence, respect

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 35 Michał Bronikowski, Małgorzata Bronikowska and friendship in mutual understanding, truly universal map. It even became the main reason for organizing Pol- in their humanistic sense. ish Olympic Committee which was fi rst called the Com- More recently Pawłucki [2007] has described Olym- mittee for Preparation of the Polish Delegation for Par- pic education as a part of ‘Olympic culture’ into which ticipation in Olympic Games (Games of Antwerp 1920). a child is initiated by a teacher in the early phases of edu- Unfortunately the Committee did not manage to send cation. Later, the responsibility for education according any Polish athletes to the Games in Antwerp). In Decem- to Olympic, universal, values is shared between teachers ber 1919, the Committee was re-named the Polish Com- and pupils to engage them their self-development. Th ere- mittee of the Olympic Games, to be fi nally called Polish fore Olympic education needs to be designed in a way to Olympic Committee in October 1924. provide parallel Olympic-related experience and critical In 1916 Młodzież polska a igrzyska olimpijskie (Pol- refl ection about it whilst taking into consideration the ish Youth and Olympic Games), the fi rst book concern- phases of pupils’ development. On the other side there is ing Olympic matters, was published in Polish in Warsaw also a School Olympic Club “Jantar”, which exemplifi es by Biernacki. In the book, the author tried to encourage Olympic education in the most practical way – through the Polish youth to participate in a big sporting event, the Olympic journey from one Olympic game to anoth- such as the Olympic Games were considered to be at that er always with a group of school children from the small time already. Two years later (1918) a magazine, “Sport rural village of Racot, Poland (this will be described in Polski” was launched with the purpose of promotion of more detail later in the chapter). sports, especially Olympic sports. It is worth to say that from the very beginning, the Historical record of Olympic education Polish Olympic Committee paid special attention to the in Poland connection between Olympism and art, believing that this is one of the ways of developing appreciation for the Th e historical roots of Olympism in Poland can be traced mind and the soul and an aesthetic for the beauty united back to 1924, when the term fi rst appeared in the week- and developed harmoniously through body movement. ly sports magazine “Stadjon”. It described (modern) Offi cially from 1928 to 1948 Poland participated in eve- Olympism as something which happens not only once ry Olympic Art Competition gaining altogether three in a four-year interval of the Olympic Games, but also gold, two silver, and three bronze medals along with elev- as a direction in which sport should be developed if one en other awards*. Th ose prizes were gained by the most wants to provide athletes and sportsmen with the ability outstanding Polish artists (poets, composers, architects, and knowledge to participate in international competi- painters) who promoted the ideals of Olympism in Pol- tions, and yet win [“Stadjon” 21 VIII 1924, no 34, pp. ish society. Interestingly, the Polish Olympic Committee 2–3, after Lipoński 2000, p. 15]. was one of the very few committees who carried on with However, information about the Olympic Games the Olympic Art Content when it was cancelled from the had been published in local newspapers even earlier. offi cial Olympic programmes. It was (and still is) consid- News from 1896 Athens Games were printed in Kraków’s ered as an important part of sound human development newspaper “Czas”, and information from 1900 Paris on the base of humanistic, universal values. In 1969 an Games in “Przegląd gimnastyczny”. Th at was in Galicia international painting contest ‘World of Peace’ was or- then under Austro-Hungarian jurisdiction. In Poznań ganized by Polish Olympic Committee, which gathered (known then as Posen under German control) informa- paintings from 1200 children around the world. Still to- tion about the fi rst Games were published in “Dziennik day, a Wawrzyn Olimpijski (an Olympic laurel) prize is Poznański”, “Kurier Poznański” and in the German-lan- given once in a 4-year Olympic cycle to the artists and guage “Posener Tageblatt”. But information about 1900 creators of best art and cultural works, who at the same Paris Games was published only in “Posener Neueste time distinguish themselves with an exceptional attitude Nachrichten”. Later, from the next Olympic games on, towards universal values (thus concerning also in Olym- more information started appearing regularly in “Kurier pic values). Poznański” [Ziółkowska 1994]. Although it was only the information concerned competitions and results, it is possible to say that be- * We need to emphasise the name of Antoni Wiwulski – fore 1919, when the Polish Olympic Committee was Polish architect and sculptor, who declared Polish nationality formed (after Poland gained back its independence in and as such took part in the fi rst Art Competition of the 1918) there was some social awareness about the Olym- Olympic program at the Olympic Games in Stockholm in pic Movement among Polish society. But there was no at- 1912. Medals were awarded in fi ve categories (architecture, literature, music, painting, and sculpture), for works inspired tention paid to Olympism nor Olympic Education. Th e by sport-related themes; see in: K. Furtak, Olimpijczycy only cause for interest was participation in the Games to 1924–2006 z Politechniki Krakowskiej, Muzeum Politechniki mark the re-appearance of Poland on the world political Krakowskiej, 2012.

36 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Olympism and Olympic Education in Poland – State of Art

Infrastructure of Olympic education Olympic education and the PE curriculum Th e main Centre of Olympic Education is located in the offi ces of the Polish Olympic Committee in the Pol- Before 1985 the educational system in Poland was cen- ish capital of Warsaw. Within the legal structure of the tralized. Th is was based on the idea that all settings and Polish Olympic Committee there is one sub-committee all pupils should be considered the same across the coun- called the Committee of Culture and Olympic Educa- try therefore they should get the same knowledge and tion. Th e aims of this committee are the following: i) or- skills at the same levels of education. Th us all school cur- ganizing art and literature contents and exhibitions, mu- ricula had been standardized up to the same criteria of an sic concerts and meeting with book writers on the hu- ‘average setting’. manistic topics related to universal, Olympic values and Th e situation wasn’t good even until quite recently: ideals; ii) supporting the participation of young Polish 40% of schools did not have their own sports gym, and artists in international events connected to and develop- 75% of physical education classes at primary school chil- ing the Olympic idea; iii) supporting the publication of dren (7–10 years old) were conducted in school corridors materials and books that spread the Olympic idea, but [Osiński 1999]. At present there is a sport gym, artifi - also supporting activities and initiatives of local and re- cial football pitch in almost every town and village (foot- gional centres of Olympic movement as well as organiz- ball fi elds were built in the governmental program ‘Or- ing the annual award contests for the best cultural and lik 2012’ as one of the initiatives for Euro Champion- pedagogical achievements in Olympism. ships held in Poland and Ukraine) and 1500 new indoor Th e Olympic Education Centre co-owns one of the swimming pools. In 1996 a new policy on physical cul- fl oors of the Olympic Committee building, where per- ture was launched by the Polish government. It planned manent Olympic exhibitions and parallel thematic ex- to change the previous 3 × 45 minutes a week system of hibitions are arranged accordingly to the needs and cal- physical education to 5 × 45 minutes a week. Later, the endar of Olympic activities and are organized by the government withdrew this plan due to fi nancial prob- Museum of Sport. Th ere is a system of organized vis- lems, but a 4 × 45 minutes a week system was introduced its operated, aimed mainly at school classes and kinder- shortly after this in 1999. Th is (and also a need to ad- gartens with such class topics as: 1. A long time ago in just the Polish system to the requirements of the Bolo- Ancient Olympia, 2. In the magic land of fi ve Olym- gna agreements) called for a reform of the whole system pic rings, 3. A seven Olympic wonders route, 4. Myste- of education. rious winter Olympic adventure. Th ese are also available In 1999 administrative, but also curricular changes for individual and also disabled visitors. Th ese visits are were introduced and more curricular fl exibility was giv- called Olympic classes at the Olympic Centre and are en to the teachers and schools. It was the teachers who run by the staff of the Olympic Committee and Museum took over the responsibility for programming curricula of Sport. Olympic education materials are also available to adjust it to the individual needs of pupils and setting to be downloaded from the Polish Olympic Committee opportunities available at particular schools. Th is has web-site (www.pkol.pl). since caused a lot of problems, though. It transpired that Th ere is also Polish Olympic Academy located which teachers, who for many years used to be given standard- was established in 1984. It has 35 members and there ized, one-size-fi ts-all curricula, appeared to have lost their is also a Young Members faction for all those under 35 skills in devising new ones. And there were only a small years of age, with experience in Olympic educational number of new curricula for physical education available programs at International Olympic Academy in Olym- on the market. Only two of them included issues con- pia in Greece. Th e Polish Olympic Academy deals with cerning Olympism – Wychowanie fi zyczne z elementami Olympic education, regularly organizing various activi- edukacji olimpijskiej dla gimnazjum (Physical education ties and supporting activities organized by its members at with Olympic education for junior school) [Bronikows- their respective universities, academic centres and schools ka, Bronikowski 2004] for 13–16 years old and Wychow- (such as Olympic Day runs, Olympic School Days). owanie fi zyczne z elementami edukacji olimpijskiej dla li- Th ere are also Olympic Clubs. In 1997 there were 33 ceum (Physical education with Olympic education for Olympic Clubs, but the number has increased since then secondary school (16–19 years old) [Bronikowski 2003]. and currently there are 205 registered regional Olympic After a 10-year period, in 2009 there was a new re- Clubs whose members actively promote Olympic values form of the education system introduced in Poland, in their respective local settings. Th ey include former and which concentrated mainly on curricular and quality present Olympic athletes, offi cials, school youth and dis- changes. Th e new curricular document, “Podstawa pro- tinguished representatives of regional and local munici- gramowa” (National curricula), detailed basic require- palities. ments for each school subject. A new organizational sys- tem of physical education was introduced with 2x45

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 37 Michał Bronikowski, Małgorzata Bronikowska minutes in the daily timetable and additional 2x45 min- practical way in schools taking part in the project. It also utes during extra-curricular time (but the form of activity organized lectures and a conference entitled: “Olympism may be chosen by the pupils from the range provided by as an universal idea for living” as well courses for teach- a school authority at the beginning of the school year). ers, coaches and other institutions familiar with the fi eld. Th e contents concerning Olympism have been included Olympic education with its values was used as a tool for at the second level of education (primary school grades the harmonic development of a person in order to infl u- 4–6, pupils aged 10–13). Now, a PE teacher is obliged ence the form and to shape a peaceful society which takes to teach his/her pupils about the regulations concerning account of the human pride for the social integration of “fair play” and abiding by the rules, accepting referee’s healthy citizens with those, mentally and physically dis- decisions, appropriate behaviour after the game as well abled teenagers and for the improvement of sustaina- as appropriate behaviour at sporting events. At the next ble environment. Th e project activated also contain the level of education (grammar school grades 1–3, students elaboration and the promotion of the morally enhanced aged 13–16) students are supposed to learn about the physical education program and integrated sport games Olympic symbols (fl ag, fi ve rings, anthem and torch) and (old – traditional and new – modern ones) in Poland and apply “fair play” in their activities. Further to this, a spe- Bulgaria, and the preparation of young people for Euro cial emphasis is placed on dealing with emotions in win- 2012. One of the elements of the programme was a in- ning and losing. tegrative summer camp for group of students (able and At the level of secondary education (high school disabled) from Poznań and Kyustendil, which took place grades 1–3, students aged 16–19) Olympic problems are in Bulgaria in the summer of 2011. Aa a fi nal remark an introduced through discussions on ethical aspects and international conference was organized focusing on fair consequences of using doping, as well as the unethical play and sportsmanship. Kostantinos Georgiadis – the behaviour of sport hooligans. Students are also required dean of the International Olympic Academy in Olympia to recognize a diff erence between professional sport and was invited, as a visiting professor, to present two lectures sport for all. to young participants shortly before and in correlation A manual using the abovementioned suggestions with Euro 2012 in Poznań. has been prepared and published in Poznań by Bron- Th ere is also an education panel called Akademia ikowski and Bronikowska [2010]: Edukacja olimpijska – Mistrzów Sportu – Mistrzów Życia (Academy of Sport poradnik dla gimnazjum (Olympic education – a teach- and Life Heroes), [www.amsmz.webd.pl] which is a vol- er’s manual for grammar school) – this will be described untary non-governmental organization that gathers PE about later on. teachers, sport coaches and offi cials, as well as members of local and regional governments and other institutions. Olympic education extra-curricular It is a ‘travelling’ sporting academy reaching the most activities remote destinations on the educational map of Poland. Th is organization starts up conferences for its members Th e Department of Olympism and Sport Ethnology of in diff erent regions of the country inviting distinguished the Univesity School of Physical Education in Poznań was scholars and Olympic champions who present their ex- the main partner in the Lifelong Learning Programme pertise and talk about the Olympic experiences in their entitled: „Olympism and the integration of young peo- respective fi elds and sport disciplines. Th e idea of these ple in education“ (2010-1-PL1-COM13-11564 1). As conferences is to stimulate local centres (often far from a Comenius sub-programme Regio Partnerships, the the main academic or sport centres) and to enrich the programme needs cooperation among diff erent institu- skills of teachers and coaches working with school-aged tions. In this sense, the leader and the organiser of the youth. Since there are Olympic champions invited to project was the Poznań City Council (Urząd Miasta Poz- speak, Olympism often appears on the conference agen- nania) cooperating with Poznań’s grammar schools and da and also later during unoffi cial post-conference con- “Start” – the Disabled Sport Association (which arranges versations and meetings and this is an exceptional occa- the sport culture of disabled people in the city and pre- sion for those teachers and youth coaches to speak face pares Paralympic athletes and their spectators). In this to face with their Olympic heroes. Th is often ends in ex- project Poznań cooperated with partners from the region tending an invitation to those Olympic champions to the of municipality of Kyustendil (Община Кюстендил) most remote schools and children from rural, often less in Bulgaria together with the respective institutions. Th e developed areas. main aims of the project were based on the values and principles of modern Olympism. Th e University School of Physical Education was responsible for research imple- mentation programme introducing Olympism classes to groups of students aged 13–14 in both: theoretical and

38 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Olympism and Olympic Education in Poland – State of Art

Olympic education as a part of non- (since 1994 there have been 20 events organized). “Jan- -school based youth sport programmes tar” also invites Olympic and other famous sport ath- letes (159 sportsmen have been invited to Racot over the Th e main stream of activities in non-school Olympic ed- year, most of who have been Olympic medallists) and or- ucation is directed at the preparation of Polish youths ganizes excursions for children enabling them to partici- to participate in the European Youth Olympic Days. It pate in Olympic Picnics organized annually by the Polish was 15 Polish young athletes who were sent to 1st Winter Olympic Committee in Warsaw. Th e activities of “Jan- Olympic European Youth Olympic Games in Aosta (Ita- tar” have also included several visits to Rome and Vati- ly) in 1993 and it was 26 young athletes for the 2nd Sum- can to see former Pope John Paul II. Th e School Olympic mer European Youth Olympic Games in Valkensvaard Club “Jantar” has also organized several workshops and (Holland) in 1993. After Jacques Rogge – IOC President, conferences concerning Olympic matters for teachers formally announced plans for the Youth Olympic Games and offi cials on the premises of the school. Students from at the 119th IOC session in Guatemala City on 6 July Racot’s school have also been to the Olympic Museum in 2007 [IOC 2007] the program was developed blending Lausanne (Switzerland) and met several times with Presi- sport, culture and Olympic education. Th ree years later dents of the International Olympic Committee (Sama- in 2010 there were organized the very fi rst Youth Olym- ranch, Rogge). Th ey had also the chance to be hosted in pic Games (YOG) for young outstanding athletes from the premises of International Olympic Academy in An- all over the world. For that reason Polish Olympic Com- cient Olympia in 2004 during Athens Olympic Games. mittee nominated 44 young sportsmen to YOG in Singa- pore, where they won 2 gold, 2 silver and 5 bronze med- 2. Project What does Fair play mean to you? – Th is als taking also part in diff erent kind of workshops (team project, coordinated by the Polish Olympic Committee building, culture) and labours there. Since then the YOG Fair Play Club and the University School of Physical Ed- has been organised every two years (regarding ‘summer’ ucation in Warsaw, gathered 3500 answers in 1994 and and ‘winter’ games) respectively in Innsbruck (2012) and 4,500 answers in 1996 from youths aged 11–17 years. Nanjing (2014). Later this concept of this project was used in collabora- Th e Polish Olympic Committee also organizes a day tion with partners from Polish Football Association and called Olympic Picnic, which is extensively advertised on supported by one of the Olympic sponsors – SNICK- national TV channels and by printing folders and bro- ERS. Th e idea of playing fairly was presented at 30 youth chures. Th is event involves former and present Olympic football competitions annually (years 2000–2003) and athletes and it organized and open for the public with emphasized by careful refereeing system with ‘fair play’ free entry. Th ere are usually several activities organized rankings for the teams and individual players who com- on the basis of Olympic sports (like ergo-meter rowing or mitted the least fouls. Th e project involves teachers and cycling and some fun activities for children and their par- youth coaches as well as parents and offi cials who are all ents). During that event everyone has the chance to talk made responsible for maintaining the fair behaviour of all and even compete against their Olympic heroes, there is parties involved in the tournaments. In 2002 a 4-minute also some time to take pictures and there are other dis- video “Fair Play” was made and sent to over 100 School cussions about active lifestyles. Youth Sport Clubs. Th ere are also several out of school programmes based on Olympic ideals amongst which the most out- 3. Project Promotion of Fair play code in sport standing are the following: and education – was coordinated by Żukowska and the Department of Social Sciences of University School of 1. School Olympic Club “Jantar” – founded in Physical Education in Warsaw. Th is project lasted for 1987 in a small rural school in village of Racot (30 km 12 months in 1996 and was focused mainly on promo- from Poznań) by a PE teacher (and later headmaster tion fair play in school pupils/students, their parents and and now a member of Polish parliament) sports enthu- teachers. Also 3 codes with ethical principles in sport (for siast Wojciech Ziemniak. Th e mission of the club was athletes, coaches and sport offi cials) were produced as an to send a selected group of school students from Racot outcome and fair play awards were given and ‘a gentle- to each Olympic Games hosting city to support Pol- man of sport’ was appointed yearly. ish Olympic athletes. For the very fi rst time members of the “Jantar” went to Barcelona 1992 Olympic Games 4. Project I am fair – coordinated by University of and since then no Olympic Games (summer and win- Łódź with partners from Łódź City Municipality and ter) have gone by without Racot’s young voices and pas- Police, the Ministry of Sport and Tourism, the Minis- sion in hears Olympic fans. Th e activities of this school try of Domestic Aff airs and the Polish Olympic Com- Olympic Club also include the organization of Nation- mittee. Th is project, started in 2010 and fi nished at the al Inauguration of Olympic Days, Olympic Day Runs end of 2011, involved two local football teams Widzew

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 39 Michał Bronikowski, Małgorzata Bronikowska and ŁKS. It is being run in selected grammar schools of Olympic education within further deprived areas of the industrial city of Łódź, which is education/training programmes strongly divided and often provokes tensions, aggression and incidents of hatred between the young supporters of and activities each team. In the project specially designed content is Th e Polish Olympic Committee organizes an biennial na- delivered to students during special ‘morally enhanced’ tional competition called “the Youth Fraction” (Pol. Koło physical education classes, where 13–16 years old stu- Młodych) to select the best students to be sent to study dents learn how to behave fairly during sporting events. courses at the International Olympic Academy in Ancient Th e project has been covered in local media, at various Olympia in Greece. Th is is mainly due to the works and pedagogical conferences as well as on the web-site [www. sessions of the Polish Olympic Academy whose mem- uml.lodz.pl/miasto/edukacja/projektjestemfair]. Finally bers vote for the potential student-candidates after a short the project was concluded with a monograph book sum- presentation of their achievements in the promotion of marising the results of the programme and giving exam- Olympism. An important role in promoting Olympic ed- ples and solutions of best practice for teachers and educa- ucation outside institutionalized context of universities tional authorities (published in Polish and English). Th e and Polish Olympic Committee is played by the Polish City Council of Łódź was also responsible to organize an “Fair Play Club”, which has initiated a numerous cam- exhibition with fi lms, souvenirs and pictures from the paigns and contests for youth concerning physical activi- project in their municipality. ty, sports and fair play behaviour, cooperating closely with the European Fair Play Movement [Żukowska 2005]. Olympic education as a part of PE teacher and sport coach training Olympic education modules of Th ere are eight major public universities of physical ed- teaching/training in schools and ucation (in Polish: Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego) sport clubs and twenty-nine private higher education colleges that running PE teacher training courses in Poland. Out of the Th ere are suggestions of the cross-curricular use of Olym- total thirty-seven Higher Education Institutions, twelve pism in school teaching. Żukowska [2010, p. 156] points runs sport courses for coaches. Olympism, as a regular at the following cross-curricular areas in which Olymp- module, is currently taught at only two of them, namely ism could be easily interwoven into the teaching of other the University School of Physical Education in Poznań subjects: and in Gorzów Wlkp., where this subject is taught to – In Polish Language classes introducing examples the fi rst year students of undergraduate degree in thirty of literary output awarded at Olympic art compe- hours module consisting of thirty hours of lectures and titions such as: the volume of poetry by Kazimierz fi fteen hours practice (4 ECTS). In Poznań the subject Wierzyński entitled Olympic Laurel (awarded a gold is taught by Wojciech Lipoński, Małgorzata Bronikows- medal at the Olympic Games in Amsterdam in 1928 ka and also Michał Bronikowski, all of whom are lec- at the Art and Literature Competition), turers at the International Olympic Academy in Olym- – Introducing the history of sport into the subject of pia, Greece. Th ere are special guidebooks Olimpizm dla general/universal history (e.g. the role of sport in an- każdego (Olympism for everyone), [Lipoński 2000] and cient Greece, the participation of Olympic patriots practical manuals Edukacja olim pijska dla gimnazjum po- in the fi ght for the independence of Poland during radnik dla nauczycieli (Olympic education – a teacher’s the World War II), manual for grammar school) [Bronikowski, Bronikows- – other subjects, such as art (drawings related to sport- ka 2010] for students of the subject. A module is also ing themes, Olympic posters, Olympic mascots), run for international students of Erasmus exchange pro- – sport and Olympic elements that support classes of grammes. geography (indicating the cities of the world that However, it is worth mentioning that Olympism is hosted Olympic Games, as a starting point to dis- also a facultative (optional) subject with fi fteen hours of cuss the geography of a given country), lectures and fi fteen hours of practice for undergraduate – increasing interest in learning foreign languages by students at the University School of Physical Education introducing subjects and texts related to Olympic in Warsaw (4 ECTS). Similarly it is a facultative module sports, and also fostering cooperation between for- (2 ECTS) at the University School of Physical Education eign languages and physical education teachers. in Wrocław with ten hours of lectures and twenty hours In school (and out of school) youth sport there is of practice. In Wrocław the subject is taught by a former no direct contact with Olympic education except for the Polish Olympic Champion in 50 meter rifl e shooting, basic information in the rules and regulations of most Renata Mauer-Różańska. of school sports on abiding by the rules and maintain-

40 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Olympism and Olympic Education in Poland – State of Art ing fair play behaviour during and after the school, both and spirit of sportsmanship, Olympic symbols, as well as within the school and during intra-school system of some facts from life of Pierre de Coubertin – founder of competitions. Modern Olympic Games. Th e Polish Olympic Committee also releases post- Olympic education materials, papers, ers concerning Olympic education. Th e latest one named publications, posters ‘the Fair Play Code of behaviour’ was supported by Pol- ish Fair Play Club and SNICKERS [2009]. Most of the educational material concerning Olympic education is advertised through the web-site of the Polish Olympic education new media tools Olympic Committee [www.pkol.pl] in the folder educa- and web pages tion (also available in English). Th e page includes a list of educational activities off ered by the staff of the Olym- Development of high defi nition technologies has led pic Educational Centre. Some of the interactive teach- to an increase of new media tools used for informative ing materials (presentations, publications, selected edu- but also educational purposes. A majority of recent Pol- cational material, and conference and other Olympic-re- ish publications concerning the Olympic Games are lated materials) are also available to be downloaded. Th is equipped with a CD containing all the photos and fi lms. page also contains programs and lessons of Olympic edu- Th e Polish Olympic Committee runs its own web-site cation provided by specialists and teachers. Th ere is also [www.pkol.pl] with folders like: I) Olympic Games, II) a sub-folder called ‘Zone of knowledge’, which contains Olympic Athletes, III) Olympic Education, and IV) the information about the most fundamental Olympic is- Polish Olympic Committee structure. Th e page is full of sues such as the origins of the Olympic Games, an expla- up-to-date information, enhanced with fi lms and various nation of Olympic symbols and ceremonies, the Olym- picture galleries. Th ere is an easy access pathway to most pic Charter and selected aspects concerning Olympic present (YOG Nanjing 2014, WOG Sochi 2014) and fu- law, information about the Olympic Movement struc- ture events (Rio 2016). ture and about congresses and conferences. All this is en- Th ere is also a national system of junior (15–18 years riched with colourful graphics and pictures related to the old school students) competitions called Ogólnopolska subject. Olimpiada Młodzieży (Eng. National Olympic Youth Among educational initiatives undertaken by the Games, NOYG) in most of the Olympic sports organ- Polish Olympic Committee was the publication of ized annually in a diff erent city. Th e idea of the NOYG a manual for physical education teachers concerning and the results are always available at the web-sites. Th e Olympic education. Edukacja olimpijska dla gimnazjum most recent was organized in Wrocław in 2014 [www. (Pol. Olympic education for grammar school) [Broni- sport.wroclaw.pl]. kowski, Bronikowska 2010]. It includes ready-to-use les- sons’ units including the following topics: Th e history of Results and fi ndings Olympic Games together with mythology, ancient eth- ics and traditions; the history of the revival of modern Major fi ndings from various research projects have been the Olympic Games with attention paid to the reviver categorised according to the age-category and present- Pierre de Coubertin; the concept of fair play, sporting he- ed in table 1 with the names and dates of the particular roes and Olympic sports as well as some classes for Eng- study. lish language classes built on the issues of Olympism. Findings from the above mentioned research and Th is manual is also available on the web-site of the Pol- studies, based on experimental pedagogical design, have ish Olympic Committee (in the PDF format) for teach- been implemented into the daily teaching routines of the ers and youth sport coaches to download and use in their schools where the projects were held and were also pre- schools [www.olimpijski.pl/Media/fi les/edukacja/materi- sented to academic circles at various national and inter- aly/Edukacja_Olimpijska_internet_v_20.pdf]. national conferences. Recently another educational book has been pub- lished by Polish Olympic Committee – Blyszczący ste- Concluding remarks rowiec. Pierre de Coubertin o sporcie i olimpizmie (Eng. Gleaming airship. Pierre de Coubertin on Sport and Olympism has been studied and researched in numer- Olympism) [Deberny, Płoszaj, Firek 2013]. Th e book ous ways and for a long time in Poland. Th e range of aimed for school aged children is written in convention research items cover the axiological and philosophical of a story telling with interesting Olympic facts interwo- foundations of Olympism, searching for historical roots ven into the fl ow of action. Th ere are a lot of children of the fair play concept going back into medieval times hand-drawn pictures and contents concerns such impor- and looking through the most valuable masterpieces of tant Olympic matters as pursuit of excellence, fair play mainly Anglo-Saxon (or even Gaelic) written sources. In-

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 41 Michał Bronikowski, Małgorzata Bronikowska terestingly, the humanistic sense of Olympism was also with special emphasis on social consequences of behav- sought in the analysis of Polish (and world-wide) poetry iours not abiding social and thus sporting rules. Shortly and prose. Values have also been an important issue of before Euro 2012 this issue has been seriously investi- research both in their universal, philosophical dimension gated in various contexts and in relation to Polish foot- and in their application in modern realities in the sense ball, which suff ered a corruption scandal 1990–2000 and of their awareness in various age and profession groups. more recently the misbehaviour of football fans or rather Th e moral aspects of Olympism have also been studied, hooligans.

Table 1. Most important fi ndings from various research in Poland.

Age category Positive Negative Research Children 60% – fair play is very important 50% – you can accept breaking Umiastowska 1999 in life the rules 50% – you can win playing fair 10% heard about Pierre de Coubertin

60% believe Olympism develops 50% – doesn’t know what fair Bronikowski et al. 2006 the body and mind play is and cannot see any con- nection with Olympic Games 58% believe Olympic education is the best way to teach values Little or no progress in moral development in judgment, moti- vation and intentions in control groups (both genders) Teenagers 93% believe in the promotion of 30% – Olympic games do not Żukowska 1996 fair play help in promoting fair play 50% see fair play as a code of sporting behaviour against an op- ponent and 16% associate it with abiding by the rules

80% – rejects fair play in sport Bodasińska, Bodasiński 2001 and see no connection with health

70% disregard athletes trying to 67% did not learn any informa- Nowocień 2001 win at all costs tion about 64% associate Olympism with Olympism in school the Olympic Games and appreci- 63% has no information on the ate it Olympic Charter 64% the Olympic Games pro- 52% interested in results, incidents mote fair play and tragic events about the Games 58% fair play in Olympic sports 37% the Olympic Games create infl uences nationalism and tensions between behaviour of school pupils nations

60% (girls), 40% (boys) – 80% (girls), 55% (boys) – break- Bronikowski 2003 changed their attitude and behav- ing the rules is OK if it helps you iour after a program of Olympic to win education 43% (girls), 55% (boys) – do not understand fair play and cannot give any examples Signifi cant changes in moral judg- Little or no progress in moral Bronikowski 2006 ment, motivation and intention development in judgment, moti- in a majority of pupils from ex- vation and intentions in control perimental groups (both genders) groups (both genders)

42 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Olympism and Olympic Education in Poland – State of Art

Age category Positive Negative Research Older age groups 30% – there is a chance for fair 10% – moral deprivation in sport Derbich 1993 play in sport 26% – in sport health is at risk 51% – sport eliminates the weak- est 28% sport promotes only the best and the toughest Dąbrowska 1994 80% – see negative situations during the Olypmic Games 65% – associate the Olypmic Games with nationalism and hate 40% – fair play is a form of sport- Derbich 1996 ing behaviour 30% – do not see any examples of fair play in daily life 3% – have their own experiences of fair play behaviour in life

Th ere have been a lot of smaller scale investiga- Research on Olympism has become a topic of several tions on the awareness, attractiveness and use of fair play doctoral and post-doctoral dissertations and numerous codes of behaviour in particular sports and school set- masters theses at diff erent universities in Poland (tab. 1). tings including the physical education context. Some of So one can say this is rapidly growing domain of human- those have turned into real pedagogical fi eld experiments istic research. with parallel interventions and control groups examin- ing the eff ectiveness [e.g. Żukowska 1996; Nowocień References 2001; Bronikowski 2003] of various didactic approaches (which, being introduced along changing political and Academy of Sport and Life Heroes, http//www.amsmz.web.pl social circumstances in Poland, brought a lot of informa- Bodeńska A., Bodeński S. [2001] Zdrowie w systemie wartości tion about changing moral and social standards and val- fair play. Wychowanie Fizyczne i Zdrowotne, No 3, pp. 16– ues). All these research initiatives were undertaken to help –19. Borowski M., Buchowska M., Kuciak J., Kuczyński A., Pieczyń- identify examples of best practices in delivering Olympic ski P., Ziemniak M., Ziemniak W. [2010] Dzieje Szkolnego ideals and values to young people through school educa- Klubu Sportowe ‘Jantar’ Racot w latach 1982–2010, Przed- tional system, although it should be noted that emphasis siębiorstwo Wydawniczo-Usługowe „Tęcza”, Kościan. was laid on application of those values to youth in sport Bronikowski M. [2003] Perception of sport-based moral values clubs as a main target to be aware of Olympic values due in Polish pupils aged 12–16, Acta Universitatis Palackianae to competitive character of their institutions. Th e fi nd- Olomucensis. Gymnica, vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 29–33. ings and conclusions drawn from research studies were Bronikowska M., Bronikowski M. [2004] Wychowanie fi zycz- later used to create Olympic education programs adjust- ne z elementami edukacji europejskiej. Program nauczania ed for the conditions of particular schools. Researching dla gimnazjum, No DKW-4014-77/01. Wydawnictwo eMPi2. Poznań. Olympism was also associated with concepts of health in Bronikowski M., Bronikowska M. [2010] Edukacja olimpijska youth, especially in relation to youth sport (young ath- dla gimnazjum. Poradnik dla nauczycieli, Wydawnictwo letes’ health and coaches’ attitudes to doping and oth- eMPi2, Poznań. er risk-bringing behaviours). Th ere was also a study on Bronikowski M., Bronikowska M., Galas A., Śleboda R. [2006] Olympic knowledge and its associations with physical Olimpizm w szkole. Współzawodnictwo – równość szans fi tness and lifestyle, which was a part of the wider Eu- – olimpizm. Kultura Fizyczna, No. 5/6, pp. 17–21. ropean project “Physical fi tness, sporting lifestyles and Dąbrowska A. [1994] Sport i idea olimpijska w świadomości Olympic ideals: cross-cultural studies on Youth Sport in i życiu studentów. Logos i etos polskiego olimpizmu, Lipiec Europe” which was coordinated by Essen University Re- J. (ed.), Wyd. FALL, Kraków, pp. 325–331. Deberny K., Płoszaj K., Firek W. [2013] Błyszczący sterowiec. search Pool and Willibald Gebhard Research Institute Pierre de Coubertin o sporcie i olimpizmie, Polski Komitet from Germany. Th is project gathered partners (and data) Olympijski. from eight European countries, unfortunately the Polish Derbich J. [1993] Przygotowanie do wyboru wartości poprzez side did not delivered data on time and was not included uprawianie sportu. Wychowawcze aspekty sportu, Dziubiński in the fi nal report from the cross-cultural studies. Z. (ed.), Salezjańska Organizacja Sportowa, pp. 143–149.

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 43 Michał Bronikowski, Małgorzata Bronikowska

Derbich J. [1996] Młodzież dorosła o idei fair play. Fair play, Ziółkowska T. [1994] Igrzyska olimpijskie w prasie poznań- sport, edukacja, Żukowska Z. (ed.), PTNKF Warszawa, skiej do 1914. Logos i etos polskiego olimpizmu, Lipiec J. pp. 169–172. (ed.), Wydawnictwo FALL, Kraków, pp. 471–478. IOC Session: A “go” for Youth Olympic Games. International Żukowska Z. [1994], Edukacja olimpijska młodzieży. Tradycje Olympic Committee. 5 July 2007, Retrieved 5 July 2007. – teraźniejszość – perspektywy. Logos i etos polskiego olim- Lipiec J. [1999] Filozofi a olimpizmu, Polskie Wydawnictwo pizmu, Lipiec J. (ed.), Wydawnictwo FALL, Kraków, pp. Sportowe Sprint, Warszawa. 251–260. Lipoński W. [2000] Olimpizm dla każdego, AWF Poznań. Żukowska Z. (ed.) [1996] Fair play, Sport, Edukacja, Wydaw- Lipiec J. [2007] Pożegnanie z Olimpią, Wydawnictwo FALL, nictwo Estrella, Polish Olympic Committee, Warszawa. Kraków. Żukowska Z. [2005] Fair Play Club of the Polish Olympic Com- Nowocień J. [2001] Sport i olimpizm w systemie dydaktyczno- mittee, PKOl, Warszawa. -wychowawczym współczesnej szkoły, Studia i monografi e Żukowska Z., Żukowski R., (eds.) [2001] Zdrowie, ruch, Fair AWF Warszawa, No. 85, Warszawa. Play, Wydawnictwo Estrella and AWF Warszawa. Olympic Charter [2013] International Olympic Committee, Żukowska Z., Żukowski R. (eds.) [2010] Fair Play in sport and DidWeDo S.à.r.l., Lausanne, Switzerland. Olympism. Opportunity or Utopia, Wydawnictwo Estrel- Osiński W. [1999] Wychowanie fi zyczne w przededniu reform la, Polish Olympic Committee and Fair Play Club, War- system edukacji – rejestr problemów najważniejszych. Wy- szawa. chowanie fi zyczne w dobie reformy edukacji. Oczekiwania – realia – perspektywy, Osiński W., Pośpiech J., Szecówka A. Online sources: (eds.), Wydawnictwo Atla-2, Wrocław. www.amsmz.webd.pl Pawłucki A. [2007] Osoba w pedagogice ciała. Prawo pokoju www.olimpijski.pl/Media/fi les/edukacja/materialy/Edukacja_ olimpijskiego, Olsztyńska Szkoła Wyższa, Olsztyn. Olimpijska_internet_v_20.pdf Umiastowska D. [1999] Styl życia, wiedza o olimpizmie i spraw- www.pkol.pl ność fi zyczna szczecińskich uczniów, Rozprawy i Studia, No. www.sport.wroclaw.pl 339, Uniwersytet Szczeciński, Szczecin. www.uml.lodz.pl/miasto/edukacja/projekt_jestem.fair

44 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 The YMCA’s International Mission and Its Link to the Olympic Movement

Tomáš Tlustý Department of Kinanthropology and Humanities Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Charles University in Prague

Summary The submitted paper discusses the YMCA in relation to the Olympic Games. To a certain degree, this organiza- tion, which focused not only on physical education and sport, did infl uence the Olympic Games. New sports emerged within its physical education facilities and, often thanks to the eff orts of this association’s physical edu- cation secretaries, gradually became Olympic sports. Although the YMCA’s physical education programme was not aimed at developing top individual sportsmen, many of its members managed to qualify for the Olympic Games. YMCA physical education functionaries were highly professional, some of them even being requested to prepare and lead individual national teams at the Olympic Games. The work of the YMCA was very highly regarded by the International Olympic Committee, which showed its appreciation by twice awarding them the Olympic Cup. Period archive materials, magazines, and news reports which have not been systematically re- searched to date, as well as other sources, were used to create this contribution Keywords: activity, match, sportsmen, results, functionaries

Introduction simultaneously in Boston and Montreal in 1851. Th ere, the YMCA had a suffi cient base for its work in the fi eld Th e YMCA or Young Men’s Christian Association is pri- of physical education and sport and a number of new marily an organization uniting people of Christian faith. sports emerged, some of which became Olympic sports However, its programme was by no means directed only [Konečný 1930, pp. 28–30]. towards faith. Th e basis of the work of the YMCA was In 1852 Williams spent time on business in Paris. its so-called “Four-way programme”, which included re- Here he initiated a meeting of local pastors, who, thanks to ligious, social, educational, and physical education activ- his subsequent fi nancial aid, established the YMCA in Par- ities [Riess, pp. 65–68]. is, later spreading from here into Holland and Germany. Th e organization came into being in London in However, the YMCA’s physical education pro- 1844, when it was established by sales clerk George Wil- gramme was not aimed at developing top individual liams. At the very beginning, the YMCA had mere 12 sportsmen. In contrast, the YMCA tried to create oppor- members and was established as an amateur missionary tunities for the largest possible number of participants to organization, a lay apostolate for young people. George do sport. Despite this, its ranks boasted a large number Williams wanted to off er young people the possibility of of individuals who qualifi ed for top sports events such spending free time whilst focusing on Christian princi- as the European Championships, the World Champion- ples. Although the YMCA was originally solely made up ships, and even the Olympic Games. of a group of enthusiasts, the association began to spread Members of the YMCA made eff orts to introduce quickly through London, England, and very soon into new sports into this top sporting occasion, to help na- other countries around the world. tional Olympic Committees prepare individual sports- It particularly fl ourished in the United States of men for the Olympic Games and possibly also to provide America. It was there that it most likely saw the greatest fi nancial support to the sportsmen themselves in order to expansion of its physical education programme. Th e fi rst enable them to cover participation fees [Constable 1999, local organizations in America were established almost pp. 127–152].

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 45 Tomáš Tlustý

The YMCA and the pre-war Olympic this event – the YMCA. So for the fi rst time teams like Games YMCA Chicago, YMCA St. Louis, and Buff alo German YMCA, the tournament favourite, struggled for victory As previously mentioned, the YMCA probably experi- at the Olympic Games. Buff alo German YMCA players enced its greatest expansion in the fi eld of physical edu- confi rmed their role as favourites (see Figure 1) and dom- cation and sport in the US. In this respect, the American inated the tournament [http://hoopedia.nba.com/index. YMCA surpassed its ideal to a certain degree. Its activity php?title=Buff alo_Germans]. there was linked to many universities and colleges. Some However, it would be wrong to say that YMCA of the most well known are Springfi eld College, North- members did not intervene in the main programme of eastern University, San Francisco’s Golden Gate Univer- the Olympic Games. Several athletes who were mem- sity, and Michigan’s State University [Schroeder 1926, pp. bers of this now international organization soon became 7–9]. American Olympic competitors. Athletics was a relative- Th e most famous of them is probably Springfi eld ly popular sport among its members, demonstrated with- College, where a YMCA physical education department in the Olympic Games. Albert Johnson of the St. Louis was formed and where one of today’s very popular Olym- YMCA tried his luck in the shot put and hammer throw. pic sports – basketball – came into being. In 1891 Profes- He came sixth in both disciplines [Matthews 2005, p. sor J. Naismith came up with the idea as a way to relieve 136]. However, it has to be added that only eight athletes the monotony of individual sportsmen’s winter prepara- took part in the shot put and there were only six partici- tion as well as to make his students come to the gym. Th e pants who competed in the hammer throw. game had simple rules and J. Naismith used peach bas- Another YMCA athlete achieved an even better re- kets instead of the baskets we know today. sult in the 100 metres. Th e whole competition began Th e invention of this new sport became inspira- with three heats, from which the two fastest sprinters tion for many other physical education functionaries. qualifi ed for the fi nal. One of those who qualifi ed was It is almost unbelievable that four years after basketball a member of Louisville YMCA – Nate Carmell. He went was founded, not far away in the Springfi eld metropoli- on to run the fi nal in 11.2 seconds, which brought him tan county town of Holyoke, YMCA member William second place. In the fi nal, it was a marginal victory for G. Morgan invented another new game which he called American Archie Hahn, who was only 0.2 seconds faster “mignonette”. Th e game was supposed to be a less de- than Carmell. manding form of entertainment for older pupils. How- Clearly the best placing of a YMCA member was ever, it kept its name for only one year, being renamed achieved by one of the athletes from the local associa- “volley-ball” by physical education professor A.T. Halstet tion in Cambridge in the state of Massachusetts, Th omas [Pávek 1964, pp. 365–368]. J. Hicks (see Figure 2), who became Olympic marathon In 1896 the fi rst Olympic Games were held in Ath- winner, despite appearing to be on the brink of collapse ens. Clearly, these two sports would not be introduced ten miles to the fi nish and having to be administered there just yet. For a long time, volleyball was played in strychnine [Kronika 1996, p. 27]. Th omas J. Hicks fi n- the US purely for pleasure. However, things began to ished the race, totally exhausted and under the support change in 1904, the year the Olympic Games were fi rst of his managers, in a time of 3:28:53. At the fi nish line, held on American soil, in the city of St. Louis. It was here he had to be handed over to doctors for treatment [Mat- that the YMCA was given the possibility and freedom to thews 2005, pp. 140–145]. arrange its sports events. Two days were designated for However, he had not been the fi rst to cross the fi n- their sports activities but in the end they were not able to ish line. American Fred Lorz was the fi rst to fi nish in the fi t them all in, and all their events were re-scheduled into diffi cult conditions of the Olympic marathon, partly run several other days [Matthews 2005, p.104]. Th is led to the fi rst basketball tournament taking place within the Olympic Games, being played on July 13 and 14. A gymnastics championship was the next YMCA event to be held on July 18, and the following day it arranged a handicap meeting, followed by a cham- pionship meeting on August 20th [Mechikoff , Estes 1993, pp. 114–115]. However, the basketball tournament was not an of- fi cial part of the Olympic programme. Th is game was only included as an exhibition sport and only American teams took part in the 1904 Olympic tournament, three of them having been put forward by the organizers of Figure 1.

46 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 The YMCA’s International Mission and Its Link to the Olympic Movement

Figure 3. Figure 4.

Figure 2. along paths through fi elds. However, he spent most of YMCA physical education director Elwood Brown had the route being driven in a car, which he got out of and worked in France, where he had been responsible for en- ran across the fi nish line. However, his swindle was later tertaining American soldiers. Here, he played an impor- revealed by the referees, who then disqualifi ed him. tant role in organising the Inter-Allied Games, held in Th e YMCA and its sportsmen thus made quite Paris in 1919 to honour the Allies’ victory in the First a name for themselves during the fi rst American Olym- World War. pic Games. Th e YMCA even prepared its own commem- Pierre de Coubertin was so delighted with the or- orative medals for its events (see Figure 3). Besides those, ganization that he sent its programme to the organizers the YMCA also prepared badges for Olympic offi cials (see of the fi rst post-war Olympic Games, held in Antwerp Figure 4). in 1920. Apart from this, Pierre de Coubertin came to Four years later, the Olympic Games were held in the conclusion that the YMCA physical education pro- London. Th e YMCA was just as active here. Th e national gramme conformed to Olympic goals and may be very physical education director of the YMCA in Canada – J. useful. He also went on to summon Elwood Brown to Howard Crocker – travelled to the scene of the IV Olym- speak at three International Olympic Committee sittings pic Games as manager of the Canadian Olympic team in 1920, 1921, and 1922 [Constable 1999, pp. 147–148]. [Constable 1999, p. 136]. Th e YMCA also boosted its reputation at the 1912 The Central European YMCA Stockholm Olympics. Th is Christian organization had and inter-war Olympic Games already become a relatively active association in Sweden. Four of its gymnasts participated in the Olympic Games During the First World War, a relatively large number there, winning gold medals in the team competition. of foreign YMCA workers appeared on the battlefi elds Th is was a relatively big surprise, as gymnastics was not and in the prisoner-of-war camps of the Allied armies, one of the most popular sports pursued in this organiza- not only organizing reading rooms, tearooms, and can- tion [Yttergren, Bolling 1912, p. 106]. teens for soldiers but also off ering them activities to make Sportsmen and the YMCA all had to wait until 1920 use of their free time, which soldiers were keen to accept for their next turn to participate in the Olympic Games. [Hlaváč 2010, pp. 5–8]. Th is is how the association be- Th e 1916 Olympics in Berlin were cancelled due to the came acquainted with the Czechoslovakian legionnaires, outbreak of the First World War, but after the war the who it accompanied to Czechoslovakia after the war, af- YMCA began to spread from the US to Central Euro- ter an agreement between the American and Czechoslo- pean countries. vakian Ministry of Defence. It was through the army However, the 1920 Olympics were preceded by a rel- that the YMCA also made its way into newly-established atively signifi cant event. During the First World War, Poland at the end of the First World War, when having

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 47 Tomáš Tlustý

countries around the world. It was very highly regarded, demonstrated in 1920, when, to its great honour, it was awarded the Olympic Cup [Kössl 1981, p. 66]. In inter-war Czechoslovakia, YMCA physical edu- cation functionaries achieved considerable trainer and manager qualities. Evidence of their high level is the fact that the YMCA physical education secretary was com- missioned to prepare the Czechoslovakian athletics team for the Olympic Games in Antwerp [Bosák et al. 1969, p. 168]. Paris, and subsequently even for the Olympic Games in Amsterdam [National Archives in Prague, collec- tion: YMCA, No. of the cardboard: 1, signature: 1, YMCA Figure 5. v prvním desetiletí 1921–1931]. Th e most distinctive fi g- ures to work in the fi eld of physical education and sport been asked by Józef Haller* it accompanied Polish troops in the YMCA in the inter-war period were František Mi- home [Polska 2003, p. 2]. loslav Marek, and Czech-Americans Josef (Joe) Antonín Local YMCA organizations soon began to emerge in First and Jan Ámos Pipal. both states, where sports and hiking divisions and sec- Th e preparation of individual Olympic teams by tions were established in the course of time. “American” YMCA sports functionaries was relatively common games, track and fi eld events, weightlifting, boxing and at that time. For example, the Indian, Italian, French, wrestling, and canoeing began to be pursued by its mem- Greek, and Mexican Olympic teams were led by them bers, and permanent summer camps began to be estab- [Johnson 1979, pp. 163–166]. lished. However, the YMCA always made eff orts to off er On March 14, 1920, after an initiative by J.A. Pipal, possibilities to do sport not only to its members but also track and fi eld games were held in front of the Czech Joint to the largest possible number of people interested. Stock Brewery, as part of the many preparations (see Fig- Its international character was highly signifi cant for ure 5) for the coming Antwerp Olympics. Th e programme the development of physical education and sport. Th e of events included the 100 metres, shot put, long jump, YMCA sent its workers abroad to various sports courses high jump, 4 × 100m and 4 × 400m relays, triple jump, and on their return these people could pass on their expe- pole vault, and javelin. Women ran a shorter 60-metre rience gained in many countries of the world where vari- race. Th e winners were awarded special medals engraved ous kinds of sports took place at diff erent levels. Many “Preparation for the Antwerp Olympics”. Th e main or- workers hence attended the YMCA’s international physi- ganizer of these games was F. Přemyl and the YMCA. En- cal education college in Springfi eld. František M. Marek listed competitors had to take part in compulsory train- from the Czechoslovakian YMCA attended it, for exam- ing sessions. Th e fi rst took place 14 days before the actual ple, later going on to play an important role in the de- opening of the games, on Tuesdays, Th ursdays, Fridays, velopment of basketball in Czechoslovakia. J. First also and Sundays in the artillery barracks’ riding school on the did – later becoming a big promoter of American sports outskirts of Prague [Štumbauer 1992, p. 228]. [National Archives in Prague, collection: YMCA, No. of the As preparations for the Olympic Games were con- cardboard: 4, signature: 8]. Ferenc Hepp, an example from cluded, J.A. Pipal chose 26 competitors and, with the the Hungarian YMCA, studied there and became the “fa- help of the YMCA, had tents built for them at Letná, ther” of Hungarian basketball and later a member of the providing full board. As Czech athletes left for the Ant- basketball Hall of Fame [Turcsányi 2009, pp. 3–9]. werp Olympics, Prague was shown volleyball for the fi rst Th ere were indeed a lot of students who attend- time (see Figure 6). ed this physical education institution. Th e Springfi eld Although Czech athletes did not achieve signifi - YMCA physical education college was hence instrumen- cant success, the best of them – Václav Vohralík – com- tal in developing physical education and sport in various ing fourth in the 1500 metres, Pipal mobilized the entire athletics movement in Czechoslovakia, refl ected in the * Józef Haller de Hallenburg was a Polish general. During clubs’ considerable future activity. He gained money by the First World War in 1916, he became commander of the cooperating with representatives of the American YMCA Polish Legion’s 2nd Brigade. In 1918, he was put in charge who were working there [www.atletika.cz/o-nas/historie/ of the 5th division of Polish Fusiliers. From March 1918, he prvni-republika] commanded the 2nd Polish Corps. In May 1918, his corps Th e YMCA was already active in Poland at that time was smashed by German troops. Józef Haller returned to Moscow and then left for France, where he took charge of the as well. In 1920, YMCA instructor Captain Burford intro- newly-formed Polish army. In 1919 he returned to Poland duced himself in Kraków, taking an interest in the prepa- with the so-called Blue Army. ration of the Polish football team for the peak of its season,

48 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 The YMCA’s International Mission and Its Link to the Olympic Movement

tee sitting in Antwerp for the 1924 Olympic Games to be held in Prague [National Archives in Prague, collection: Předsednictvo ministerské rady, No. of the cardboard: 222, Jiří Guth-Jarkovský Presidiu Ministerské rady 17.3.1920]. However, the Ministry of Finance did not approve this proposal and the “Presidium of the Council of Minis- ters of the Czechoslovak Republic” decided to oblige this authority [National Archives in Prague, collection: Předsednictvo ministerské rady, No. of the cardboard: 222, Ministerstvo fi nancí Presidiu ministerské rady 16. 4. 1920]. In the middle of November 1923 there was a lecture Figure 6. at the Kladno YMCA on the coming Paris Olympics and the history of the Olympic Games [Sport 1923, No. 47, that of course being the fi rst post-war Olympic Games in pp. 8–10]. Jiří Stanislav Guth-Jarkovský came here to lec- Antwerp. However, in the end, Poland did not take part in ture. Th is was also the year when J. First, who was al- the Antwerp Olympics and could only hope that it would ready a member of the Czechoslovakian Olympic Com- manage to guarantee its sportsmen a place in the following mittee and a whole range of other institutions at the time, Olympic Games [Przegląd 1923, No. 11, p. 6]. was appointed head of physical education for the entire In 1922 a problem arose in Poland. For fi nancial rea- Czechoslovakian YMCA [First 2011, p. 151]. sons, the participation of their sportsmen in the 1924 Th e following year brought the spirit of the Olympic Olympic Games in Paris came under threat. Poland ap- Games. Paris had been commissioned to hold the Sum- parently had neither the money to prepare their sportsmen mer Olympic Games. Czechoslovak athletes had to be nor to pay for their participation fees in Paris. For that rea- well prepared for the peak of the season. Th e main coach son, the International Olympic Committee suggested ask- of the Czechoslovakian athletes was Lewis W. Riess, ing the American YMCA for help, knowing its inclination who had been working in Czechoslovakia since 1922 as for sport. Finally, Polish sportsmen did get to take part in YMCA director of physical education [Marek 1923, 1(6), the Olympic Games [Przegląd 1922, No. 15, p. 4]. pp. 167–169]. In this respect, Lewis W. Riess had great In Kraków, Captain Burford hence took to preparing incentive and made eff orts to do everything within his footballers for the coming Olympic Games, which were powers to achieve success at the Olympic Games. He and of course the fi rst the Polish football team was to take his colleague F.M. Mark even travelled to the scene of part in. However, the Poles did not achieve any great suc- the Games at their own expenses. Th ey continued their cess there [ Raz… 1936, No. 27, p. 4]. eff orts to help the Czechoslovakian team in Paris, both In 1922, news of the prepared Central European during training, at the stadium, and in every other pos- preparatory Olympic Games, which were supposed to sible way [Sport 1924, No. 4, pp. 1–2]. take place in 1923 in Prague, began to spread in Poland. Czechoslovakian YMCA athletics divisions were rep- Th e YMCA had apparently been put in charge of these resented at these Olympic Games by Karel Nedobitý. preparatory games [Przegląd 1922, No. 8, p. 3]. However, Th is signifi cant České Budějovice athletics functionary this statement was proven to be untrue. Th is news be- (České Budějovice YMCA coach) participated in the gan to spread via the YMCA but in Paris, where the next 5-kilometre race but was eliminated in the heat. Olympic Games were to take place, they knew nothing Th e Polish YMCA was also represented, indeed very of this project, nor did the International Olympic Com- successfully. For Poland it was their historic fi rst Olym- mittee, which began to determine the source of the news. pic Games and their very fi rst Olympic medallist was An analysis of correspondence between Paris, New York, a member of the Polish YMCA.* and Warsaw was carried out. After the whole aff air had been explained, several Central European countries sent a message to Paris, vociferously protesting against the * It probably concerned Major Adam Łukasz Królikie- YMCA exceeding its authority [Przegląd 1922, No. 11, wicz, who came third in show jumping at the 1924 Par- pp. 4–5]. It was thought that it had either served as adver- is Olympic Games. After the First World War, a num- tising for this organization or it had been the product of ber of servicemen from the Polish army became mem- individuals who had some kind of outside goals. bers or honorary members of the Polish YMCA. One However, the truth is that Chairman of the Czecho- of the fi rst was Józef Klemens Piłsudski. On the same slovak Olympic Committee – Jiří Stanislav Guth-Jarkov- day Polish cyclists gained second place in the pursuit ský had approached the “Presidium of the Council of race. However, Adam Łukasz Królikiewicz was the fi rst Ministers of the Czechoslovak Republic” asking them to receive a medal. Polska YMCA 1923–2003, Polska to apply at the 1920 International Olympic Commit- YMCA, Warsaw 2003, p. 8.

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 49 Tomáš Tlustý

cember 1935, its members paying a visit to the YMCA building, in which they spoke of the state of preparation of individual sports venues at the coming 1936 Winter Olympic Games, hosted in Germany’s Garmisch-Parten- kirchen [Raz… 1935, No. 50, p. 3]. Th e Olympic Games in Berlin were of course the highlight of the 1936 season. A huge achievement for the Warsaw YMCA was the qualifi cation of two wrestlers who had started out their wrestling career in the Warsaw YMCA, A. Rokita and Z. Szajewski [Kałamacka 1992, p. 206]. Greek-Roman bantamweight wrestler Rokita lined up for his fi rst bout in Deutschland-Hall on Th urs- Figure 7. day August 6. He had a good start to the tournament, beating his fi rst opponent, the Belgian Gilles, in 5 min- In 1925 coach Kazimierz Laskowski shared in the utes and 53 seconds [Ilustrowany Kurier 1936, No. 219, preparation of Warsaw boxers, not only YMCA ones, rais- p. 21]. Szajewski started out well too, winning on points ing several local boxing stars [Stadjon 1926, No. 7, p. 12]. in the fi rst round against Ethiopian Hass. However, both He himself experienced many clubs as both coach and wrestlers lost in the second round to Norwegians. Rokita competitor, the YMCA being one of them. At the 1928 was defeated by Ivar Gunnar Stokke and Szajewski lost Olympic Games in Amsterdam, he was a member of the to Arild Dahl [Ilustrowany Kurier… 1936, No. 220, p. 23]. bronze-medal team of Polish fencers [www.databaseolym- YMCA physical education functionaries made re- pics.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid=LASKOKAZ01, peated eff orts to get “its” games into the Olympic pro- Accessed 15th October 2013] gramme. William Renato Jones, another graduate of the Archery was another Olympic sport which was pop- Springfi eld YMCA school of physical education, one of ular within the YMCA, thanks to whom it spread to the founder members of the FIBA (Fédération Interna- Czechoslovakia. It was inseparably connected to summer tionale de Basketball Amateur) and later European Sec- camps, where this sport had been introduced and highly retary of the World Alliance YMCA in Geneva, was one promoted by J. First. of those instrumental in getting basketball into the 1936 At the 1928 Olympic Games in Amsterdam, the Berlin Olympic Games. In addition, he helped to estab- Czechoslovakian YMCA was again represented by Ka- lish the European and World Basketball Championship rel Nedobitý. However, this long-distance runner did not [Grasso 2010, p. 182]. Apart from basketball, the YMCA achieve any great success at these Olympic Games either, made eff orts to get “its” second sport into the Olym- coming 17th in the 5-kilometre race. pic Games – volleyball. It made its fi rst attempt of all On the July 30, 1928, the YMCA was highly hon- in 1912 [Johnson 1979, p. 241]. Other attempts were to oured to discover that the International Olympic Com- follow but volleyball wasn’t included in the programme mittee had passed a resolution on the 1929 Olympic of the Olympic Games until much later – at the 1964 Cup (see Figure 7), attributing it for the second time Olympic Games in Tokyo [Perútka 1982, pp. 601–602]. to the YMCA, its physical education college in Spring- Basketball being included in the programme of the fi eld having received it in 1920. Th e YMCA received Berlin Olympic Games was clearly a great encouragement a letter from the International Olympic Committee, for all of this organization’s players. A number of this or- signed by its chairman at that time, Henri de Baillet-La- ganization’s players appeared in the Czechoslovakian na- tour: “I have the honour to announce that the Olympic tional team. František Picek, Alois Dvořáček, Ludvík Cup for 1929 has been awarded to the World YMCA Dvořáček, Josef Moc, Josef Klíma (see Figure 8), Ladislav Committee. I wish the World YMCA Committee sin- Trpkoš, and Ladislav Prokop all played for YMCA bas- cere pleasure from the above message. It is acknowledge- ketball teams. In the fi rst round, Czechoslovakia defeated ment of its achievement in the fi eld of physical education Hungary by default, as the Hungarian team pulled out and sport around the world. Th e International Olympic of the Olympic tournament before it had commenced. Committee would like to take this opportunity to express Th e following YMCA members – Picek, Klíma, Moc, its gratitude for the unwontedly valuable cooperation and Trpkoš – scored in the fi rst actual Olympic tourna- which your organization never refused.” Th is was highly ment match, in which Czechoslovakia lost to Switzer- appreciated by the World YMCA Committee, awarding land 25:12 (13:4). Due to their defeat, Czechoslovakia a whole range of sports activities that the YMCA pursued had to play a match against the home basketball team to on a global scale [Stadjon 1928, No. 35, p. 4]. keep them in the competition. Th e Czechoslovakian na- An IAAF (International Association of Athletics tional team included A, Dvořáček, L. Dvořáček, Klíma, Federations) conference was held in Warsaw in early De- Trpkoš, and Prokop this time and managed the match,

50 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 The YMCA’s International Mission and Its Link to the Olympic Movement

fewer than P. Stok in the tournament. He was selected for the team during the match against Japan, when he had lined up as a substitute [Kuryer… 1936, No. 32, p. 2]. Stok was one of the best Polish players in the third match too, which Poland played against Latvia. Poland coped well in the match and achieved its fi rst victory of the tournament, winning 28:23 (14:12) [Ilustrowany Ku- rier 1936, No. 223, p.18]. Neither Stok nor Szostak were involved in Poland’s next match, where they defeated Brazil 33:25 (17:10) [Ilustrowany Kurier 1936, No. 224, p. 21]. In the following match, the Poles were to play against Peru. However, the match did not take place as the Peru team retreated from the Olympic Games in protest against the German authorities intervening in the foot- ball tournament.* For Poland, this meant a sure place in the semi-fi nal and a match against Canada. Not one of the members of Kraków YMCA scored in this match [Ilustrowany Kurier, 1936 No. 225, p. 18]. Poland experi- enced one of its weakest moments and lost 42:15 (25:6). Figure 8. Th eir last match followed, deciding whether Poland or Mexico would take home the bronze medal [Ilustro- winning 20:9 (11:5). Th is result moved the Czechoslova- wany Kurier 1936, No. 226, p. 20]. It didn’t come off for kian team into the third round to play against Uruguay. the Poles in the end, defeated by Mexico 26:12 (23:8), Indeed, that was where Czechoslovakia came to a halt, perhaps also due to their very poor fi rst half performance. losing 28:19 (14:8). Klíma, Picek, Prokop, and Trpkoš E. Szostak tried hard to help his team during the match played in the last Olympic tournament match [Protein [Ilustrowany Kurier 1936, No. 227, p. 20]. 2006, No. 6, p. 16]. Th us, Poland did not achieve its dreamt-of medal Poland’s YMCA also had its share of top basketball success and had to make do with fourth place. Still, it has players. Two of them were similarly nominated for the to be said that Paweł Stok was one of the best players in team to play basketball for Poland at the 1936 Summer the Olympic tournament. Th e medals were handed over Olympic Games in Berlin [Sprawozdanie zarządu 1937, to the tournament’s best teams by the inventor of basket- Polska YMCA, Kraków 1937, p. 52]. Th e fi rst of them was ball himself – James Naismith. Paweł Stok, but he was to play only three matches in the Th e Olympic basketball tournament was organized tournament. In the fi rst match of the tournament, which by F.M. Marek, who was presented with a commemora- Poland played against Italy, he was a substitute. In the tive bronze medal by the German organization commit- end, however, he still got to play in the match, signifi - tee for his dedication whilst preparing the tournament. cantly reducing his team’s defeat to 44:28 (25:12). De- F.M. Marek was also commissioned to make an offi cial spite the short time he spent on court, he became his speech to open the tournament. Apart from that, he was team’s best scorer, shooting seven baskets [Ilustrowany Ku- asked to lecture on his impression of a model youth lead- rier 1936, No. 220, p. 23]. Following this performance, er within a European context at a meeting of American for which he was highly praised, he was chosen to play coaches [STAR 1936, No. 33, p. 8]. the next match in the fi rst team. As a result of their defeat, Polish basketball players had to begin preparing for the next match, where their * Th e Peru football team met Austria in the quarter fi nal of future in the tournament was at stake. However, they the Olympic tournament. Th ey had been losing 0:2 but they managed to level the score in the last 15 minutes of the match. were lucky to obtain a “free draw” and proceeded to the During extra time Peru managed to score two goals, meaning second round without a struggle. In the match against a 4:2 victory for them. However, the Austrian team lodged a Japan, P. Stok had already been selected for the fi rst team protest claiming that the Peru team had tried to manipulate and demonstrated his basketball talent. Shooting 11 bas- the Austrians before the match and that spectators, including kets, he was his team’s best scorer, despite having injured one with a revolver, had run onto the pitch before the match his knee during the course of the match. However, he had ended. For that reason, the match was ordered to be re- played in an empty stadium. However, the Peru team left didn’t manage to prevent Poland’s 43:31 (23:13) defeat. Berlin in protest against the decision. D. Lennox, Now You Another member of the Polish YMCA to play for Po- Know (Big Book of Sports), Dundurn Press, Toronto 2009, land was Edward Szostak. He was involved in one match p. 242.

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 51 Tomáš Tlustý

Czechoslovakia representative Ladislav Trpkoš also After basketball was included in the programme of participated in the following Olympic tournament, held the Olympic Games in Berlin, several members of this 20 years later in London due to the outbreak of the Sec- organization became members of the Czechoslovak and ond World War. At the 1948 Olympic Games in Lon- Polish basketball teams. What is more, physical educa- don, he came in seventh overall with the Czechoslovaki- tion director of Prague YMCA – F.M. Marek – was com- an national team [www.sports-reference.com/olympics/ missioned to organize this basketball tournament. athletes/tr/ladislav-trpkos-1, accessed 6th October 2013] With the approach of the Second World War, the As the Second World War approached, the YMCA YMCA gradually began to limit its activity in certain gradually began to reduce its activities in Czechoslovakia. countries and was later even banned. After the Second In 1943 the YMCA was banned in Czechoslovakia. After World War, the YMCA resumed activity in Central Eu- the Second World War, the YMCA resumed its activity rope. However, its existence did not last long, again be- in Czechoslovakia. However, it again ceased activity un- ing banned in the early 1950s. It was not permanently der duress in 1951 and, having unsuccessfully attempted restored until the 1990s. to “re-establish” in 1968, it didn’t resume activity until However, YMCA members did not manage to con- 1990. An independent Czech YMCA was established in tinue their tradition of sporting achievement from the 1992 as the Czechoslovakian Federative Republics were inter-war period [Th is study emerged in the framework of about to split. the PRVOUK, No. 39.] A similar fate was met by the Polish YMCA. It was also banned during the Second World War. However, this organization was not totally dissolved, as the Pol- Sources and literature ish YMCA was relocated to London during the war, af- ter which it also resumed activity, only to be dissolved Archive funds in 1949 and had to wait until 1990 to be re-established Archives of YMCA in Czech Republic. [ymca.pl/htmle/polska/index.php, accessed16th Oct 2013]. Archives of Polska YMCA in Kraków. Today, the YMCA is the oldest and, with its 45 mil- National Archives in Prague, collection: Předsednictvo minis- lion members in 124 countries, largest worldwide youth terské rady, No. of the cardboard: 222. National Archives in Prague, collection: YMCA, No. of the organization [www.ymca.cz/info-o-ymca/historie/, access- cardboards: 1–7. ed 16th October 2013] Printed sources Conclusion Kronika olympijských her 1896–1996, Fortuna Print, Prague 1996. Th e YMCA is a long-serving international organization Polska YMCA 1923–1938, Polska YMCA, Warsaw 1939. which, despite its wide aims, has signifi cantly contrib- Polska YMCA 1923–2003, Polska YMCA, Warsaw 2003. uted to the development of physical education and sport Polska YMCA Ognisko Krakowskie (Sprawozdanie zarządu in many countries around the world. New sports have z dzia łalności za okres 1 IV 1936 – 1 III 1937), Polska YMCA, Kraków 1937. emerged from its physical education amenities, gradually becoming Olympic sports, often thanks to promotion by Periodicals YMCA members. Ilustrowany Kurier Codzienny, vol. XI (1920) – XXX (1939). Its physical education workers have achieved high Kuryer sportowy, vol. XIII. (1936). standards in their fi eld, becoming untiring promoters of Protein, vol. VIII. (2006) – XII. (2010). physical education and sport. Some of them have also Przegląd Sportowy, vol. I. (1921) – XIX (1939). prepared national teams for the Olympic Games. Raz dwa trzy, vol. I. (1931) – VIII. (1938). A number of members who did sports actively or Sport, vol. I. (1921) – IX. (1929). went through the sports sections and divisions of the Stadjon, vol. I. (1923) –X. (1932). Star, 1926–1938. YMCA also qualifi ed for the Olympic Games. Th e best Tep pražské Ymky, vol. I. (1928) -– IX. (1937). of them even stood on the victory rostrum. YMCA (Časopis sdružení YMCA v Československu), vol. I. Th e YMCA, or its physical education institutions, (1923) – IV (1926). has been highly acknowledged twice, being awarded the Olympic Cup. References In inter-war Czechoslovakia and Poland, this associ- Bosák E. et al. [1969] Stručný přehled vývoje sportovních odvětví ation very rapidly built high quality sports facilities that v Československu. Díl 1, Olympia, Prague. many other organizations or clubs could only “quietly Bureš P., Plichta J. [1931] Sport a tělesná kultura v Čsl. republice envy”. However, you did not have to be a member of the a cizině, Almanach sportu, Prague. Constable G. [1999] Th e IV Olympiad (London 1908, the in- YMCA to use these facilities and almost everyone could ternational YMCA), World sport research & publications, take advantage of them. Los Angeles.

52 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 The YMCA’s International Mission and Its Link to the Olympic Movement

First J.A. [2011] Cesty kratší i delší, Machart, Beroun. Štumbauer J. [1992] Dějiny spolkové tělesné výchovy a sportu Grasso J. [2010] Historical Dictionary of Basketball, Rowman v Č. Budějovicích od poloviny 19. století do roku 1938. (Ha- & Littlefi eld Publishing Group, Lanham. bilitation thesis), Charles University in Prague, Prague. Hlaváč P. [2010] YMCA v Československé armádě na začátku Riess L.W., Úkoly tělovýchovného odboru Ymky, YMCA 20. stol. YMCA v proměnách času, Hynek J.V., (ed.) (Časopis sdružení YMCA v Československu), 1923, 1(3), pp. YMCA, Prague. 65–68. Johnson E.L. [1979] Th e history of YMCA physical education, Tlustý T., Štumbauer J. [2013] Tělesná výchova a sport v or- Association Press, Chicago. ganizacích YMCA a YWCA v meziválečném Československu, Kałamacka E. [1992] Kultura fi zyczna w programach i dzia- University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice. łalności Związku Młodzieży Chrześcijańskiej – Polska YMCA Turcsányi I.S. [2009] Dr. Hepp Ferenc (Békés város szülötte), w latach 1923–1939 (Dissertation thesis), AWF, Kraków. Békés Vár. Jantyik M. Múz., Békés. Konečný J. [1930] YMCA: její vznik, dějiny a význam, Česko- Yttergren L., Bolling H. [1912] Th e 1912 Stockholm Olympics slovenská akciová tiskárna, Prague. (Essays on the Competitions, the People, the City), McFar- Kössl J. et al. [1981] Malá encyklopedie olympijských her, Olym- land, Jeff erson. pia, Prague. J. Konečný, YMCA: její vznik, dějiny a význam, Československá Internet akciová tiskárna, Prague 1930, pp. 28–30. http://historie.volejbal-metodika.cz/historie-clanky/detail/ Lennox D. [2009] Now You Know (Big Book of Sports), Dun- 197/ durn Press, Toronto. http://hoopedia.nba.com/index.php?title=Buff alo_Germans Majumdar B. [2009] Mehta N., India and the Olympics, Rout- http://www.americanheritage1.com/olympics/1904-olympic- ledge, London. offi cials-badge.htm Matthews G.R. [2005] America’s First Olympics (Th e St. Louis http://www.atletika.cz/o-nas/historie/prvni-republika/ Games Of 1904), University of Missouri Press, Columbia. http://www.databaseolympics.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid Mechikoff R., Estes S. [1993] A History and Philosophy of Sport =LASKOKAZ01 and Physical Education, Wm. C. Brown, Oxford. http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/tr/ladislav Pávek F. [1964] Encyklopedie tělesné kultury, Sportovní a turis- -trpkos-1.html tické nakladatelství, Prague. http://www.ymca.cz/info-o-ymca/historie/ Perútka J. [1982] Malá encyklopédia telesnej výchovy a športu, http://www.ymca.int/resources/ymca-world-magazine/sports- Šport, Bratislava. and-the-ymcas/the-ymcas-contribution-to-sports-and- Pipal J. A. [1920] Co je to tělesná výchova?, YMCA, Brno. physical-education/ Procházka K.[1984] Olympijské hry, Olympia, Prague. http://www.ymca.pl/htmle/polska/index.php Schroeder L.C, Historie tělesné výchovy YMCA, YMCA (Časopis sdružení YMCA v Československu), 1926, 4(1), pp. 7–9.

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 53 Manager in the Organization (Based on Women’s Basketball in Poland)

Katarzyna Krężel

Summary To varying degrees, managers have an undeniable impact on the proper functioning of sports organizations, which is why they must possess a number of skills necessary for the proper performance of the management process. These include technical, interpersonal, conceptual, diagnostic, and analytical skills. To be able to meet the needs of its members and customers, sports organizations must employ managers capable of being good leaders and fulfi lling the interpersonal, information, and decision-making roles. This paper makes a distinction between the profi le of the sports manager and sports agent in women’s basketball clubs. Interviews with Wisła Can-Pack general manager Piort Dunin-Suligostowski and licensed sports agent Patrycja Czepiec-Golańska were very helpful in showing the correct picture of basketball club structure and the challenging areas of the posi- tions of sports manager and sports agent. Keywords: sports organization, sports manager, sports agent, skills, roles

rganizations have an undeniable impact on the nancial and information resources. If decisions are to be lives of every man, human personality, and be- eff ective and relevant, the manager must understand the Ohaviour. Th ey are present in our lives and are environment of organization from which all of the re- also ubiquitous in sport. sources managed by him or her come. Th e analysis of To be able to take part in sports, we become mem- emerging trends, economic changes, and various kinds of bers of sports clubs, sections, and sports centres that off er crises, has an impact on a manager’s work, which is un- services related to physical activity. As Kazimierz Doktór predictable, as it involves many factors with little or no writes “organizations performing in the fi eld of sports, impact [Griffi n 1996, p. 40]. become groups of deliberate and planned actions, they Th e purpose of this paper is to present the sports have shaped internal governance structure, the social manager’s and sports agent’s functions in women’s basket- norms regulating the behaviour of members, certain de- ball. It directly refers to the role played by the sports man- gree of activity formalization, relative isolation from the ager in the sports organization, and sports agent in the environment” [Doktór 2005, pp. 10–11]. lives of basketball players, and depicts how their coopera- It seems that all kinds of organizations are charac- tion looks like. My own passion for basketball and the fact terized by the same features, but sports organizations are that it is a huge part of my life were the factors that led me unique and have parameters that are unique for them to raise the subject associated with this sports discipline. only. First of all, no one can be compelled to belong, and To implement the theme of the paper, I used con- so the decision on membership is voluntary. In sports or- tent analysis in the fi eld of organization and manage- ganizations, all decisions are taken democratically, so that ment (mainly from the sociology of organizations). No the statute, resolution, and even the most ordinary deci- less important was the source of interviews with people sion becomes one for which majority of members had performing managerial functions in one of the best bas- voted. A strong sense of inner belonging and intimacy, ketball clubs in Poland. which are today replaced by the commercialization of sport, are an asset to the oldest clubs and sports associa- Profi le of the sports manager tions. Just like the goal of all other organizations, the pri- mary goal of sports organizations is to meet the needs of Th e management process consists of four basic func- their members [Doktór 2005, p. 11]. tions. Th e fi rst is planning and decision-making, which Th e person responsible for implementing the man- involves the defi nition of objectives faced by the organi- agement process in the organization is the sports manag- zation and how to most eff ectively implement them. Th e er. His or her duties include managing human and phys- second is to organize, which is fi nding the best method ical resources, and making decisions concerning the fi - of activity and resources coordination. Another function

54 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Manager in the Organization is to lead people so that they are motivated to work. Th e skills, proper communication, being fair and objective, last function is to control, which is a continuous analysis and acting in accordance with moral principles are so im- of current activities and progress achieved. It often hap- portant. Th e last feature is particularly important when pens that the above features do not occur in the same or- a manager manages the transfers, the area that is often der, but rather occur at the same moment and become ruled by money, and can lead to perdition of ethical val- intertwined [Griffi n 1996, p. 40]. ues [Perechuda 2003, p. 76]. To fulfi l the above functions, it is essential for the Today, when the sports market is dominated by spon- manager to have basic skills such as: technical, inter- sors, the goal of the manager is to keep sports organiza- personal, and conceptual. Technical skills include the tion cohesive. Sponsors try to use their position to force knowledge necessary to fulfi l the duties and responsi- clubs to make transfers that correspond with their will. bilities of the organization. Th e manager is expected to Th e role of the manager in this situation is to be a medi- have a Master’s degree in the fi eld he or she works in. Of ator between the management of the club and its vision course this knowledge will be supported by the experi- and sponsors, who are the main decision-makers in mat- ence gained during the work. Technical skills are incre- ters of budget, and who have the right to impose their mented by the manager, as well as representatives of oth- own requirements and team vision. Good manners, the er professions, by climbing the career ladder. Th e higher ability to think strategically, and professionalism allow the they get, the better the skills and qualifi cations get [Grif- manager to manage the sports organization at a high level. fi n 1996, p. 55]. Interpersonal skills are the ability to make contact Functions and tasks of the manager and communicate with another person or group of co- in an organization workers. Th is is a very important skill for a manager to can eff ectively motivate subordinates. Similarly to the Th e roles, tasks, and functions of a manager are to some ladder of technical skills, the higher the position, the extent determined by the place that is occupied by the greater the social skills and expectations in communicat- manager in the structure of the organization. His or her ing with employees or managers of equal rank [Griffi n fi rst and primary task, regardless of their place in this 1996, p. 56]. structure, is to be a person who has command over a group Th e last are conceptual skills, which are based on the of people and supervises their work, which is consistent ability of abstract thinking. A manager with this skill is with being a leader. “Leadership is the unconstrained di- able to look at the organization as an integrity He or she recting and coordinating the activities of members of an sees and understands how the organization works and organized group to achieve group goals. However, leader- what impact it has on the environment. Additional skills ship as an attribute is a set of personal characteristics at- that lead the manager to success are diagnostic and an- tributed to those who are perceived as using such eff ects alytical skills. Th ey provide an immediate response for successfully” [Sikorski 1999, p. 83–84]. A manager, who an unusual (positive or negative) situation and allow the is a leader, is a person who inspires the employees. Th ere- manager to take appropriate action. With this capability, fore, he or she must consciously build his social roles, as the manager is able to determine the problem, diagnose subordinates unconsciously imitate his or her behaviour. it, and solve it eff ectively [Griffi n 1996, pp. 56–57]. Th e functions and behaviour of a manager consist Th e manager of a sports organization makes de- of responsibilities, tasks, roles, and the previously men- cisions on all three levels of management: operation- tioned skills. No matter what place is occupied by the al, tactical, and strategic. Th is is a highly qualifi ed per- manager in the organization’s hierarchy, at all levels he or son who has knowledge not only of physical culture, she must fulfi l the roles, which divide as follows: inter- but also economics and psychology. Th e title “manager” personal roles, informational roles, and decision-making can be applied to many people who diff er in their scope roles [Griffi n 1996, p. 53]. of responsibilities, and as such, a manager can be called: Interpersonal roles consist of three functions that a person taking care of sport facilities or a team, a person or- can be performed by a manager: the representative role ganizing sport events, a person managing human resources (representing the company, its reputation), the leader- and responsible for the transfer of players or coaches. More ship role (supervision, training, and motivating subordi- rarely, the role of a manager is fulfi lled by a coach, although nates), and the connecting role (mediating inter-organi- this is a person with no adequate training and experience in zational relations) [Griffi n 1996, pp. 52–53]. Th e sports the management fi eld [Perechuda 2003, p. 76]. organization manager must fulfi l the representative role In the sports organization, in the era of the com- by acting as a representative in all kinds of celebrations mercialization of sport, the manager should demonstrate and ceremonies. It is also being a leader who must be able extraordinary professionalism. Th e manager should be- to motivate subordinates to work, players to achieve the come a link between the management of the club, its highest sports disposition, coaches to be eff ective, and staff , players, and sponsors, which is why negotiation managers of sports facilities to prepare the gym for sports

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 55 Katarzyna Krężel events. To meet the needs of the interpersonal role, the existence of decision-making roles would not be possible manager of the sports organization must be a linkage without information roles. Th e task of the manager is to between people. Th is feature is particularly useful dur- manage the organization so that it can satisfy the needs ing the transfer period, when the administration of the of both its members and customers. sports organization has its own idea of the team compo- sition, and sponsors have a diff erent vision. Th e manag- The sports manager’s place within er’s job is to mediate in communication between these the organization’s structure groups, so they fi nd a common understanding and a so- lution that will be the best for the sports organization. Th e manager, to be able to shape the organization in Th e information role divides into: observer function a proper way, has at his or her disposal six elements (collecting the information from the internal and external which are called construction activities: workplace de- environment of the organization), promoter (presentation sign, workplace grouping, establishing the relationship of of new ideas), and spokesperson (communication of in- subordination, balance of power in the organization, ac- formation to the external environment, such as other con- tivities coordination, and the diversifi cation of positions sumer groups and businesses) [Griffi n 1996, pp. 53–54]. [Griffi n 1996, p. 329]. In the informational role, the manager needs to assess, Th e fi rst of theses elements – workplace design – for example, the economic situation in the country. He is nothing more than the manager determining the re- or she has to be able to analyse the market situation and sponsibilities of the employees within their workplace. respond to it in due course. Furthermore, the manager With the growth of the organization, the possibility of must acquire diff erent types of information from players, the manager monitoring all of the employees decreases. coaches, and management, which may, for example, im- Th erefore, workplace grouping, which is another of the prove the image of the team, make the team better, and elements shaping the organization, is an essential task ultimately improve the functioning of the sports organi- that must be conducted by the manager. Th e workplace zation. As a propagator and spokesperson, the manager grouping is executed in a logical order, and created sec- presents various initiatives, provides information to the tions are subordinated to the new managers, who are re- media on behalf of the organization, and makes explana- sponsible for supervising the newly established groups tions of situations or athletic performances. [Griffi n 1996, p. 330, 336]. Th e last of the manager’s roles is a decision-making Another element of building the organization is to role, which is to be an entrepreneur – a person respon- establish a hierarchy between the workplaces and deter- sible for: initiating changes, combating distortion in law mining their mutual dependence. Th e hierarchy of sub- violation, managing resources (human, fi nancial, physi- ordination distinguishes two factors according to which cal, information) and negotiating [Griffi n 1996, pp. 53– the classifi cation is established: the command unity (all 54]. As an entrepreneur, the sports organization manag- employees are subordinated to one boss), the scalar prin- er’s task is to develop new ideas that will aff ect the image ciple (power is linear from the lowest to the highest posi- of the team and the organization. Th is can often be dif- tion) [Griffi n 1996, p. 341, 345]. ferent marketing campaigns designed to encourage view- Th e balance of power in an organization challeng- ers and fans to participate in sport. For instance, it is es the manager in two areas: delegating authority and the sports manager’s responsibility to organize camps for decentralization. During the process of delegating, the children with the participation of professional players. manager assigns some of his responsibilities to subordi- Such an event is a big attraction for young sports fans; nated employees. Th is process is done in three steps: the at the same time it also encourages them to engage in transference of responsibility to a subordinate, an em- sports and shows the competition and the players’ every- ployee receiving the authorization to perform a task, and day work routine. Th e other task of a manager in a sports completing the task by the employee and being account- organization is to resolve confl icts that often arise due to able for it to the manager. Th e continuous process of del- the specifi city of the sports organization, which employs egation of responsibilities to managers at lower levels is large human resources. It is these resources in particular transformed into decentralization, in which the relation- and also fi nancial resources that must be managed by the ship between the manager and the employees are demo- sports manager. When negotiating contracts and agree- cratic [Griffi n 1996, p. 348]. ments, the manager needs to have information on the or- Coordinating the activity performed by the manager ganization’s budget, in order to off er an agreement that is to consolidate the activities of various departments of is satisfactory for the player and adequate to the player’s the organization. Th is process is essential because the ac- abilities, but will also not exceed the budget of a sports tions of particular departments of the organization are organization. interdependent [Griffi n 1996, p. 351]. All of the above-mentioned roles are interrelated. In- Th e diversifi cation of positions is the last of the el- formation roles result from interpersonal roles, and the ements, which creates the structure of the organization.

56 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Manager in the Organization

Th ese positions are divided into linear and staff positions. playing. At this level, both coaches and players are ful- Linear positions are responsible for achieving the goals ly professional and aware of their responsibilities. Th is is of the organization, and could be, for example, manag- when sport becomes a job, not only a pleasure and hobby. ers or directors. Employees in staff positions are those whose experience, acquired knowledge, and support are The role of the sports agent supposed to assist and help the employees in the linear in the women’s basketball club positions [Griffi n 1996, p. 353]. Depending on the level in the organization, manag- Currently, women’s basketball clubs are highly diversifi ed ers can be divided into top-level managers, middle-lev- in terms of organization and represented skills. First, this el managers, and front line mangers. Top-level managers is caused by the league, in which all of the teams partici- are those who are responsible for the proper functioning pate, as well as by the economic situation. In Poland, the of the organization, set the goals, and represent the or- highest and most prestigious women’s basketball league ganization at various types of celebrations and business is the Basket Women’s League (BLK).* Th e level below meetings. Th ey are responsible for the overall strategy of is the second division league under the patronage of the the company. Managers who belong to this group are: Polish Basketball Association, in which there are teams presidents, vice presidents, and directors. Middle-level with limited opportunities for advancement to the BLK. managers are the most numerous group, which includes Th is limitation is mainly due to the fi nancial situation of management positions. Th is group of employees is pri- the clubs, and the reluctance of potential sponsors to ad- marily responsible for achieving the objectives set by top vertise through sport. Th e BLK, although it is the strong- managers and overseeing the work of line managers. At est women’s basketball league in Poland, is characterized the lowest level are the employees, whose task is to con- by great diversity, which is visible at the organizational trol the work of subordinates working at the executive and fi nancial level of the clubs and also at the presented level [Griffi n 1996, p. 46]. sport level. Th e structure of the sports organization can be divided In the world of basketball, mid-table teams are per- into three levels: strategic, tactical, and operational, which ceived as a very similar and aligned. Th ey have similar are very similar to the managerial levels previously described. budgets, are well organized, and have good sports skills. Th e top-level managers do their work at the strategic level In the contest between them, it is hard to indicate the of the sports organization, where the key decisions con- winner, and “the disposition of the day” becomes crucial. cerning the team are made. For example, the managers Teams competing for the top positions in the BLK are who work at the highest level are responsible for trans- characterized not only by a high budget, and hence class fer related decisions, the preparation and sale of sports athletes, but above all by the organization of clubs, which events, and the proper management of the organization, is at a very high level. ensuring it is stable and developing well. Th e managers Th e main person responsible for the high-level or- working at the tactical level are mainly accountable for ganization of the club is the manager. Th e skills of the encouraging the players and coaches to work hard and basketball club manager are not diff erent from those professionally. It is necessary to create a prominent sports of the manager of other organizations; therefore tech- event that is also an attractive commodity for the fans nical, interpersonal, and conceptual skills are required. and spectators. It is also the responsibility of the mid- “Sports managers are diff erent from business organiza- level managers to take care of and provide a good atmos- tions’ managers because of the strong orientation on peo- phere in the club, as it has a huge impact on the players’ ple as task performers and members of the club” [Dok- and team’s image in the media. Th e last task of the mid- tór 2005, p. 61]. In the basketball club, the manager level manager is to make sure that all of the sports facili- has more responsibilities than in other organizations, ties are well maintained and prepared for the players. All and they are conditioned by the structure of this type of of the managers’ functions intertwine and complement club, in which there are fewer employees hired and its ac- each other, as this is the only way to achieve success. At tivities are focused within one or two basketball teams. the operational level the managers are responsible for the Th is means that the manager makes decisions at all of proper preparation of coaches, so they can eff ectively ed- the management levels: operational, tactical, and strate- ucate players [Perechuda 2003, p. 78]. gic. Of course, the general manager of the basketball club Th e managers who work at the operational level seem has associates responsible for implementing the tasks en- to have a particularly important impact on the sports ed- trusted to them, but all the decisions and actions take ucation of youth. Th is is exactly when coaches are sup- * posed to be well prepared, able to share their knowledge, Basket Women’s League (BLK) – (formerly Polish Women’s Basketball League) is the central level and the highest in the and teach the sports chosen by children. Th e operational hierarchy of women’s basketball games in Poland. Th e winner level is less visible in senior sports, where players are re- of this league becomes the Polish Champion, while the quired to possess well-trained skills and are also paid for weakest teams are delegated to the second division.

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 57 Katarzyna Krężel place under the control of the manager. Th is is the case the administration and manager, who largely have an in Wisła Can-Pack Kraków – a team in the Polish Cham- impact on their social and living matters. In addition to pionship, whose general manager is Piotr Dunin-Suligos- the above-mentioned, the basketball club must estab- towski. lish good relations with sponsors, media, fans, manag- Th e conversation conducted with him confi rmed the ers of sports facilities, and the part of society infl uenced importance of substantive knowledge, tacit knowledge, by players’ interaction with children or meetings in hos- and technical skills, which are by Stoner [1997, p. 33] “the pitals and orphanages (interview with Dunin-Suligos- ability to use the methods, techniques and knowledge in towski, dated February 27, 2012). a specialized area”. According to Stoner, to be a very good Conceptual skills are also highly important – “the basketball club manager, it is necessary to have the knowl- ability to coordinate and integrate all the interests and edge about the sport, but also the psychology, econom- activities of the organization. Th ey are associated with ics, and trends that are currently ruling all of the markets the perception of the organization as an entirety, under- (interview with Dunin-Suligostowski, dated February standing the interdependencies that occur between its 27, 2012). As pointed out by Kazimierz Doktór [2005, parts and predicting how a change in any of its parts will p. 61], “the type of sports activity sets rules for the selec- aff ect the whole” [Stoner 1997, p. 33]. In the basketball tion and conduct of managers in the sport, and because club, conceptual skills most often relate to the construc- of familiarity with the sports side (identifi ed with train- tion of the team, when the general manager must con- ing) is the main feature on the list of determinants of the sider which athletes are relevant to the concept of the characteristics of an ‘ideal’ manager”. Previously gained team, and which are not. Conceptual skills also relates experience is transformed into tacit knowledge that the to planning the budget, which among other things is the general manager is able to dispose of and use at work, so collaboration with sponsors and sports agents that repre- that the organization of the club and all the activities and sent the interests of athletes, and HR concepts – organ- projects can function impeccably. Tacit knowledge is ex- izing various meetings, camps for children, and planning tremely valuable, and according to the Japanese approach matches and television broadcasts. Referring to the defi - to knowledge management “is highly personal and hard nition of Stoner’s conceptual skills, the manager of the to formalize, which makes it diffi cult to communicate or basketball club must be able to coordinate all the activi- share with others. Th is category of knowledge includes ties that have or will have an impact on the functioning subjective insights, intuition and hunches. Furthermore, of the club, its good reputation, and positive image. tacit knowledge is deeply rooted in both individual action In this section of the paper, we meet the title “sports and experience, as well as individual ideals, values or emo- agent” for the fi rst time. In the world of sport, the per- tions” [Nonaka & Takeuchi 2005, p. 25]. son who represents the interests of the athletes is called Piotr Dunin-Suligostowski also mentioned how a “sports agent”. In the basketball club, the primary task important interpersonal skills are for the manger of of the sports agent is to fi nd a proper team for the player Wisła Can-Pack Kraków. Stoner defi nes them as “the and negotiate the contract. Th e sports agent is responsi- ability to cooperate with other people, understanding ble for communication with the team management, the them and motivate both individually and collectively” manager, and coaches, if the need arises. Another duty of [1997, p. 33]. In an interview, the general manager of the sports agent is to take care of the positive image of the Kraków’s team said that in order to achieve the goals, represented player, and in some cases agents also take care consistent cooperation between the administration, of the fi nancial matters of the represented player, such as manager, coaches, and athletes is necessary. Certainly, investment and tax settlements, although such cases in establishing relations both within the club and with its Poland are rare. In exchange for the off ered services, the surroundings is not easy. Each person means a new ap- sports agent generally receives between 4–10% of a play- proach, a new system of values, new beliefs and behav- er’s contract, the amount of which is paid by the club. In iours, and therefore it is important to fi nd a way of mo- Poland, the most famous sports agent is Patrycja Czepiec- tivation and agreement, so that all who create the club Golańska, who represents 22 basketball players. For the and cooperate with it have similar beliefs and views. In off ered services she generates 10% of the contract value. the top women’s basketball club, it is important to have highly developed cooperation at all levels, so that it is The specifi city of the sports agent’s all consolidated into one to create a well-functioning work in women’s basketball mechanism. Th e coach needs to have a common under- standing with the players to enable them to trust him In Polish basketball there are currently four sports agents and fulfi l their duties. He also needs to be able to com- licensed by FIBA*: Patrycja Czepiec-Golańska, Arkadiusz municate with the manager, as this defi nes the compo- sition of the team, and with the management team who * FIBA – Th e International Basketball Federation (fr. Fédération Internationale de Basketball) – an association of national decides his salary. Players should also work well with organizations, which governs international competition in

58 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Manager in the Organization

Brodziński, Grzegorz Piekoszewski, and Paweł Majews- and have the ability to draw conclusions. Th e interper- ki [http://www.fi ba.com/basketball_agent, June 8, 2013]. sonal skills are perhaps the most important part of the Today, a sports agent is also called a manager and the sports agent work, as without the ability to establish con- names are used interchangeably by players, clubs, the club tacts with the basketball environment, good communi- manager, and the whole of the basketball “environment”. cation, and cooperation with the players and clubs, the To be able to distinguish between a manager and the pro- job of sports agent would fail to meet its expectations. fi le of a sports agent – referring to a person representing Relationships are the basis for the work of a sports agent, the interests of the athletes and cooperating with clubs and without them this work would be impossible. Th e just from this side – I will use the name “sports agent”. last type of skills are the conceptual skills that help the During the interview, Patrycja Czepiec-Golańska sports agent to build a basketball team and fi nd a team very broadly defi ned the specifi cs of the sports agent for the athletes. Without this skill, a sports agent would job, which according to her are primarily associated with have no ability to correctly assess the needs of the bas- “contracting” players, and hence preparation of the con- ketball market and would not be able to make a proper tract, which will apply to both the athlete and the club analysis of the needs of the athletes. Conceptual skills [interview with Czepiec-Golańska, dated April 9, 2012]. allow the sports agent to integrate the interests of both However, the sports agent’s job consists of a series of re- players and clubs. sponsibilities and activities that must be completed in or- Th ese skills should be supported by the ability to be der to achieve the fi nal establishments. First of all, an im- a good mediator, negotiator, and mentor, the ability to portant part of the sports agent’s work is the continuous motivate, being responsible, objective, and acting in ac- and impeccable cooperation with the general managers cordance with moral principles. In women’s basketball, of teams and mutual analysis of the season. It is essential but also in all other sports, it happens that confl icts arise for the agent to be aware of the club’s expectations from (e.g., an athlete does not meet up to expectations, has the represented players, but also of the fi nancial and or- problems that adversely aff ect the sports disposition). In ganizational situation of the potential employer. Th e oth- such situations, it is important that the sports agent be- er, equally important part of the sports agent’s work, is comes a mediator between the parties and is able to solve the very good cooperation with the players whose inter- their problems. A mediator is a person who can man- ests are represented. Such cooperation guarantees proper age the confl ict and remain impartial during conversa- assessment of the potential of a basketball athlete and her tions. However, being a good negotiator seems to be even personality. Only when the agent fulfi ls his or her du- more important than being a good sports agent. “Nego- ties, is he or she really able to satisfy both parties, which tiating a contract by a sports agent is to use communica- fi nally leads to contract athletes who meet the expecta- tion skills, confl ict resolution, and reaching mutual satis- tions of the team, and fi nd a club that will suit the needs faction” [Stoner 1997, p. 521]. Negotiation is a complex of the athletes. It sometimes happens that during the sea- communication process that requires a lot of patience, as son, either the player or the club is dissatisfi ed, and then it usually consists of several “rounds”. It is a quite compli- the duty of the sports agent is to fi nd a solution to the cated process that depends on several factors, such as: the existing problem. Th is can be made by being a media- perception of the parties’ interdependence of interests, tor, although it is sometimes not enough and the task of mutual trust or lack of it, communication skills such that the sports agent is to terminate the contract (usually by the other party has accepted the presented point of view, agreement of both parties) and re-fi nd a club for the ath- the personality of the negotiators, and their goals and in- lete, if there are no further transfer restrictions. terests [Stoner 1997, p. 523]. Undoubtedly, the skills of the sports agent and man- According to Patrycja Czepiec-Golańska, it is also ager are very similar, and thus, according to what was important to be a mentor for her players, to be able to written in the earlier part of this paper, they are divid- steer their careers in the right direction [interview with ed into technical, interpersonal, and conceptual skills. Czepiec-Golańska, dated April 9, 2012]. Her idea of co- Th e technical skill of the sports agent in women’s basket- operation and good substantive care is similar to the view ball primarily is the substantive knowledge about basket- described by Krzysztof Klincewicz [2008, p. 16], for who ball, economic, labour market and legal basis. Solid tac- the concept of mentoring is the “transfer of a less experi- it knowledge is also very important because it may give enced employee under a mentor’s supervision”. Accord- a competitive advantage. Th at is why it is very impor- ing to Klincewicz, the task of the mentor is to give good tant for a manager to learn from their own experience advice to the subordinate, answering questions, dispel- ling all doubts, and providing guidance. Mentoring by a sports agent in women’s basketball can be particularly basketball. FIBA defi nes the international rules of basketball, specifi es the equipment and facilities, regulates transfers important for young athletes just entering the market of of players between clubs, and controls the nomination of professional basketball. Th us, the experience, knowledge international referees. Founded in Geneva in 1932. and care of Patrycja Czepiec-Golańska can properly steer

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 59 Katarzyna Krężel an athlete, as well as allow her to quickly familiarize her- As a part of the interpersonal role, the representa- self with the labour market. In the case of athletes who tional function performed by a manager primarily aims are shaped and experienced, the mentor’s role is limited to infl uence the good image of the basketball club. Th is to providing an overview of the situation on the “pro- can be achieved by good cooperation with media, which, fessional basketball” market and providing guidance in as Piotr Dunin-Suligostowski said, is not easy, as it is the choosing a club, which will be represented by the player media who have the tools necessary to create a positive [interview with Czepiec-Golańska, dated April 9, 2012]. or negative image [interview with Dunin-Suligostows- Th e ability of the sports agent, which in some ways is re- ki, dated February 27, 2012]. A manager who manages lated to the ability of being a good mentor, is the ability a sports club should become a link with both the inner to motivate. As noticed by Doktór [2005, pp. 28, 32] club as well as with the external environment. For the “Motivating individuals is to stimulate their choice of basketball club to have a good reputation, the manager one of many alternative variants of behaviour, such as must almost perfectly interact on many levels, such as: taking a voluntary decision to enter a sports club and the club management, athletes, coaches, sponsors, market- training regime in the selected discipline” and according ing, and sports agents. Especially diffi cult seems to be to sport psychologists is the “fi rst cause of spontaneous the cooperation with sports agents, through which the behaviour or conscious action.” A sports agent as a good fi nalization of contracts is held, and with sponsors, with mentor should be able to motivate his or her subordi- whom mutual agreement should be found on the ob- nates not only to work hard and make sacrifi ces, but also jectives of advertising and sports. Th erefore, it is impor- towards a healthy lifestyle, regularity, responsibility, and tant for the manager to be a so-called link between them, faith in their abilities. All of these factors have a huge as only then will good communication and the relation- impact on the presented sports level, and are undoubt- ship between the structures of the club and its external edly a measure of success. According to Kazimierz Dok- environment be possible. Th e last of the three activities tór [2005, p. 40] “in modern sport, athletes appreciate performed by the manager of the basketball club in the the achievements of motivation, have a strong desire to context of the interpersonal role is being a leader. A well be better in the competition, […]. Th e theme of fame functioning basketball club, both in terms of organiza- and a strong desire to elite social affi liation are also pre- tion and sport, is the best proof that the manager faces cious ingredients of motives to play sport and the per- the challenge of being a good leader. When this is so, sonal agreement to the very early and hard practices and then he or she becomes a role model for other employ- numerous austerities”. With all these skills that shape the ees, and having their appreciation and respect, it is much profi le of the sports agent, it is important for the sports easier to lead the club. agent to be a responsible person. Th is responsibility Th e sports agent also has to fulfi l his or her interper- should manifest itself in organizational matters, which sonal role activities. As a person who represents the in- is in search of players for clubs and clubs for players, in terests of athletes, the sports agent should fulfi l this func- purely legal issues that are related to signing the contract, tion impeccably, as he or she represents the athlete and and in moral matters, which is fair control over the ca- her expectations for the club. Th e way the conversation reers of athletes in accordance with the applicable rules. is led and the off er is presented are extremely important, as these aff ect the image of the player. Just as the man- ager takes care of the good image of the sports club, so The areas of managerial challenges the sports agent with his or her representativeness should in the management of a women’s take care of the athlete’s image. By leading the conversa- basketball club tions on behalf of the athletes, the sports agent becomes the link between the basketball player and a club. Previ- Th e areas of managerial challenges are directly related ously described as “being a mediator” by a sports agent, to the previously described roles of manager: interper- is also a form of mediation between a club and the play- sonal, informational, and decision-making. Mentioned er, which is frequently met in confl ict situations. Good by James Stoner [1997, p. 30], management practice is organization and self-supervision make up the leadership based on the versatility that should describe managers. tasks of the sports agent. Th ey are not quite as distinc- Versatility is the ability to fulfi l each of the above roles, tive as in the case of the club manager; but the type of especially during interpersonal relations. As noted by Pi- work performed, and the diff erences in the activities and otr Dunin-Suligostowski, general manager of Wisła Can- responsibilities of the manager and the sports agent de- Pack Kraków, the manager’s job in a sports club consists termine this. of a series of obligations starting with the club’s transfer One of the biggest challenges in the area of the inter- politics, budgeting and control of the budget, and end- personal role is being a spokesperson for the sports club, ing in the sphere of marketing and logistics [interview the observer and the promoter. In the basketball club, with Dunin-Suligostowski, dated February 27, 2012]. being a spokesperson is particularly important in deal-

60 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Manager in the Organization ing with the media, which as previously mentioned is and information resources. A basketball club is an organ- not easy. Th erefore, it is important that the manager of ization in which the implementation of tasks and goals the basketball club, by being a carrier of information to – hence obtaining sponsors, reputable coaching staff and the external environment, makes the correct selections, athletes, and a positive image – depend on the players’ and fl ow of information that can be provided. Th is has sports disposition. As seen, a human being is a tremen- a substantial impact on shaping the positive image of the dously important factor in a sports organization; there- club, and thus promotes the team and sponsor. Capital- fore, it is an extremely important challenge for the sports izing the information from the external environment is manager to be able to properly manage human resourc- also extremely important, as it gives the basketball club es. Along with the coaches and management, the manger the possibility to adapt to the market requirements, the has to put together a team that will fi t the concept of the Polish Basketball Federation,* FIBA, and to have the cor- club, not only in terms of sport, but also character. When rect response to the transfer movements of other clubs. building a team for the next season, the manager must As a good observer, the sports manager of a basketball remember not to exceed the budget of the club, which is club should notice any changes in the economic situa- directly related to fi nancial management. Another impor- tion, both on the domestic and sports market, although tant challenge for the manager is to initiate changes. In this skill should be used not only in the fi nancial sphere. order to do this it is necessary to make analyses that may It may also prove to be extremely useful during the trans- indicate the poorly functioning structures of the club, and fer period, when the sport disposition of players should the role of a manager is to spot these “weak points” and be observed. As a result, the sports manager builds his attempt to make some changes. Marketing campaigns of- or her knowledge about the athletes whom the club are ten seem to be very challenging in women’s basketball. interested in for the new season. Th is knowledge can be Today, when basketball is not the most popular disci- used while talking with coaches, management, and spon- pline in Poland and lacks international success, it is dif- sors about the future team. fi cult to count on the support of the fans without a well- In the case of the sports agent, the information role is prepared marketing campaign. Th e success of the team is primarily limited to the role of observer, through which a condition to attracting fans, but the publicity of infor- the agent has a very good understanding of the “basket- mation about players or running a website cannot be for- ball” market. By having adequate knowledge of the ath- gotten, as such policies maximize the marketing objectives letes, the sports agent is able to meet the expectations of and increase the audience. Of course, besides the market- the club in terms of the off ers of the represented players. ing problems, a club experiences many others, which of- In fact, he or she has a wide range of represented ath- ten relate to: changes in personnel, logistics, and budg- letes, which allows the basketball club to choose the best et, which are also problematic spheres in other organi- option that will fi t into the establishments and concepts zations, although the ability to innovate and implement of the team. Th e sports agent, due to made observations the changes is benefi cial for their image. Th e role of a ne- and acquired information, is able to fi nd so-called “free” gotiator, which is a part of the decision-making role, has players – those whose interests are not represented by any special importance for the sports manager when negoti- agent. It gives the agent the opportunity to sign a con- ating sports and sponsorship contracts. As noted by Piotr tract with that player, to represent her in front of the Dunin-Suligostowski, obtaining a sponsor is a huge chal- clubs that are interested in her services. In professional lenge due to the general economic situation, as sponsors basketball there are practically no renowned players who do not want to direct the fi nancial means towards sport, are not be related to any of the sports agents, and there- but rather towards other advertising purposes [interview fore “seeking” “free” athletes is limited to the young and with Dunin-Suligostowski, dated February 27, 2012]. talented basketball players who are perspective for both A diffi cult economic situation also makes it hard to sports agent and basketball clubs. negotiate contracts with basketball players, which among Th e manager’s decision-making role seems to be as- other things has resulted in the introduction, by the BLK, sociated with the greatest responsibility, as it consists of of rules that limited the playing time of Polish players, resource management, initiating changes, combating dis- and hence the amount of their contracts. Negotiations tortion in violation of the law, and negotiation. Resource with the best Polish players are not easy for the manager management is a broad concept, under which the sports and club, as these are the players who value their skills, so manager needs to manage the human, fi nancial, physical, fi nding an agreement that will satisfy both parties is also not easy. Th e fi nal step of the manager’s decision-making * Polish Basketball Association – (pl. Polski Związek Koszy- role is to prevent the interference of violation of the law. kówki) nationwide sports association with its location in In every club, an athlete signs the rules of the club with Warsaw, founded in 1957, functioning on the Polish territory, with legal personality, is the only representative of the men’s the contract, obligating her to follow them, and in the and women’s basketball of all age categories, at home and event of non-fulfi lment of its provisions (e.g., being late abroad. or absent for practice), the manager together with the

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 61 Katarzyna Krężel club’s management have the right to draw up the con- ation, the average in comparison with other countries’ sequences. Similar law enforcement also takes place at level of training for young people and BLK regulations higher levels of club management, for instance, on-time regarding the number of Polish players on the fl oor dur- salary transfers and the enforcement of sports and spon- ing the match, and hence the infl ux of young athletes, for sorship agreements. In clubs that have a good reputation, whom playing in extra league teams is an important fac- infringing situations are very rare, although quite often tor in the development of a basketball career. Observing they happen in the clubs that have poorly functioning the Polish reality, the number of young basketball play- organization. ers in the BLK does not increase regularly, and hence the Th e sports agent mainly represents two out of four sports agent working with the extra league clubs, primar- functions of the decision-making role: managing human ily represents mature athletes who already have a good resources and negotiating. According to Patrycja Czepiec- reputation. While today it is related to income, the ques- Golańska, fi nding a job for a player is not easy, primar- tion remains, how will the situation of sports agents look ily due to the economic situation. Th e ability to negotiate in a few years when the successors of players currently a satisfying off er largely depends on the basketball play- spending lots of time on the fl oor are needed, and whose er herself and the level of presented skills in the previous position is not threatened by the infl ux of the “young season [interview with Czepiec-Golańska, dated April 9, force” to the BLK extra league. 2012]. In the position of sports agent, the ability to make Perhaps this is a factor that decides that there are very a fi ne selection of a player that will fi t the club’s “philos- few licensed agents in women’s basketball. Being a good ophy” is very important and only possible due to gath- agent is associated with having good knowledge of the ered knowledge and experience. By managing player re- basketball market, but also with the relevant character sources, the sports agent should be able to analyse and to help in the proper performance of the work and good predict what quality the selected athlete will bring to the management of the careers of athletes. team. Th e factors that make the manager’s negotiations We can only hope that any type of regulation and with agents diffi cult constitute the same diffi culty for the the infl ux of young and talented athletes will have a fu- sports agents, and their role is to use such arguments to ture impact on the work of sports agents, who not only convince the club to accept the off er. During negotia- guide the sports careers, but also contribute to the image tions, this off er will change, but the most important is of Polish women’s basketball. that both parties are satisfi ed: the club with the amount of money that needs to be paid to the player without exceed- ing the budget, and the player with the salary adequate References to her skills. Immediately behind the agent’s job there is Doktór K. [2005] Zarys socjologii zarządzania sportem, War- a law offi ce, through which the agent has control over all szawa: Polska Korporacja Menedżerów. contracts of the players and also supervises the proper ex- Griffi n R. [1996] Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami, War- ecution of the agreement by both sides. In case of legal ir- szawa: Wydawnicto Naukowe PWN. regularities, the agent has the opportunity to intervene, Klincewicz K. [2008] Strategie kodyfi kacji i personalizacji although if this does not bring the desired results, the case wiedzy, Zarządzanie wiedzą, Jemielniak D., Kożmiński A. is usually forwarded to FIBA, for the federation to impose (ed.), Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Akademickie i Profesjo- sanctions against parties violating the law. nalne. Nonaka I., Hirotaka T. [2000] Kreowanie wiedzy w organizacji. Jak spółki japońskie dynamizują procesy innowacyjne, War- Conclusion szawa: Poltext. Perechuda K. [2003] Zarządzanie marketingiem w organizacji Proper organization management is the condition under sportowej, Wrocław: AWF Wrocław. which organization is able to function well. It is essential Sikorski C. [1999] Zachowania ludzi w organizacji, Warszawa: in the pursuit to achieve the desired objectives, and con- Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. sequently – the success, which is followed by substantial Stoner J. [1997] Kierowanie, Warszawa: Polskie Wydawnictwo benefi ts. Th e person who is largely responsible for this is Ekonomiczne the manager. It is no diff erent in sports organizations. It seems, therefore, that the question of the validity of this Interviews: Interview with Patrycja Czepiec-Golańska dated April 9, 2012 type of discussion is only a rhetorical question. In profes- (manuscript in the collection of the author). sional sports, clubs operate like businesses, and their goal Interview with Piotr Dunin-Suligostowski dated February 27, (beyond generating performances at the highest level) is 2012 (manuscript in the collection of the author). to make profi ts. In this context, the role of both manager and sports agent seems to be invaluable. Websites: In women’s basketball, the sports agent’s work seems http://www.fi ba.com/basketball_agent [Access: 8.VI.2013] to be particularly challenging due to the economic situ-

62 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Personal and Social Determinants of Active Ageing: The Case Study of the Jagiellonian Third-Age University Students

Waldemar Makuła Department of Theory and Methodology of Physical Education Faculty of Physical Education and Sport University of Physical Education in Kraków

Summary The aim of the research was to show the attitudes of the Jagiellonian Third-Age University students towards ac- tive ageing and its personal and social conditions. The fi ndings can be used in postulated permanent physical education, as well in social initiatives directed to health prophylaxis of seniors. During the research the Scheler value scale (with the analysis accent put on physical culture values), as well the author’s questionnaire of at- titudes towards the body values and the behavioural inventory have been used. The basic data distribution statistics have been evaluated, too. The seniors esteem health value and present positive pro-health attitudes, however the part of them expresses the inconsistent views in terms of the cognitive and aff ective attitudes’ components. Irrespective of the diff erences in the motives and forms of movement choices made by the women and men, the most of them undertakes active relaxation. The polled treat their modest fi nances as the basic bar- rier stopping their participation in physical culture. The fi ndings confi rm the rank of education in strengthening seniors’ attitudes towards the body vital value, especially within the cognitive and aff ective components, how- ever do not confi rm the assumptions about their uniform character. On the current state of these attitudes the diff erent respondents’ life experiences have had a signifi cant infl uence. Keywords: active ageing; health values and attitudes, health prophylaxis, physical culture

Introduction risk factors and their revealed eff ects to health. Simi- larly, P. Astrand [1994] encourages participating in the Th e issue of health-enhancing physical activity regarding regular movement that improves functioning of human the medical and social consequences of the seniors’ par- body systems. Th erefore, physical education addressed ticipation in physical culture [Ailshire, Crimmins 2011; to ‘students of late adulthood’ [Pawłucki 2013] regard- Nowocień 2012; Żukowska 2012] is treated nowadays as ing the ability of choosing physical eff ort suitably to hu- one of the core ageing problems [Rastogi Kalyani, Cor- man health needs and capacities allows to strengthen riere, Ferrucci 2014]. According to D. MacAuley [2000], positive attitudes towards the body exercises among sen- many older women in the developed countries grapple, iors. Many researchers [Damush, Perkins, Mikesky et al. due to their physical strength decrease, with the limita- 2005; Makuła 2007], when analysing the diff erent deter- tions in terms of daily activities. Th is author underlines minants of active ageing, are in fact convinced about the the fact that the studies on physical activity also cover key role of the permanent and affi rmative attitudes [Wahl the problems regarding the prevention of lifestyle diseas- 2010] to physical culture values [Baker, Meisner, Logan es and treatment resulting from the contemporary man’s et al. 2009; Yasunaga, Togo, Watanabe et al. 2008]. wrong everyday habits. He highlights at the same time Th erefore, in the social dimension initiating actions the benefi ts of well being, which can be derived from in the fi eld of preventive health, which are used among exercise by a man at any stage of his life and informs other things, in the creation of appropriate conditions that older people’s cardiovascular capabilities designate for active recreation for seniors is of great importance. how they realize their daily activities. In his opinion, the Th e accepted indicators assist in those opportunities’ physical exercise intensity is the only modifi able varia- evaluation. For instance, the Global AgeWatch index ble, because of the biological relationship between the [2013] referring to such the domains as the income secu-

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 63 Waldemar Makuła rity, health status, employment and education, and envi- of health in terms of the cognitive, aff ective and behav- ronmental support reveals the diff erentiated situations of ioural structural factors that decide about its intrinsic co- seniors all over the world in 2013. Th e fulfi lment of the hesion. Th e behavioural inventory enables highlighting requirements corresponding to the basic healthy ageing the motives infl uencing seniors’ decisions to undertake determinants such as life expectancy, psychological well- exercise, identifi es the movement forms acknowledged being, educational attainment and physical safety decides by them in their youth and examines their self-esteem on the index’s value and informs in eff ect about the rank considering their current physical fi tness level. of the various countries in their approaches to the older From amongst all fi fty items on the scale, the merely people. Poland is ranked with the value of 45.9 at the six- values like physical fi tness, strength and agility (it means ty-third place in the world. Th is result indicates the need in kinesiology the ability to move quickly and easily) have for more intensive creation of favourable surroundings, been taken into account, while investigating. Each value greater social engagement to enable Polish seniors wider can be evaluated in the score range of 0–100 points. At- than their current participation in the off ers of active rec- tributing a score greater than 50 points to a value indi- reation as well as diagnosing the older people’s attitudes cates an increase of interest in the value, while a score towards the health value as the primary determinant fac- lesser than 50 points corresponds to a decrease of interest tor in healthy lifestyle. in it. Counting the basic statistics of distribution has al- Th e problem of searching the seniors’ attitudes to- lowed showing the diff erences of the distribution of val- wards health, also those of them who study at the Jag- ues between the respondents’ groups. iellonian Th ird Age University and their participation in physical activity fi ts into this postulate’s assumptions The respondents’ characteristics [Older people, sport and physical activity: a review of key is- A long-term research conducted with the seniors study- sues 2004, Healthy ageing – a challenge for Europe 2006, ing at the Jagiellonian Th ird Age University in Kraków Global elderly care in crisis 2014, Improving the health of (the survey was also carried out with other students rep- older Indigenous Canadians 2013, How to cope with an resenting the similar academic institutions in Poland and ageing population 2013]. abroad) had been fi nalized in 2009. Th e polled students are a group of active university graduates who constant- The research procedure ly acquire new information and abilities and in that way take part in lifelong permanent education. Th e basic in- Problems formation concerning the surveyed seniors from Kraków In order to obtain the answers on the character of the has been shown in Table 1. Women dominate in the seniors’ attitudes towards active ageing the following re- structure of the polled respondents, same as it has place search questions have been formulated: in the widespread investigations’ results of many authors 1. What the attitudes of the seniors towards the typical cited in the further part of the paper. Th ose aged 51–60 values of physical culture have been revealed in the are the majority in the group of female respondents. study? However, more older men proportionally belong to the 2. Which of the motives that infl uence the respond- group of respondents in the age bracket 61–70. Th us, the ents’ participation in physical activity are the most answers received from the older women and men who are popular? aged between 50 and 70 are characteristic for the polled 3. How intensively do the surveyed seniors practice respondents in the presented research. physical exercises today in their spare time and how intensively did they practice them in the past? Results 4. Which of the barriers to physical activity are domi- nant amongst the Jagiellonian Th ird Age University Health and lifestyle of the Jagiellonian Third Age students? University students 5. What the diff erences, based on the respondents’ sex, Keeping a certain way of life by one [Sekuła 1991] de- are referring to their attitudes towards active ageing? termines the prevention of their health. Th e investigated seniors, who acknowledge their health problems, evalu- ate their current health status as not very good or ac- Methods ceptable. Th e women more critically evaluate their pre- Th e questionnaire of attitudes and the senior’s behaviour- sent health status. About two-thirds of the men are rather al inventory constructed by the author, as well as Schel- satisfi ed with health they possess. Also, according to the er’s values scale proposed by Piotr Brzozowski were used opinion of more than half of the men, they had no se- while investigating the seniors’ demeanours towards ac- rious health problems in the past. A similar opinion on tive ageing. Th e attitudes’ questionnaire allows to lead the that topic is expressed by a slightly smaller percentage of analysis on the distinguished in this article subcategories the women.

64 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Personal and Social Determinants of Active Ageing: The Case Study of the Jagiellonian Third-Age University Students

Table 1. The research sample of the older respondents.

Women and men together Women Men Age (in years) (82 = 100%) (68 = 100%) (14 = 100%)

50 minus 2 (2.44%) 2 (2.94%) – 51 – 60 yrs. of age 38 (46.34%) 36 (52.94%) 2 (14.29%) 61 – 70 yrs. of age 39 (47.56%) 29 (42.65%) 10 (71.43%) 71 – 80 yrs. of age 2 (2.44%) 1 (1.47%) 1 (7.14%) 80 plus 1 (1.22%) – 1 (7.14%) An average age 61.56 60.66 65.93 Median 61 60 63.50 Mode 63 60 63

Th e fi ndings concerning the healthy mode of life, 3. the respondents eat meals regularly, most often three but with an exclusion of the respondents’ engagement in during a day. physical activity show that: Th e revealed results concerning the declared by 1. the majority of the respondents declaring alcohol the respondents the hygienic behaviours convince that consumption assess their alcohol intake as lower health – independently of the self-esteem of its current than normal, while one fi fth of the polled declare and past status – is an appreciated value by them. In the abstaining from alcohol – just a few women evaluate signifi cant majority they try to conduct a lifestyle appro- consuming alcohol by them as being normal; priate for own health. 2. most of the seniors do not smoke cigarettes at all, whereas only the women are those who daily smoke Health attitudes more than fi ve cigarettes – they smoke them for sev- According to the assumptions of social psychology [Re- eral years and even for a few decades; ber 1995] on the interrelationships between values and

Table 2. Seniors attitudes’ cognitive factor.

Scale explanation (%) Statements Seniors by gender Strongly Strongly Agree No answer Disagree agree disagree Together 91.46 7.32 0 0 1.22 Health is one of the most (N = 82) important values, indepen- Women (N = 68) 89.71 8.82 0 0 1.47 dently of circumstances. Men (N = 14) 100 0 0 0 0

Together 34.15 52.44 1.22 12.20 0 One appreciates health only (N = 82) in the face of illness. Women (N = 68) 36.76 48.53 1.47 13.24 0 Men (N = 14) 21.43 71.43 0 7.14 0 Together 67.07 28.05 3.66 1.22 0 An active and hygenic mode (N = 82) of life is a basis for good health. Women (N = 68) 64.71 29.41 4.41 1.47 0 Men (N = 14) 78.57 21.43 0 0 0 Together 9.76 7.32 1.22 28.05 53.66 Everyday observance (N = 82) of hygiene rules has a mini- mum eff ect on one’s health. Women (N = 68) 10.29 8.82 1.47 29.41 50 Men (N = 14) 7.14 0 0 21.43 71.43

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 65 Waldemar Makuła

Tabela 3. Aff ective factor of the attitudes towards health.

Scale explanation (%) Statements Seniors by gender Strongly Strongly Agree No answer Disagree agree disagree

Good health has an Together (N = 82) 93.90 6.10 0 0 0 advantageous eff ect on one’s self-image. Women (N = 68) 92.65 7.35 0 0 0 Men (N = 14) 100 0 0 0 0

Together (N = 82) 7.32 18.29 10.98 26.83 36.59 Good health does not en- hance one’s outlook on life. Women (N = 68) 18.82 17.65 10.29 29.41 33.82 Men (N = 14) 0 21.43 14.29 14.29 50

People enjoy opportunities Together (N = 82) 50 37.80 7.32 4.88 0 to improve their health and prevent illness, regardless Women (N = 68) 45.59 41.18 8.82 4.41 0 of age. Men (N = 14) 71.43 21.43 0 7.14 0

Seniors demonstrate Together (N = 82) 2.44 13.41 3.66 35.37 45.12 a neutral attitude to their health in contrast to young Women (N = 68) 1.47 13.24 4.41 35.29 45.59 people. Men (N = 14) 7.14 14.29 0 35.71 42.86

attitudes, the appreciation of the health value can be ex- more than one third of the women do not agree with the pressed by the seniors’ positive attitudes towards that statement that obtaining by man the vital benefi ts for his value. According to I. Ajzen [2008], attitudes not only organism causes the increase of human optimism. On determine the undertaken actions by seniors, but also the other hand, also the same respondents persuade that refl ect the characteristic for them types of behaviour. life satisfaction observed in people of diff erent ages is due When considering this dependency, the individual com- to the potential for health improvement opportunities. ponents of the respondents’ attitudes towards health have Th e attitude’s behavioural factor, which expresses the been analysed on the basis of the obtained results in the disposition to undertake actions for the sake of health, survey. Th e cognitive factor of the attitudes shows the re- concerns among others the willingness of the respond- spondents’ beliefs in regard to the postulate of undertak- ents to start regular physical activity (Table 4). Th e sen- ing the care of own health and carrying out by them the iors declare readiness to exercise. Hence, they consistent- healthy mode of life (Table 2). Almost all of the respond- ly express their wish to participate in health prophylax- ents highlight the signifi cance of health, irrespectively of is by taking part in exercise (for instance in marching the diverse life circumstances. Similarly, nearly all believe forms) instead of use of tonics. However, they count also that active and hygienic style of life strengthens that val- with the possibility of adverse eff ects of physical exercise ue. Slightly fewer respondents are convinced that man for own organism. appreciates health, particularly in the case of disease risk. Undoubtedly, the seniors present the positive health Th e majority of the surveyed seniors discards opinions attitudes; although in the approaches of many of them to negating the benefi ts of daily hygienic rules. However, some issues, for instance those related to the aff ective at- every fi fth woman would accept those. titudes’ factor, one can notice the antinomies. Compared Th e aff ective component revealing the respondents’ to the cognitive and emotional components, one can also emotional involvement defi nes the relationship between notice an interesting fact of allocating by the respondents owning good health and being satisfi ed with life. (Ta- a higher rank to the attitude’s behavioural factor, which ble 3). Nearly all the seniors recognize and confi rm the describes their inclination to start health-related physical occurrence of this relation, and the signifi cant number activity, though in the structure of the declared attitudes of them positively evaluates the health attitudes present- the cognitive and emotional factors are not in each case ed by their mates. Nevertheless, many persons including coherent.

66 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Personal and Social Determinants of Active Ageing: The Case Study of the Jagiellonian Third-Age University Students

Table 4. Seniors attitudes’ behavioural factor.

Scale explanation (%) Statements Seniors by gender Strongly Strongly Agree No answer Disagree agree disagree

Together (N = 82) 32.93 56.10 6.10 4.88 0 I am ready to begin regular exercising to support my Women (N = 68) 35.29 52.94 5.88 5.88 0 health. Men (N = 14) 21.43 71.43 7.14 0 0

Together (N = 82) 4.08 2.44 1.22 47.56 43.90 I try to avoid any exercise because I am afraid of its Women (N = 68) 4.41 2.94 1.47 44.12 47.06 adverse eff ects on my health. Men (N = 14) 7.14 0 0 64.29 28.57

Walking, even in a bad Together (N = 82) 70.73 25.61 1.22 1.22 1.22 weather, is more advanta- Women (N = 68) 69.12 29.41 0 1.47 0 geous for health than use of tonics. Men (N = 14) 78.57 7.14 7.14 0 7.14

It is better to err on the side Together (N = 82) 4.88 4.88 1.22 34.15 54.88 of caution and avoid the risk Women (N = 68) 4.41 5.88 1.47 33.82 54.41 of catching a cold by walking in the open air. Men (N = 14) 7.14 0 0 35.71 57.14

The approach to the physical culture values and degree this value. Compared to granting most frequently motives for participation in physical activity by the women the described value 50 points, the men at- One of the indicators of factual human interest in acti- tribute mostly 80 points (out of 100 possible points on ve recreation is the realisation of physical activity valu- the scale) to that value. Th e size of the coeffi cient of vari- es [Znaniecki, Th omas 1958; Znaniecki 1973; Zdebska ation is also signifi cantly lower for this value in the men 2012]. Declared by the respondents the affi rmation of than in the women. the values of physical culture located at the scale reveals Presented earlier in the text the seniors’ health at- the seniors’ desire to achieve them within the work on titudes are not only the results of recognized by them own body (Table 5). human movement values, but are also associated with According to the results, the majority of the sur- the structure of the behaviour motivation performed by veyed women and men appreciate the physical culture them in physical culture. According to more than half values in the following order: physical fi tness, agility of the respondents, the opportunity of ensuring the eve- and physical strength. Th e results’ distribution is highly ry day smooth functioning of an organism is a leading asymmetric (left-hand) in the case of physical fi tness and reason for undertaking physical exercise. Another quite agility and slightly asymmetric in the event of physical important motive both for the men and women is their strength. It means that somewhat more than half of the conviction about the eff ective impact of exercise on slow- respondents count with the value of physical strength, ing involution processes. Besides the shown motives, the while the vast majority of them esteem physical fi tness other characteristics for the women relate to the devel- and agility. Th e sizes of the coeffi cient of variation (ex- opment of health and maintaining well-being through ceeding 20%) obtained for each of those values indicate the movement, and for the men to the need for move- on a large discrepancy in the respondents’ assessments ment and sense of the duty of conducting in this way the [Pociecha 2002; Ferguson, Takane 1997]. Th e closest care of the body based on their education in the youth among them are the positive assessments attributed by at home and school. Th e reasons related to the desire the seniors to physical fi tness. Th e respondents most of- to maintain the slender fi gure and the ability to reduce ten attribute to that only value the maximum number of stress are of some importance, especially for the women. points, too. Th e visible diff erences between the women All previously mentioned the motives determining the and men are revealed in turn in their attitude to the val- share of the respondents in physical culture are of intrin- ue of physical strength. Th e men appreciate to the bigger sic character. Th e extrinsic one related to the fashion for

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 67 Waldemar Makuła

Tabela 5. The physical activity values’ rank and statistics for the frequency distribution

Score Statistics 50–100 Less than 50 Seniors Values Coeffi cient of % % Median Mode Skewness variability (%)

Fitness 87.34 12. 66 71 100 32.17 –1.17 Together Agility 60.76 39.24 60 80 47.83 –0.98 (N = 79) Strength 59.49 40.51 50 50 57.12 –0.04

Fitness 86.36 13.64 70 100 32.80 –1.20 Women Agility 60.61 39.39 50 80 49.53 –1.01 (N = 66) Strength 57.58 42.42 50 50 60.99 –0.12

Fitness 92.31 7.69 80 100 26.92 –1.02 Men Agility 61.54 38.46 80 80 36.59 –0.83 (N = 13) Strength 69.23 30.77 70 80 33.37 –0.89

movement has no importance to the surveyed women physical exercise after 25 years of age to the origins of and men. It should be thus stressed that the main mo- aging, and half of those surveyed admitted that after 25 tives deciding about the seniors’ participation in physical years of age they undertook moderate or low physical ac- eff ort are the intrinsic ones of a utilitarian character; the tivity. Currently, half of the women declare the partici- health and hedonistic reasons are also important for the pation in moderate physical activity, and the others in women, same as the habitual reason is valid for the men. similar proportions indicate a low or high intensity of exercise. Physical activity Th e respondents learned the following forms of As it was already signalled in the work, the analysis of movement during school education in their youth: the the seniors’ participation in physical activity [Nowak, basic of gymnastics, team sports, and athletic exercises Doupona 2000; Kozdroń 2006] shows how the values like running, jumps and throws. However, the move- of physical culture can be realized in practise. Th e largest ments acquired by the seniors outside the classroom were number of the older people (almost half) evaluates the mostly cycling, dancing, hiking and swimming. Whereas level of currently undertaken by them physical activity as winter sports (skiing and skating) were not as popular. moderate. A similar number of the respondents declare Th e women during their extracurricular activities in the their current participation in physical activity of high or youth eagerly studied dance forms and participated in low intensity. In regard to the men, taking into account hiking the mountain, while the men assimilate the skills their past in the period up to 24 years of age, more than of swimming, skating, and dance elements. Today, the two-thirds of them declared conducting physical activ- most popular types of physical activity of older people ity at a very high level. Almost half of the men reported are diff erent forms of walking. In addition to the walks that they participated in exercise with the same intensity the women prefer swimming, gardening and cycling, and at the age bracket of 25 till the beginning of aging. After the men prefer to work on the plot, running and winter 24 years of age had also increased the percentage of the activities (mainly skiing). Most of the respondents cur- men participating in moderate, and after 45 years of age rently do exercise several times a week, or occasionally. in low physical activity. Currently, the largest percentage Some of them, however, undertake daily exercise. In con- of the men declares conducting physical activity of high trast, nearly one-fi fth of the women and men surveyed and moderate intensity. Meanwhile, most of the women are not engage in physical activity at all. – though proportionately less than the men – declared With the exception of one woman, the other re- the lead in the period to 24 years of age of physical ac- spondents express their satisfaction with the currently tivity on a high, and very high intensity level. One third undertaken physical activity and the presented level of of the women informed about conducting the intensive physical fi tness. From among them, nearly two-thirds of

68 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Personal and Social Determinants of Active Ageing: The Case Study of the Jagiellonian Third-Age University Students the women and more than two-thirds of the men is ful- dependence between exercising the body and improving ly satisfi ed, while the remaining respondents admit that physical fi tness. they could be, to a greater extent, involved in physical Th e gathered results convince, moreover, that taking activities in order to strengthen their own condition. In into account the seniors’ individual needs for movement the presented issue slight diff erences due to the sex of (e.g. some seniors believe that exercising more often than the respondents refer to a larger group of the women, in the past makes sense, although at the same time are sat- who want to practice harder. For most of the older peo- isfi ed with possessed physical fi tness,) is a necessary con- ple the essential barrier to active recreation are too mea- dition of programming the eff ective exercises for them. gre fi nances. Th e other barriers of lesser meaning for the But since currently not all the respondents (one-fi fth) women are the family and work responsibilities, limit- declare their regular participation in physical activity, as ed access to sports and recreational facilities, and lack of well as the active seniors are rather willing to undertake interest in active recreation in the living environment. moderate exercise, this constitutes an important premise Th e men point at the similar, with the exception of dai- for determining for the elderly the recommended exer- ly duties, diffi culties. It can therefore be concluded that cise intensity. Th e proper selection of exercises in terms the main obstacle preventing the surveyed seniors from of the real human physical eff ort capacities [Bouchard, participation in physical activity are insuffi cient funds, Shephard, Stephens 1994] that corresponds to the sen- though as it had been earlier shown, the seniors’ attitudes iors’ interests in movement helps them in reaching the towards active recreation were positive. concrete health benefi ts. Th e relatively small physical ef- fort like 15 minutes exercise a day or 90 minutes exer- Discussion cise per week [Chi Pang, Jackson Pui, Min Kuang et al. 2011] can already bring a man the certain health eff ects Persistent attitudes shape not only human motivation to [Shimada, Ishizaki, Kato et al. 2010; Takata, Ansai, Soh act, but determine its nature [Krajewski 1996]. Based on et al. 2010; Kalache, Keller 2004]. the presented results that concern the attitudes towards Th e results of the presented survey reveal the neces- health of the students from Jagiellonian Th ird Age Uni- sity of paying more attention to strengthening the cog- versity one can note that the majority of them under- nitive and aff ective factors in health attitudes of the sen- stand the importance of preventive health in the conduct iors. In contrast, a positive surprise is an affi rmative sign of a hygienic lifestyle, in which human movement plays of the behavioural component of the presented by them an important role. Orsega-Smith and others [2008]] in- attitudes. It informs about the seniors’ determination to dicate the prophylactic benefi ts of exercise for older peo- participate in physical activity. It seems especially impor- ple, such as, inter alia, obtaining a good physical and tant to strengthen responsibly the motivation of older mental health, preventing cancer, osteoporosis and dis- people to do exercises in such a way that allows them eases of a psychological nature typical of old age. Accord- to understand the importance of hygienic mode of life ing to various authors, the refrain from exercising results in which physical activity plays a big role and recognize not only in the deterioration of health, but is associat- the basic rules of their safe participation in physical ex- ed with incurring additional economic costs to society, ercises [Hoff man 2005]. Th e mismatch in the case of ac- while it is possible to prevent diseases [Orsega-Smith, tive seniors of the exercises’ forms and intensity to the Getchell, Neeld et al. 2008; Kostka 2007; Getzen 2000]. real possibilities of human organism, and consequently Th e surveyed seniors vary by sex in their approaches its overloading by too heavy physical eff ort may cause to the level of exercise-performed intensity, similarly as injuries and even permanent disorders, instead of the ex- it takes place in their assessment of the physical culture pected health benefi ts. When it comes to strengthening values. In addition to the indication by both groups on the emotional component of the attitudes, the cited re- physical fi tness as the dominant physical culture value, sults incline to formulate the thesis that the attractiveness the men appreciate higher the value of physical strength of useful for seniors exercises, such as those that increase than agility, while the women refer to both of them the power of the major muscle groups and enable con- in the same way. Since the realization of the physical ducting daily activities [Puggaard 2008] can also signifi - strength value depends to a greater extent on the inten- cantly infl uence on life satisfaction of the older people. sity of eff ort than is the case with work on agility that Th e step to facilitate the respondents their full par- is why one can expect more acceptance of intense exer- ticipation in physical culture, when taking into consider- cise among the men than women. Meanwhile, the wom- ation their favourable relation to an active rest expressed en will, in accordance with the obtained results, reveal in the behavioural factor, would be exempting the seniors their interest both in strength and stretching-coordina- from fees for the recreational off ers [Kalache 2010; Bar- tion exercises. Regardless of the diff erences shown in the tlam, Bernard, Liddle et al. 2012]. Th e only fee reduc- views of the women and men on the stated problem, one tion will not in any way improve for most of them their should point at the fact of understanding by them the current situation of an access to sports and recreational

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 69 Waldemar Makuła facilities, because irrespective of the nature of the active high intensity, the majority of them currently partic- leisure off er they bear the costs of purchase of the nec- ipate in moderate physical exercise. Despite the fact essary sports equipment. Th ose costs, as the recognized that the seniors had acquired in their youth the mo- gerontologists inform, are not the most important item tor skills, mainly in the fi eld of team sports, gymnas- in the expenses of Polish seniors [Trafi ałek, Kozieł, Kacz- tics, athletics and dance, they are currently interested marczyk 2009; Trafi ałek 2006], but are, according to primarily in such forms of the movement as walking, the apprehension expressed in the study by the respond- swimming, working on the plot, biking and skiing, ents from Kraków, the additional burden on their budg- in which they can participate throughout the year. et. Creating the opportunities for joint exercise in peer 4. Th e revealing diff erences between the men and wom- groups would be also good encouragement, especially en regarding their participation in physical culture for those of the seniors who do not show much inter- refer to their self-assessment of presented today level est in active leisure [Orsega-Smith, Getchell, Neeld et al. of fi tness, the rank of the certain motives inducing 2008]. In a wider perspective, reducing barriers hinder- them to undertake active recreation and preferred by ing the older people to undertake life activities, also those them the forms of movement. related to active aging, and then diagnosing health pro- 5. Due to the fact that the dominant barrier, against the fi les [Th øgersen-Ntoum, Barkoukis, Played et al. 2011] remaining obstacles, hindering the investigated sen- and preparing attractive fi tness programmes available for iors their participation in physical activity are mod- the elderly [Chodzko-Zajko, Sheppard et al. 2005], be- est fi nances, one should not only strengthen the in- comes currently a project necessary due to the increasing centive of older people to exercise and provide them rank of aging in society. with attractive exercises, but create the conditions for Recapitulating, it is worth noting that forming the free access to sports facilities and organized recrea- positive attitudes towards health, not only among the se- tion. niors’ population, but also amid the youth, gives great 6. Since the investigated seniors, despite of acquiring opportunities to realize them currently and in the fu- the basic sports movements at school in their youth, ture [Mrazek, Fialova, Bykhovskaya 1998; Makuła 2000, currently undertake the activities of physical recrea- 2003]. On the other hand, the positive impact of active tion, it is important to combine to a greater extent seniors on the behaviour of people from their nearest en- than before teaching young generations under physi- vironment, including young persons, is in light of the cal education the movement forms with the explana- assumptions of the model educational method equally tion of their meaning for man’s health prevention. signifi cant. As the research results convince, also present- ed in this work [Kowalczyk 2012; Umiastowska 2012; Kowalska 2012], universities of third age, as well as other competent social institutions involved in the care of the References elderly seem to be the relevant centres that responsibly Ailshire J.A., Crimmins E.M. [2011] Psychosocial factors as- undertake this type of ventures. sociated with longevity in the United States: age diff er- ences between the old and oldest-old in the health and Conclusions retirement study, Journal of Aging Research, http://dx.doi. org/10.4061/2011/530534. Th e following conclusions have been formulated in the Ajzen I. [2008] Th e theory of planned behavior, http://home. work: comcast.net/~icek.ajzen/tpb.obhdp.pdf (accessed 14 Feb- 1. Th e researched seniors try to maintain a healthy life- ruary 2008). style through avoiding stimulants and undertaking ex- Astrand, P. [1994] Physical activity and fi tness: evolution- ary perspective and trends for the future. Bouchard C., ercise. Th ey appreciate health and present the positive Shephard R.J., Stephens T., (ed.), Physical activity, fi t- attitudes towards this value. Th ey attribute a higher ness and health. International Proceedings and consensus rank to the behavioural factor of their health attitudes statement, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, compared to these attitudes’ cognitive and aff ective pp. 98–105; components – some of the respondents’ opinions re- Baker J., Meisner B.A., Logan J. et al. [2009] Physical activity lating to those components are inconsistent. and successful aging in Canadian older adults, Journal of 2. Although the utilitarian reason is a basic motive in- Aging Physical Activity, vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 223–235. clining all of the respondents to take part in physi- Bartlam B., Bernard M., Liddle J. et al. [2012] Creating home like places in a purpose-built retirement village in the UK, cal activity, the vital and aesthetic in case of the older Journal of Ageing Physical Activity, vol. 20, p. S76. women and the habitual in case of the men are also Bouchard C., Shephard R., Stephens Th . (eds.) [1994] Physi- the incentives of big importance. cal activity, fi tness and health. International proceedings and 3. Compared to the fact of undertaking by the respond- consensus statement. Champaign, Il: Human Kinetics Pub- ents in the earlier periods of life physical activity of lishers.

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72 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 The Theatre of School Life: The Burning-out Teacher Seen from the Perspective of the Actor, the Audience (His Students), and the Spectator (Sometimes Accidental)

Maria Brudnik-Dąbrowska Department of Theory and Methodology of Physical Education Faculty of Physical Education and Sport University of Physical Education in Kraków

Burned out workers do not have the heart to do anything, […] not even to work diligently in an ordi- nary eight-hour day. […] If they are left with any strength, they will use it to hide their burnout or at least to attempt to do so. Yet, they will not be capable of doing any actual work. […] Burned-out wor- kers usually quit […]. Sometimes they stay with the company as the living dead. DeMarco [2005, p. 77]

Summary Objective: to show the phenomenon of burnout in a physical education teacher from a triple perspective – PE teacher, pupil (student), and outside observers of the teacher’s work performance (a teacher, a research worker). Based on the literature on burnout and stress associated with working in a school setting, the papers quote ex- pressive statements of participants in and observers of the process of teaching-learning. The author has adopted a hermeneutic viewpoint: the results of qualitative studies (such as the focus group, narrative interview) have been supplemented by the results of quantitative studies (such as categorized observation); at the same time, the report is based on a metaphor of a social interaction as a dramatic performance. Keywords: physical education teacher, professional burnout, qualitative studies

he syndrome of professional burnout is presently Polychronopoulos 2009, p. 308]. Capable of leading to treated as a common phenomenon. It predomi- symptoms typical of depression, burnout syndrome may Tnantly aff ects social workers and representatives be treated as a sub-depressive state. Th e afore-mentioned of the world of business, who are exposed to chronic psy- association has been verifi ed in longitudinal studies of chological stress while performing their professional du- teachers, at the same time excluding the inverse relation- ties. Burnout is most commonly defi ned as the “psycho- ship [Shih, Noh, Jang, Park, Lee 2013]. logical syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonali- Burnout syndrome is characterized by a specifi c, zation, and a decreased sense of self-achievement, which three-dimensional structure. Th e “axial” dimension of may develop in individuals who work with other persons the syndrome refl ects increasing emotional exhaustion in a specifi ed manner” [Maslach 2000, p. 15]. of the burning-out individual [Maslach, Schaufeli, Leit- Th e syndrome of professional burnout is constituted er 2001, p. 402]. Emotional exhaustion is manifested by three co-existing dimensions. Th ese are emotional ex- in chronic fatigue and lack of energy accompanied by haustion, a negative assessment of one’s accomplishments a sense of using one’s resources necessary to fulfi l one’s at work, and depersonalization, equated with cynicism professional role without any possibility of their replen- in contact with one’s wards or customers. Numerous ishment. Th e workers feel as if they are lacking in vital investigators emphasize the association between burn- force and competences allowing for good adaptation to out syndrome and depression [cf: Papastylianou, Kaila, on-going demands of their work environment [Tuchol-

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 73 Maria Brudnik-Dąbrowska ska 2009, p. 22; Leung Lee 2006*]. A sense of “emotion- with utmost enthusiasm, the best people. Th e point is al emptiness” develops, which is associated with apathy that for too long a time they have been exposed to situ- or irritability. An emotionally exhausted individual is not ations characterized by a strong disequilibrium between capable of fulfi lling his role, also in the private sphere of demands and possibilities. Ideals are merely ideals; they his life [Jackson, Maslach 1982, p. 69; Mikkelsen, Burke have nothing in common with the actual reality. Such 2004 in: Innstrand et al. 2008, pp. 3–4; Farber 1991 in: people lack balance between what their profession de- Lisowska 2012, pp. 38–39]. mands and the way their work is really organized.” A negative assessment of one’s accomplishments is Th e burnout syndrome is a derivative of chronic psy- associated with belittling one’s achievements by an in- chological stress. In view of the character of their work dividual who is disappointed with the reality of his/her and the coexisting high social expectations, a high risk profession. It is a derivative of a loss of sense of fulfi lling group for developing symptoms of burnout are teachers. one’s obligations, which once, at the beginning of the ca- A teacher, who – in keeping with his professional role – reer, were executed with complete involvement, often- carries out didactic, educational, and tutorial tasks, most times with a sense of mission. Individuals that used to often works in a hurry, frequently in circumstances that feel satisfaction of completing some task no longer treat are inadequate to the needs. He is obliged to continuous- such a situation as an accomplishment. “It is as if their ly extend his knowledge and follow changes in the edu- senses were blunted and they became blind to their suc- cation system. He should be knowledgeable about the cess” [Mann 2000, p. 126]. changing world of student values and student expecta- Depersonalization as a dimension of burnout is tions with respect to their school and to know student manifested through modes of behaviour in interpersonal subcultures Teachers are obliged to require knowledge contacts. Protecting himself from increasing stress, the about their students, their values, and observe the chang- individual gradually “loses his humanity” – his sensitivity es with a regular process of diagnosing the situation of to the needs of others that is inherent in his professional what is important for youth today. Unfortunately, teach- role. Such person starts to treat his wards, students, cus- ers, especially PE teachers, are rare to seek for individual tomers, and people in his closest vicinity in an imperson- professional development which often leads to a lack of al way. He/she does not notice their feelings and needs, new ideas, as well as new practical and methodological while he/she treats problems they are unable to cope with solutions [Kosiba 2009, pp. 169–188], and it becomes as well-deserved punishment. a major source of professional burnout. Th e phenomenon of burnout is more common in A teacher works in a situation of constant social ex- ambitious individuals, who put passion into their work posure, aware of his responsibility for the development and whose conduct is guided by ideals. Individuals who of his students. Facing his audience, like an actor on the become emotionally involved in implementing their stage, he is subjected to continuous observation. Know- tasks and encounter diffi cult to surmount obstacles on ing he should be an important person for his students is their career path meet with failures, in spite of their ef- an additional mental burden. A teacher is evaluated by forts and considerable work output [Pines 1996, p. 83]. his students – during the lesson or various school events Excessive involvement results on the one hand from – similarly as he is assessed by parents, fellow-teachers, unrealistic and exaggerated expectations and an urge to and superiors. prove oneself. Th e other element in this case may be per- In view of the character of the subject, the situation fectionism combined with an excessive sense of responsi- of a physical education teacher is special, as he simultane- bility for the work performed. Such an attitude towards ously works on the personalities and psychophysical de- professional duties, when the workload is heavy, leads to velopment of his students. Aiming at meeting the imme- a slow exhaustion of strength. A state develops that may diate needs of his pupils in the sphere of psycho-physical be termed “a crisis of fatigue, reaching the endurance development, the teacher at the same time prepares the limit”,** denoting a lack of strength. children for caring for their health, agility, and construc- As it has been stated by Sandrin [2006, pp. 58–59]: tion of their bodies after they graduate, using in the pro- “Burnout aff ects individuals who plunge into their work cess physical and social means in parallel. While attain- ing the goals of physical education, particular attention is * Leung and Lee [2006 p. 138] found that the exhaustion paid to shaping an appropriate system of values and key dimension of burnout predicted teachers’ intention to leave competencies of the pupils, including the fair play atti- the profession; “In the USA, emotional exhaustion was one tude in the course of sports competitions and daily peer of the predominant factors aff ecting teachers’ intention to interactions. quit their profession […], but in both the Dutch and the Research studies found that performance-goals (i.e., Israel samples such a relationship was not found” [Leung, Lee 2006, pp. 130–131]. goals focused on normative competence) were positively ** Th e quotation mark denotes a statement made by a burned- related to several moral variables, such as the legitimacy out teacher [Bibik 2010, p. 47]. of injurious acts, approval of sportsmanlike behaviour,

74 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 The Theatre of School life: The Burning-out Teacher Seen from the Perspective of the Actor, the Audience, and the Spectator… verbal/physical aggression [Dunn, Dunn 1999, pp. 194– most eff ective when employed to investigate subtle nuanc- 198; Kavussanu, Roberts 2001, pp. 48–51], and antiso- es in attitudes and behaviour, and to study social processes cial judgments and behaviour [Sage, Kavussanu, Duda over time” [Babbie 2004, pp. 331–334] – the syndrome 2006, p. 145 (abstract)]. of professional burnout seems to be a matter of such deli- Kouli and Papaioannou [2010] investigated the as- cacy and complexity, diffi cult to grasp and interpret. In sociation between the achievement of goals* in multicul- the opinion of George Herbert Mead, a representative tural PE classes and found that the ego-orientation and of symbolic interactionism, results of survey research, al- the class performance-oriented climate were positively though easier to process, ignore the meaning that may be linked with a lack of desire to interact with members of ascribed to a given event by a given person, while partici- other ethnic groups. Intervention in PE classes for im- pant observation allows for discovering in what way peo- proving task-orientation and decrease ego-orientation of ple interpret the world [Szacka 2003, p. 128]. high school Spanish students may help prevent racist be- Pedagogical activities of a teacher are communica- haviour and promote respect between diff erent cultural tion-associated activities on an individual and collective groups [Cuevas, Pastor, Gonzáles, Gill 2010, p. 37]. scale. Th e process of teaching-learning is a series of inter- In the process of preparing the student for life-long actions between teacher and students occurring in a class. participation in physical culture, a teacher uses his body Interaction is a process of “interpreting meanings, deci- as a “tool”. Moreover, he is aware that he should be – in phering intentions and mutual adjustment of partici- the true sense of the word – “a living example of physi- pants” [Szacka 2003, p. 128]. Erving Goff man, employ- cal culture” at school. He needs to accomplish this goal ing the dramatic approach in symbolic interactionism, not only through the system of values he propagates, but was of the opinion that in the interaction process, we also through his appearance and comportment. While deal with contents that are conveyed by an individual by younger children treat their teacher as an oracle, adoles- means of verbal and nonverbal symbols, and with im- cents increasingly more critically observe and evaluate pressions, which are consciously or unconsciously evoked their teachers. Adolescents often play a specifi c “game” by an individual [Goff man 1981, p. 52; in: Szacka 2003, with their teachers and in a “test of strength” demon- p. 128]. He used the metaphor of a theatre,** pointing to strate their “youthful independence” and dislike for problems which are solved by a participant in an interac- school as an institution. tion when he presents his activities to other participants. While studying the burnout syndrome, cross-sec- Individuals participating in an interaction are described tional quantitative studies using a self-description ques- as actors. tionnaire are commonly employed; longitudinal studies Burnout aff ects individuals who are exposed to psy- are less frequent. In the fi rst years of investigating the chological stress predominantly resulting from numer- phenomenon of burnout, the predominant method of ous, strenuous interpersonal contacts. Hence, while dis- material collection was qualitative investigation – an in- cussing the problem of burnout among teachers, it is terview or a case study. worthwhile taking into consideration the perspective of As it has been stated by Babbie, “Th e advantage of both the teacher (“actor”) and the student, for whose de- fi eld studies is the presence of the observing, thinking re- velopment and preparation for adult life the educator is search worker at the site of the events. […] Th ey are the responsible. While reviewing the literature on burnout among * Two orthogonal goal perspectives are assumed to operate physical education teachers with respect to qualitative in achievement contexts such as sport: task goal orientation studies, it has been possible to fi nd only scarce reports and ego goal orientation. Th e task-oriented individual tends to use self-referenced criteria to judge competence and feels based on the said methodology. successful when he or she has learned or mastered a task. Th e A report of studies (focus group method) performed ego-oriented person tends to use other-referenced criteria among Venezuelan PE teachers was published by Ba- to defi ne success and judge competence, as he or she feels ños, Pañego, and Herrero [2008]. Selected statements re- successful when he or she has outperformed others. When ego corded during meetings of two focus groups with a total orientation prevails, the athlete is motivated to demonstrate number of 22 physical education teachers shall be further superiority, usually in the form of winning. When winning is at stake, the ego-oriented athlete will be tempted to employed in the present paper. Th e remaining reports by choose a behaviour that helps accomplish this goal, even if Bibik [2010], Strycharska-Gać [2009], and Kopciewicz the behaviour is not congruent with his or her moral ideas. [2011] addressing a more broadly understood problem When task orientation prevails, the athlete is concerned and not necessarily the professional group of physical ed- with the task, not with the self. Th e motivational goal in this case is doing one’s best and fulfi lling one’s potential. ** Goff man described the activities of a participant in an Because the level of competence is judged with respect to self- interaction as a “performance”; he also spoke about the “stage” referenced criteria, cheating and aggressing against another to where the performance was presented and the “backstage” demonstrate competence in the normative sense is irrelevant where it was prepared [Goff man 1981, p. 52, in: Szacka [Kavussanu, Roberts 2001, pp. 38–39]. 2003, p. 128].

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 75 Maria Brudnik-Dąbrowska ucation teachers have allowed the phenomenon of burn- cope with specifi c chronic stress, increases his eff orts in out syndrome from the perspective of the individuals in- order to overcome diffi culties; thus, his work is increas- volved in the “performances” of the “theatre of school ingly more arduous. With increasing fatigue and succes- life” to be additionally illustrated. sively a folding – in consequence of the progressing syn- Th e objective of investigations carried out by Bibik drome – fan of professional competencies of the teacher [2010] was to gain knowledge of and to understand the [Wilski 2011, p. 362], indiff erence or excessive irritabil- experiences of burned-out individuals – teachers, psy- ity develop, as well as cynicism in interpersonal contacts. chologists, and therapists. Having diagnosed burnout Th e eff ectiveness at work dramatically decreases. syndrome, the author conducted focused interviews  A statement by a physical education teach- with individuals aff ected by the syndrome [Bibik 2010]. er (length of service: 3 years**); (narrative interview) Kopciewicz [2011] addressed the subject of managing [Strycharska-Gać 2009, pp. 29–30]. the class by the teacher – the subject of her studies were “In the morning, I get up headachy and still sleepy; methods of repressing girls from junior high and high I have no appetite. Driving to work, I keep analysing, de- schools. Such situations were registered that students of vising how to have a free day: perhaps by faking being ill, an educational university perceived as the most degrad- inventing some serious family problems, some kind of ing school experiences. Th e respondents independently training course, etc. It’s all to keep away from my work selected the event; the analysis was based on transcribed … When I open the door to my school, I am even more interviews (N = 145; 2003–2009). On the other hand, stressed out and the perspective of six hours spent with ad- Strycharska-Gać [2009] analysed statements of teachers olescents makes me frustrated – I don’t even feel like an- of various subjects on “My job, my suff ering”. swering their ‘good mornings’. What is the most tiring is In an attempt at illustrating burnout syndrome not thinking of new activities so that the students could be among physical education teachers based on the results satisfi ed, although lately, I have not been caring for that: of qualitative studies, the present author has employed I simply throw them a ball and tell them to play either the Goff man dramaturgical perspective. In view of the basketball or volleyball. When they are dissatisfi ed with specifi c character of the pedagogical work, the perspec- my ideas, I propose graded physical fi tness tests. It works tive is triple: – the students are forced to play ball and I drink coff ee, – of the “actor” – the teacher performing in the “thea- read newspapers and check my watch to see when the les- tre of school life”; son ends. And so it has been for a long time. Fortunately, – of the student – a member of the “audience”, who at my private life is OK, although there are moments I would the same time is a participant in the “drama” being like to be alone” (translation from Polish: Szydłowska). performed; Another quotation reveals the conscious cynicism of – of the observer – a teacher or research worker who a burned-out female teacher in her contacts with students follows the “drama” as a “spectator”. (no information available on the subject she teaches).  A statement of a teacher of re-socialization facil- The perspective of the “actor” ity; (structured interview) [Bibik 2010, p. 48]. – the physical education teacher: “… I dealt with them as if I were dealing with inan- imate objects, which would come and go. I can look at Th e burnout process exerts a destructive eff ect on the them as at some building blocks and say: it’s your prob- professional condition of teachers, regardless of the disci- lem, I love snide remarks, ridiculing them at the class fo- pline of knowledge they represent.* A teacher, unable to rum, […] when I am angry with the class, I am capable of deliberately seeking revenge. Th is is great fun for me; * Work at school may be accompanied by diffi culties, which at times adversely aff ect the teacher’s professional development. According to Wilski [2011, p. 339, 364], a teacher with a he is willing to strive, there is a chance he will again become developmental personality (a creative individual, planning a developmental personality. Otherwise, there is a risk of his his professional career, pursuing his goal to the benefi t of developing burnout syndrome. himself and his professional environment), when faced Th e phenomenon of burnout may result in transforming a with considerable costs of coping with diffi culties, may lose teacher with a drifting personality into an individual with a the purpose of his pedagogical work. Under unfavorable reactive personality (pragmatism, an attitude directed towards conditions of the pedagogic work, there is a possibility that obeying the rules and suppressing any activities in students – losing the purpose of his work, enthusiasm and creativity – that go beyond standards, resistance to being diff erent or to the teacher will be transformed into a drifting personality. spontaneity). Th is type of personality is usually encountered A teacher with a drifting personality uses the competencies he among employees that went into the profession by accident. has acquired in the course of previous development, while, ** Th e statement of the teacher suggests the drifting personality; when implementing ongoing tasks, he ceases to be creative, in the group of Polish PE teachers, the fi rst crisis in their at the same time losing the ability to understand the sense pedagogical work that results in their developing symptoms of his activity, which results in progressive disheartening. In of burnout syndrome appears approximately in their seventh case a teacher fi nds valuable purpose in his work, after which year of working at school [Brudnik 2004, p. 12].

76 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 The Theatre of School life: The Burning-out Teacher Seen from the Perspective of the Actor, the Audience, and the Spectator…

I become involved and cannot stop myself” (translation – So your mother did not know about the teacher from Polish: Szydłowska). making remarks about your body? Students expect the physical education teacher to – No, unfortunately she did not. provide them with an interesting and diversifi ed off er – And your form master? during the lesson, with moments of relaxation and fun in – Several times we complained to her, but each time a pleasant atmosphere. On the other hand, at school, sit- she would say that it was not possible, we were most uations occur, as recounted by students, which provoke likely exaggerating and she blamed the puberty period. the question of whether a teacher who behaves in such I think it was something like teacher solidarity, as she a way is an individual who practices the profession by ac- never lifted a fi nger to solve the matter.” cident or a thoroughly burned-out individual. Statement II (transcription of interview; number: 40): “– Th e physical education teacher openly ridiculed me The perspective of the student – during the lessons – she poked fun at my appearance, loose a member of the “audience”: garments, coloured hair, and my pierced tongue. During the classes, she used humiliating epithets while talking to Th e student, performing on the “scene” of the “theatre of me: hermaphrodite, dyke, loon, freak. Once, on the fi rst school life” participates in a “performance” within the scope day of spring, she thought up some races and sports com- determined by the teacher, being at the same time a member petitions to prevent us from escaping from school. I have of the “audience”. Th e “audience” closely follows the behav- always been good at races so I decided to participate. iour of the teacher, the way he interprets a given situation Unfortunately, it appeared she was to referee. I won the and the way he plays his social role in everyday interactions. race, got a prize and a medal. I was standing on a special In studies carried out by Kopciewicz [2011], a case dais. When the applause died down, she approached me. was registered of implementing the physical education I thought she was going to congratulate me, but she only programme in a ritual way (statement I.). A female said: “such hermaphrodites as you should never win”. teacher, working in a manner completely disregarding – What?! prospective objectives of physical education, treated her – I cried and I repeated what happened to my students instrumentally and at the same time in a deroga- friends. One of them said if I did not report it at school, tory manner. Another quotation (statement II.) is a dras- she would. tic example of the destruction of the dignity of a female – And did you? student – a lack of tolerance for her apparel and appear- – Yes, I reported it to my form master, but she could ance. At the same time, the teacher demonstrates aggres- do nothing about it. sive animosity towards youth subcultures, manifested in – Why? systematic humiliation of the student. – Because nobody had heard it but me”.  Statements of students describing the behaviour Irrespectively of classes organized for pupils, teachers of teachers at school (physical education lessons in high employed in university-affi liated schools also work with school) [Kopciewicz 2011, p. 148, 145] (translation students, preparing them for their respective professions. from Polish: Szydłowska). Below, the reader will fi nd refl ections of a member of Statement I (transcription of interview; number: 33): a focus group who recounted the course of his teaching “– My physical education teacher was constantly internship supervised by a burned-out teacher [Baños, taunting me that my tits were large, bazooms – as she Pañego, Herrero 2008, p. 14]. said. She called us hussies, top-heavy lassies. She ordered  Teacher’s statement (transcription of a recording; us to do exercises in artistic gymnastics wearing very tight I. 3/5/2001) shorts, even when we had our periods. We were supposed “When I was doing my teaching internship, my tutor to be slender and virginal, as she said. was completely burned out. She said so openly, she saw no – What was the reaction of the students? problem in admitting it. She asked to be transferred to ear- – Everybody was silent. Everybody was afraid even ly school education, she requested it many times, but they to breathe when she was screaming. By the way, I myself did not agree, and she used to say she did not like physical felt awful when she screamed at other girls. I was awfully education lessons … And you know, it was a total failure. ashamed, but it didn’t occur to me to open my mouth. When we were having our internship, we were conducting When the physical education lesson was near, I wanted lessons with all groups, but she … We were told she would to vomit, some girls fainted – it was a real horror. probably quit. Th ey already warned us. And she constantly – Did you try to get someone interested, like for ex- missed classes. She did not treat children too well, either; ample your parents? there were days when the kids were doing whatever they – Several times I talked about these situations with wished and other times, she would come angry and take it my mother, but somehow I felt awkward to say that the out on the children, screaming at them, etc.” (translation teacher was laughing at my bosoms. It was embarrassing! from Spanish: Szydłowska-Rivero).

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 77 Maria Brudnik-Dąbrowska

While analysing the phenomenon of burnout, of the teacher are observed and judged not only by his a method that is relatively rarely employed consists of as- “audience”. His methods of working, the way he man- sessing burnout in an employee by his “customers” (im- ages the group, his attitude towards students and his ap- mediate recipients of services), by the managers of the pearance are evaluated – especially during classes held on company, or by an observer. Th e research perspective was the sports fi eld – by “spectators”. Th ese are other teachers employed in their diagnosis of burnout among teach- (of the same or diff erent subject), the principal, parents, ers by Tatar and Yahav [1999], Evers and Tomic [2003], passers-by, or a research worker who analysed the work of Evers, Tomic and Brouwers [2004], as well as Bragante a teacher for research-associated purposes. [2005]. All the above investigators employed a modi- Th e process of managing a class at school occurs fi ed Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) [cf.: Tatar, Yahav through imposed rules and a system of penalties and 2004, pp. 460–461, 462]. awards. Th e teachers defi ne the rules and determine the Israeli junior high pupils (N = 297) analysed behav- order; in this way, each of them participates in the pro- iour of their teachers and the majority of them (58%) re- cess of defi ning acceptable student behaviour and deter- garded psychophysical exhaustion to be a typical symp- mining penalties for non-adherence. In view of the di- tom of burnout; 17.5% of the investigated pupils pointed mension of control, the role of the teacher is inevitably to lack of involvement during school work [Tatar, Yahav a confrontational role. Such a defi nition of the role is 1999, p. 463]. More than 60% of the pupils described additionally fed by colleagues in the teacher staff room, burned-out teachers as individuals who made an impres- whose judgment of the quality of work performance of sion (“frequently” or “always”), that “working with pupils a give person are formulated as his abilities to discipline for a full day is oppressive”, they “feel ‘wiped out’ at the the students [Coff ey, Delamont 2000, in: Kopciewicz end of the day”, and “feel that teaching is turning them 2011, p. 90]. into impatient persons” [Tatar, Yahav 1999, p. 461]. Below, the reader will fi nd a portrayal of a burned- On the other hand, Italian high school students did out teacher, who – in view of his defi cit of social compe- not perceive clear symptoms of burnout in their physical tences – is unable to eff ectively manage the group [Ba- education teachers. In the opinion of the students, teach- ños, Pañego, Herrero 2008, p. 15]. ers employed by private schools were to a higher degree  Statement of a physical education teacher (focus satisfi ed with their jobs [Bragante 2005, pp. 57–58]. group; subject: causes of burnout among physical educa- Th e interpretation of events in the “theatre of school tion teachers; transcription of a recording; I. 3/5/2001). life” is diff erent, depending on the participants of the “Well, I can give an example of a burned-out teacher. teaching-learning process. Th e teachers – “actors” – and So, he also teaches in high school and by defi nition this the student “audience” somewhat diff erently perceive in- is much more diffi cult. Anyway, he lacks social compe- teractions occurring at school and ascribe diff erent mean- tences with respect to his students, as instead of chum- ings to various events. ming up with them a little … well, I don’t know … even Th e perception of burnout level in the opinion of the give them some free time or something in order to try teacher often diff ers from the assessment made by his stu- to befriend them, he would all the time take them to dents. Th e phenomenon has been supported by study re- see the principal, and surely, he lost his authority with sults [Evers, Tomic 2003; Evers, Tomic, Brouvers 2004]. them, because the matter wasn’t like an actual situation; While verifying the hypothesis, the statements made by all the time he would take them to see the principal and junior high students who found symptoms of burnout in he lost control and even violence developed between teachers having to cope with student misbehaviour were him and the students, the students and him, which re- contrasted with the results of burnout self-description ally ended very badly. It is in this example that I see lack (MBI) presented by the teachers. Th e youth more clear- of social competences and the ability to cope and en- ly perceived the tendency towards depersonalization, as gage in a discussion with them [the students], their car- well as increasing negativism and loss of sense of work egivers or whoever is needed” (translation from Spanish: in their teachers. In comparison to the statements of the Szydłowska-Rivero). teachers, the students were prone to judge their compe- Perception of the work of a teacher as stressful to tences in coping with misbehaviour in the group as poor- a large degree results from everyday professional inter- er [Evers, Tomic, Brouwers 2004, p. 139]. actions. Most commonly, these are diffi cult situations in the class – unwillingness to study and misbehaviour. The perspective of the observer – Physical education teachers, especially females, having to a teacher, a research worker deal with obstructing work and lacking in respect stu- dent behaviour, become emotionally exhausted and be- A physical education teacher – an “actor” in the “school gin to lose the sense of their work and the sense of self- theatre” – is subject to social exposure in a way that is im- confi dence; male teachers put a distance between them- manent to the role he fulfi ls. Th e activities and behaviour selves and misbehaving students [Brudnik 2008, p. 27].

78 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 The Theatre of School life: The Burning-out Teacher Seen from the Perspective of the Actor, the Audience, and the Spectator…

Mancini [Mancini, Wuest, Vantine, Clark 1984] an- In place of ending notes alysed the skills and tools of junior high school physi- cal education teachers (N = 6) with diagnosed burnout Long-term work overload in teachers leads to their start- syndrome. Th e investigated individuals were subjected to ing to manifest symptoms of burnout. Th e process is categorized observation (fi ve work days); a trained ob- self-perpetuating, it puts in motion the spiral of loss suf- server registered categories of the activities of the teacher fered both by the students and the teacher. A burned-out and students, as well as interactions occurring during the teacher can provide neither support nor example. “Who lesson (the Flanders method). we are and what we do in class dramatically aff ects the Burned-out teachers were found to less frequently individuals we teach. Th e content and form of our state- award their students, either by praising them verbally or ments, our body language, our facial expressions – from by non-verbal communication. Th ey less easily accepted pursing our lips and knitting our brows to smiling – af- the ideas of children and noted their eff orts while try- fect the atmosphere in the classroom” [Nakamura 2011, ing to meet the demands. Th e manner of communica- p. 63], and at the same time the eff ects of teaching. tion of the teacher with his students was characterized Th e phenomenon of burnout facilitates reduction by distance and indiff erence. Physical education teach- of professional competences of a teacher. In the opinion ers manifesting symptoms of burnout conveyed less in- of students observing their teachers during lessons,* the formation during the lesson. Th ey more rarely started process of burnout may be inhibited by improved be- conversations and were less willing to individually work haviour of students towards their teacher. According to with a student [Mancini, Wuest, Vantine, Clark 1984, Israeli junior high students, burned-out teachers should p. 34]. leave the profession, whereas it is the responsibility of the During her studies in the United States, Henninger principals to eff ect improvement of work conditions for [2007] defi ned two opposite types of physical educa- teachers [Tatar, Yahav 1999; p. 463, 464]. tion teachers: lifers and troupers (job service: above four Young people expect their teachers to off er interest- years). Th e following methods were used in the survey: ing classes and partnership-based relationships, although diagnostics poll method, sentence completion test, and they themselves often behave immaturely. Th ey count on structured interview. Th e skills and tools of the investi- attention from the teacher, peace, and tolerance – also gated teachers (N = 9) were analysed based on catego- in the case of their lifestyles. In this context, uncompro- rized observation of the activities of the teacher and stu- mising statements given by junior high students are not dents during the lesson (one work day), determining the surprising; the students suggested quitting working at type of interactions. Th e assessment included such phe- school as a solution of problems of burned-out teachers, nomena as the level of involvement, interactions with who had lost the purpose of their work. fellow-teachers and school administration [Henninger Th e present article is only a handful of refl ections 2007, p. 130]. on the costs associated with the emergence of burnout Died-in-the-wool teachers – lifers – fulfi l their ob- syndrome among physical education teachers. Each work ligations with enthusiasm, really believing they are ca- environment, including the school as an institution that pable of eff ecting change. Th e troupers-type of teachers is highly organized based on education regulations, is seem to be burned-out – they work half-heartedly; they specifi c. Similarly, each teacher is a unique individual. believe that whatever they do, their work will not bring In this context, it can be only suggested what counterac- any eff ects, act by fi ts and starts at the moment of a sud- tions may be undertaken by the teachers – “the actors” of den burst of energy, but soon return to the safe “roll- the “school theatre” – or “the director of the play” – the ing with the punches” attitude [cf: Henninger 2007, pp. principal of the school, when they observe the folding – 138–139]. with the emergence of burnout syndrome – of the fan of For troupers, students played an entirely diff erent a teacher’s professional competencies. role in their daily teaching. Students’ lives, beliefs, and In the present situation of the employment market, behaviour were viewed as barriers to teaching, whereas resigning from teaching or a tried teacher, disillusioned students’ energy and enthusiasm were often perceived with the school reality, changing profession most often is negatively as disruptions to the learning process [Hen- not a feasible solution. Th us, individuals branded with ninger 2007, p. 135]. the syndrome continue working; despite their best ef-  Joan (job service: 10 years; transcription of in- forts, they do not fi nd – or driven by inertia that is an terview) indispensable element of burnout syndrome – they do “I can’t teach these kids boundaries … self-respon- sibility … self-control; I can’t. I’m competing against TV… against music… so I can’t compete and that is * An open question: “What is the best way on the part of what education in the city is up against. No way. No students, teachers, and the principal to limit and cope with way, it’s not going to happen.” burnout syndrome among teachers?”

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 79 Maria Brudnik-Dąbrowska not look for any acceptable alternatives,* or a way to help in dislike of the superior. In the opinion of the manage- themselves. rial staff , talking to an employee on diffi culties associated Th e problems of burnout are complex. Th e syn- with his work oftentimes leads to escalation of demands; drome appears on the plane of interpersonal contacts, hence, it is better not to deal with such matters, saving both in the case of sources of emotional pressure and one’s time and at the same time maintaining mental com- with respect to methods allowing for coping [Maslach fort [Paszkowska-Rogacz 2010, pp. 122–123]. 2000, pp. 27–28]. In theory, the syllabuses of pedagogi- Sharing the emotions that accompany the situation cal universities and the cycle of professional internship at work – at the same time gaining support without the periods prepare graduates for facing the challenges posed risk of being evaluated – is possible through group ther- by their future work.** Teacher candidates, similarly to apy. In the opinion of Wilski, a chance of reducing the teachers undergoing postgraduate education training, emerging symptoms of the syndrome, at the same time can learn the kinds of strategies that allow them to reduce reducing the risk of inhibiting professional development, burnout and construct a better working environment fi t. is provided by teachers participating in Balint groups [cf.: Both the learning and use of the strategies is highly em- Wilski 2011, pp. 367–371]. bedded in a school’s social interactions [Pietarinen, Py- Making school principals aware of the fact, it is hälto, Soini, Samela-Aro 2013]. worthwhile, however, considering the results of a nation- Treatment of the fully symptomatic syndrome re- al survey carried out among physical education teachers quires long-term collaboration with a therapist. It is not (2007–2008; N = 1563). It was demonstrated that the easy to cope with burnout when the consequences of the position of the subject at school determined the course of syndrome are already noticeable. Th erapy is additionally burnout process at all stages when the process was inves- hindered by the reality of the professional environment, tigated as a four-phase model (Brudnik, unpublished). since as long as the burned-out individual continues working, he is at risk of exposure to subsequent stressful situations [Mielczarek 2006, p. 476]. References In the therapy of the initial stages of the syndrome, good results are brought by active recreation (physical Babbie E. [2004] Badania społeczne w praktyce, Betkiewicz W. activity!), adherence to the principles of mental hygiene (trans.), Bucholc M., Gadomski P., Haman J., Jasiewicz- combined with the occasional help of a psychologist, -Betkiewicz A., Kloskowska-Dudzińska A., Kowalski M., when needed. 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A successful form of reduc- bragante.pdf). ing the syndrome is support from one’s friends and su- Brudnik M. [2004] Burnout in Physical Training Teachers periors and directing one’s activities into another sphere. a macro-path of Professional Burnout. Acta Universitatis Similarly as representatives of other professions, phys- Palackianae Olomucensis Gimnica, vol. 34, No. 2, s. 7–17. ical education teachers are unwilling to look for support Brudnik M. [2014, w druku] Mobbing in a workplace setting. Brudnik M. [2003] Wypalenie zawodowe nauczycieli wycho- in their superiors.*** Inferiors are aware that conveying in- wania fi zycznego. Nauczyciel i uczeń wyzwaniem dla przy- formation about problems and reporting their needs may szłości, Muszkiety R. (ed.), Poznań: WIGO, pp. 29–40. indicate lack of competencies, in consequence resulting Brudnik M. [2008] Zachowanie uczniów podczas lekcji a wyp- alanie się nauczycieli wychowania fi zycznego. Kultura Fizyczna, vol. LXII, No. 7–8, pp. 23–28. * See: Brudnik [2014, in press], Mobbing in a workplace set- Bibik R. [2010] Moja praca – moje cierpienie. Doświadczanie ting (p. 9). ** See: Wontorczyk & Brudnik [2012], Cechy temperamentu wypalenia zawodowego. Wypalenie zawodowe pracowników jako predykatory wypalenia zawodowego u nauczycieli wy- placówek resocjalizacyjnych – zjawisko, zagrożenia, wspar- chowania fi zycznego [Temperament traits as predictors of cie, Bilska E. (ed.), Warszawa: Pedagogium Wyższa Szkoła professional burnout in physical education teachers], Psycho- Nauk Społecznych, pp. 43–52. logia Społeczna [Social Psychology], Vol. 8, No 1, 96–110; pp. Cuevas R., Pastor J.C., Gonzáles S., Gill P. [2010] Educación 105–107. física intercultural, motivación y prejuicio racial: una *** Only 23% of physical education teachers signal to their prin- aproximación deste la teoría de las metas de logro. Cau- cipals the emergence of diffi culties at work [Brudnik 2003, ernos de Psicologia del Deporte, vol. 10, Suplement, pp. p. 39]. 37–42.

80 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 The Theatre of School life: The Burning-out Teacher Seen from the Perspective of the Actor, the Audience, and the Spectator…

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nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 81 Formal and Legal Analysis of Sporting and Recreational Events on the Basis of Sporting and Recreational Festivities “For a Child Smile” Organized by The University of Physical Education in Kraków

Paweł Ochwat, Elżbieta Szymańska Department of Theory and Methodology of Physical Education Faculty of Physical Education and Sport University of Physical Education in Kraków

Summary A decreasing level of physical activity connected with civilization facilities is an irreversible process. The only countermeasure to this negative tendency, which leads to diseases and ailments caused by lack of physical activ- ity, may be an increasing popularity of sporting and recreational activities. It is diffi cult to imagine forcing adult people to physical exercise with administrative constraint, though. Such countermeasures are only possible in reference to children and teenagers. Nevertheless, there is a form of physical activity which combines voluntary physical activity, integration of genera- tions, positive emotions in the atmosphere of carelessness with forming habits of active leisure. This is a sporting and recreational or tourist event, which may be attended by everybody irrespective of their age, sex, social status or physical fi tness. A typical event of this kind is sporting and recreational festivities. Adverse tendencies connect- ed with lack of exercise pose new challenges for instructors, coaches and teachers. They should have the ability to organize and encourage participation in recreational events. Students of the University of Physical Education in Kraków are prepared to organize leisure time for children and their parents. As a part of their course in organizing sporting and recreational events, students obtain essential theoretical knowledge of regulations and methods of fi nancing sporting and recreational events. However, what remains an essential issue is practical skill necessary to organize and host such events, including festivities. The main eff ect of students’ practical training (as part of the course) is organizing sporting and recreational festivities “For a Child Smile”. The event gathers about two thousand children and teenagers from Kraków schools. For the participants organizers prepare games, numerous agility and dance shows, as well as small gifts and prizes. Preparation of such an event requires experience and knowledge from head managers who supervise students before, during and after the event. Experience gained by the students is useful in later work, as praxiological cycle (diagnosis, prognosis, planning, realization and evaluation of eff ects) should describe each deliberate activity of a man. Keywords: festivities, physical activity, recreation, sporting and recreational events

Introduction leisure time in a way that will provide us with an amount of activity suffi cient for normal functioning of motor or- Physical activity serves a contemporary man not only to gans and body systems. Comfort of human life depends stimulate their development but also to keep their body immensely on the level of everyday physical activity. in good shape for the whole life. All forms of physical ac- Physical reaction is the kind of reaction in which tivity are a chance, and at the same time, a condition to physical activity is the basic means of regeneration and reach that goal. In the era of technological development improvement. According to Maciej Demela, physical re- preparation of a man to take a life-long care of their physi- action due to its preventive and therapeutic qualities is cal fi tness acquires particular signifi cance. Limited physi- becoming more and more frequently a duty of a con- cal activity in our everyday life should force us to plan our temporary man, a duty to himself and to the society as

82 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Formal and Legal Analysis of Sporting and Recreational Events on the Basis of Sporting and Recreational Festivities “For a Child Smile”… a whole [1]. Biological evolution of a man does not keep and further develop those qualities in future life, as they up with revolutionary changes in living conditions. 100 constitute wealth for the whole life. Physical reaction is years ago 90% of energy was expended during work to most frequently seen as a way to prevent negative eff ects power muscles, whereas today, in developed countries, of civilization, in reference to teenagers and adults espe- this is merely 1%. cially when the obligation to take part in physical edu- Numerous researches prove that even short-term lim- cation classes expired (usually a period after school-leav- itations in physical activity leads to far-reaching structur- ing exams). However, we should not disregard the sig- al and functional changes in human organism. As Nazar nifi cance of active forms of leisure time for children who suggests, a contemporary man inherited genome which both at school and at home spend most of the day sitting. originated and developed in conditions in which obtain- Preparation for physical activity in leisure time is one of ing food required an intensive and long-term eff ort. Th e the objectives of physical education in its forward mean- process of adaptation to those conditions resulted in de- ing. Physically active leisure concerns not only working velopment of physiological mechanisms determining the adults or teenagers, but it also should be seen as obliga- ability to overcome extensive eff ort and at the same time tion aimed with a due care at children. facilitating storage of energy in form of fat. Th erefore, Nowadays, when interpersonal bonds are loosening, human organism has natural tendency to obesity [2]. which projects on social and mental health of the society, Decreasing participation of physical activity in pro- forms of physical activity which support strengthening ductive behaviours, which results from development bonds in groups and integrating them acquire consider- of civilization, is an irreversible process. As Grabowski able signifi cance. Perfect examples of such forms of activ- claims, the only way to prevent its negative eff ects may ity are sporting and recreational festivities. Games which be an increasing participation in sporting and recreation- make up the festivities should be selected in such a way al activities [3]. However, the problem is that we cannot that all people, irrespective of their age and level of psy- force adult people to physical activity with administra- chophysical fi tness, could participate in them. Physical tive constraints in order to prevent civilization diseases. activity accompanied by atmosphere of fun favours ful- Such countermeasures are only possible in reference to fi lling all objectives of recreation. children and teenagers through compulsory P.E. classes. Th e most frequently enumerated functions of active And since the classes are compulsory, their eff ectiveness recreation are as follows: in terms of developing motricity, physical abilities and 1. Prevention and therapy of civilization diseases attitudes towards their fi tness may vary. Th erefore, ac- (health function) cording to the modern doctrine, the main objective of 2. Reducing tiredness after work (regeneration func- physical education is to support physical and motor de- tion) velopment, and health as well as preparation of young 3. Relieving stress, tension and burdens of modern life people to maintain and further develop those qualities (social and affi liation function) in their future lives. Th e results of aff ecting the organism 4. Satisfying needs of self-realization (self-expressive with physical means are morphofunctional changes (an function) increase in body weight, strength, effi ciency and body 5. Compensating defects of everyday life (compensato- immunity). A set objective of pedagogical impact on per- ry function) sonality is to stimulate inclinations to certain prosocial 6. Preventing aging process (anti-involution function) [4]. and prosomatic behaviours through realizing their im- With age compensatory function acquires more sig- portance and forming a positive attitude towards them. nifi cance as spontaneous physical activity decreases and Scientifi c research proves that neglects in biological its quality and quantity defi cit deepens. Th erefore, a con- development resulting from the lack of activity in youth temporary man needs all forms of physical activity, re- cannot be made up for in further life. Other researchers alised in various forms of participation in physical cul- point out that even intensive training in youth will not ture, which provides required amount of physical activ- provide permanent morphofunctional changes in organ- ity, and at the same time contributes to development of ism which would endure without taking exercises until their physical, mental and social health. later years [3]. What is essential, permanence of the ef- Appropriately selected programme of sporting and fects of physical education in the form of “mental care recreational festivities, and the range of recreational about the body” is not determined by body function games in particular, should favour fulfi lling the above- and fi tness, but attitude towards the body and its needs, listed functions of recreation, as well as be attractive and which results from the impact on personality. Physical accessible to each participant [5]. education, in its broad meaning, should satisfy immedi- Organizers of sporting and recreational events are re- ate needs of children and teenagers in terms of somatic sponsible for preparing all forms of games and activities and motor development (since neglect in this area can- which involve physical movement, including recreation, not be made up for), as well as prepare them to maintain sport and tourist games, “which a man undertakes will-

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 83 Paweł Ochwat, Elżbieta Szymańska ingly, in their leisure time for regeneration, pleasure and prepared for them. Usually the event takes place at the self-development, health creation” [6]. beginning of June, on Child’s Day. During the festivities An essential part of sporting and recreational events participants take part in both individual and team com- is its ability to gather a large number of people who, in petitions prepared by academic teachers and students of the atmosphere of enjoyment and for pleasure, do to- physical education. gether various tasks requiring physical movement. Such For many years festivities “For a Child Smile” were situations facilitate bonding process of the participants organised as a part of “Games involving physical activ- and group dynamics stimulates the activity. Moreover, in ity” classes taken by fi rst year undergraduate students of those sporting and recreational or touristic events every- Physical Education. For the last three years the event has body can participate irrespective of age, sex, level of psy- been organized as a part of another subject “Sporting and chophysical fi tness and intellectual ability. A properly se- recreational events organization” taken in the fi rst year of lected programme of the event should allow all partici- postgraduate courses. pants to take part in all competitions and attractions [7]. Th ere are many kinds of sporting and recreational Research methods and techniques events such as: recreational fi eld events, sporting and rec- reational events, inter-school sports competitions, recre- Th e article is an attempt to present the sporting and rec- ational leagues, trips, camping tours, sailing camps and reational festivities “For a Child Smile” in historical, or- many more. Among the above-mentioned events a par- ganizational and legal context. Th erefore, the authors ap- ticular attention should be paid to sporting and recrea- plied research methodology typical of historical research. tional festivities since they gather a substantial number In the research the authors analysed mostly writ- of participants who, in the atmosphere of enjoyment, do ten sources, such as documents, acts, chronicles, reports, various tasks involving physical activity. One of the ma- regulations, diplomas, announcements, notices and cor- jor advantages of sporting and recreational festivities is respondence concerning preparation and staging of the lack of limitations in terms of age, sex, marital status or festivities. Th ey also used iconographic sources such as physical fi tness and intellectual abilities. Usually tasks in- photographs, posters, fi lms and video cassettes. In order volving physical activities are based on natural forms of to complete the research, the authors interviewed peo- movement, such as running, jumping, throwing, climb- ple who were involved in preparation of the festivities ing, crawling, etc. Th ose exercises positively infl uence throughout the years or cooperated with organizers. For participants’ health condition through stimulating car- this purpose, a qualitative fi eld research in form of inter- diovascular and respiratory systems, as well as improving views was applied. Th ere should be also mentioned that metabolism, regenerating physical and mental strength the authors, and the main managers, gathered informa- which encourages further exercises and studying. tion from participants’ observation. Sporting and recreational festivities perform more functions than those related to health and creating posi- tive attitudes towards physical activity, just to mention: Analysis of organization of sporting and integration of diff erent social groups, promotion of lei- recreational festivities “For a Child Smile” sure time culture, educational impact (e.g. the idea of fair play), promotion of various forms of recreational activ- Historical analysis. The beginnings ity, promotion of sports equipment, or promotion of e.g. Th e University of Physical Education in Kraków has clubs, schools, companies, etc. [7] been organizing sporting and recreational festivities “For Since this kind of sporting event presents numer- a Child Smile” for 23 years now, aiming the event at pu- ous advantages it seems expedient to take a closer look pils of primary and middle schools from Kraków area. at such an event organized in Kraków’s AWF (commonly In the fi rst years the festivities were called “Muddle for used Polish abbreviation for Th e University of Physical 13 Smiles”, where number 13 symbolized the number of Education in Kraków). competitions prepared for the festivity. Preparation and staging of such an event requires Th e originator and the fi rst organizer of this event a lot of eff ort, organizational skills and experience. De- was mgr Edward Skrętowicz, a former employee of Sec- scription of particular stages of festivities organization is tion of Methodology of Physical Education and Place- based on sporting and recreational festivities “For a Child ments of AWF in Kraków, who organized the fi rst festiv- Smile” organized in Th e University of Physical Educa- ity in 1988. Since the year 2000 the management group tion in Kraków. Th is event has been organized annual- was joined by various employees of Section of Method- ly for more than 20 years on the premises of Kraków’s ology of Physical Education and Placements, and for six AWF. Two to three thousand of children and teenagers years now Kraków’s festivities in AWF have been man- take part in the festivities every year and each year there aged by dr Paweł Ochwat and mgr Elżbieta Szymańska, are about 40 diff erent games involving physical activity the authors of the present report.

84 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Formal and Legal Analysis of Sporting and Recreational Events on the Basis of Sporting and Recreational Festivities “For a Child Smile”…

Th e fi rst events in 1980s. had a form of contests and Organization and programme analysis competitions during which schools competed against of the festivity each other in various sporting competitions. One of the Currently, since 2009, preparation of the festivities purposes of the festivities was, and still is, preparation is a part of Organization of sporting and recreational of university students for work at school, which should events classes in fi rst year of both full-time and extramu- lead to forming among children a habit of active leisure ral postgraduate studies. Th e main objective of the sub- in fresh air and showing how simple devises and equip- ject is practical preparation to organize various sporting ment can be used to organize games and spend time in an and recreational events in school. As a part of the subject interesting way [7]. In the fi rst events only two schools students obtain theoretical knowledge on organization, participated. Th en, for few years, those festivities were legal conditioning and marketing of such events. In the organized by university students for university students. second half of the term students are divided into groups In 1994 the academic teachers of Section of Methodol- which are assigned particular tasks in order to plan, pre- ogy of Physical Education and Placements created a new pare, stage and fi nish the event. formula for the festivity, which has been in use until the While planning particular sporting and recreational present day. In the early years participants were limited competitions the key role is played by the students them- only to the primary pupils from Nowa Huta (a district selves who prepare and present their ideas to the whole of Kraków), but after a while the range of schools tak- group. Next, based on the method of brainstorming pre- ing part in the event expanded on schools from the city sented ideas are creatively verifi ed. During such classes, and area of Kraków. Th ese are mostly schools which co- the rule is that there are no bad or ridiculous ideas, that operate with Kraków’s AWF, and to be more precise with all suggestions and proposals carry a potential which can Section of Methodology of P.E. and Placements, in terms be turned into a real plan. Since the festivities are organ- of student placement, training courses for teachers, etc. ised on non-profi tmaking basis, it is impossible to use But also schools in which AWF graduates are employed expensive and complex equipment. Th us, while working as they know the festivities from their university times. on students’ ideas for competitions we apply the 70% to In the past, the festivities were exclusively sporting 30% rule, which means that about 70% (majority) of and recreational events. With time though, the formula the competition constitutes the idea, and the rest 30% expanded on other tasks such as the university promo- is equipment. What is most important, the competition tion, elements of sponsorship appeared as well as some must be interesting and appealing for the children. Ex- shows and performances. amples of such competitions can be found at the end of At the beginning the event took place on the main the article. All of them use simple everyday items like fi eld of athletics stadium, but in later years it was moved soap, blocks, inner tubes, etc. Th ose items together with to green areas in front of the university buildings. Th e interesting and funny rules of the games make up indis- festivity takes place mostly on sunny days and is staged pensible part of festive competitions. in the open area of green belt. So far in the long-standing Alongside the works on competitions there are tradition of festivities, the organizers were lucky about formed three sections, each of which is responsible for the weather conditions. If the weather was not favoura- diff erent tasks: ble, the event was moved to a sports hall, which unfortu- 1. Technical and sports section which prepares and nately involved reducing number of competitions. How- stages games during the festivities. ever, such situation took place only once. 2. Economic and fi nancial section which is responsible Until 2008 responsibility for organization of the fes- for raising funds and prizes. tivity fell on students of the fi rst year – under the super- 3. Organization and marketing section which prepares vision of the main manager – as part of their “Games in- posters, takes care of sound and staging the event as volving physical activity” classes. Th e preparation process well as does all the assigned tasks during preparations ran according to the following plan: students presented to the festivities, at the festivities and after they fi nish. draft of competitions, if it was attractive and fulfi lled the Th e whole organization process, for which students condition of accessibility for the participants, we start- are trained, is based on the principles of praxiological cy- ed joint eff orts to prepare equipment and the students cle. Its main points are: diagnosis, prognosis, planning staged that competition during the festivity. Th e number and programming the event and then action and its evalu- of festivity game stands fl uctuated from several at the be- ation. Th e organization process is divided into three stag- ginning to about forty at present. Later on, the formula es: preparatory stage, stage of realization and fi nal stage. of the festivity was enhanced with various shows, such as Each of them is further divided into organization phases, ballroom dance, gymnastics, martial arts, climbing, bike which should be organized and realized in particular or- trial, archery and other sports disciplines. Th ose shows der. All of the organization phases should be logically con- were participated by our students as well as children and nected. Th erefore, all the undertaken actions should be teenagers from schools which took part in the festivity. suffi ciently determined and ordered in a schedule.

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 85 Paweł Ochwat, Elżbieta Szymańska

During organizational activities, to ensure their 3. Obtaining prizes from sponsors: gadgets, sweets, pro- smooth course, it is crucial to use and obey the follow- motional materials, sports equipment, juice, mineral ing rules: the rule of rational division of work, the rule water. of concentration, the rule of harmonization, the rule of 4. Preparing letters to particular companies and institu- prioritising, the rule of decentralization and the rule of tions. exception [8]. 5. Cooperation with Department of Organization of Preparatory actions are done simultaneously in all Events and Promotion of AWF in Kraków. sections. All students are obliged to – regardless of the After doing all the above-mentioned preparatory ac- section – to suggest a game or competition for the festiv- tions before the event, on a day prior to the festivities stu- ities, take active part in the event and prepare an exem- dents take part in a briefi ng with the managers and at the plary letters to obtain honorary and media patronage as same time instructors of “Organization of sporting and well as sponsors. recreational events” classes. Th is is the moment when all Specifi c tasks of the technical and sports section are: the details are specifi ed, stands are assigned to each com- 1. Preparation of a schedule for particular activities and petition and students take all the equipment necessary to tasks. stage the event from the storehouse. On the day of the 2. Preparation and printing of the rules for each com- festivities the stands are put up, the stage is prepared for petition. the shows and prizes are delivered to the proper stands so 3. Preparation of the calendar of the event. that everything is ready an hour before the opening time, 4. Preparation and planning of the evacuation routes. i.e. before 10 a.m. 5. Preparation of the stage, music for shows and perfor- It should be assumed that at present each festivity mances. involves around 40 competitions and games, both team 6. Ensuring safety during shows (police shows and and individual. Th e event is supported from the begin- others). ning to the end by 2 or 3 students per stand, depending 7. Preparation of a detailed emergency plan (plan “B”) on the size and complicity. Th eir duties involve putting in case of unfavourable weather conditions. up the equipment, keeping order, proper refereeing, and 8. Organizing the work of security and internal car if it is necessary keeping the score. Th e range of games parks. during the festivities is wide. To introduce their specifi c- 9. Logistic support, distributing prizes to the proper ity, some of them are presented at the end of the present stands. work. Th e organization and marketing section deals with: Th e organizer prepares the opening ceremony, which 1. Designing the poster (printed and electronic ver- is honoured with the presence of sportsmen, scientists or sion). politicians. During the festivities, dance, gymnastics and 2. Obtaining permits from particular companies for other fi tness shows take place at the same time in diff er- placing their logos on the posters. ent parts of the premises. For the last two years festivities 3. Preparing invitations for schools participating in the has been joined with Malopolska Beach Volleyball Tour- festivities. nament which is participated by middle and secondary 4. Preparing invitations for VIPs. school students. 5. Placing the posters on websites. After closing the festivities our students do the clean- 6. Providing medical security (ambulance). ing, secure and hand over the equipment which was used 7. Organizing shows and performances. during the event. All the actions are supervised by the or- 8. Organizing the opening and closing of the event. ganizers. Th e closing of the festivities does not fi nish the 9. Preparing and hosting the festivities with a DJ. actions of particular sections. As part of the post-event 10. Distributing prizes (gadgets) to proper stands during activity, sections prepare and deliver letters of gratitude the festivity. to people and institutions involved in organizing the fes- 11. Submitting an application to Association of Artists tivities. and Composers (ZAIKS) for the permit to play mu- sic during the event. Concept and mission of “For a Child Smile” 12. Preparing letters of gratitude to sponsors, media pa- festivities trons and VIPs for engaging in our undertaking and Th e managers also cooperate with units not connected support for the festivities. with the university. If mission and objectives of an in- Th e tasks of economic and fi nancial section are stitution coincide with the objectives of the organizers, among other: such cooperation complements the formula of the event. 1. Conducting talks with companies on fi nancing the Just to mention cooperation with the Voivodship Police event. Headquarters in Kraków whose priority is, among oth- 2. Obtaining funds from sponsors. ers, a so-called “soft prevention”, i.e., preventing dys-

86 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Formal and Legal Analysis of Sporting and Recreational Events on the Basis of Sporting and Recreational Festivities “For a Child Smile”… functional behaviours of children and teenagers. Th e po- versity, among others the winners of Climbing World lice participate in the festivities by doing a test required Championship and bike trial. to obtain bicyclist’s licence (entitling to ride a bicycle on public roads) and improving bicycling skills, shows of Formal and fi nancial analysis of “For a Child equipment and operation activities, as well as doing quiz- Smile” festivities zes on safety for children and teenagers. An average budget of the festivities, summing up organi- Sometimes the festivities were joined with an event zation, technical and production costs, is rather low and or anniversary important for Kraków’s AWF. At those amounts to 1,000–5,000 PLN, calculated for 2,000 par- times the programme of the festivities was modifi ed to ticipants. Th e upper limit is reached if the event is con- emphasise that particular occasion and the event devel- nected with an anniversary or memorial. oped a theme. We organized big events on the 70., 75. It should be mentioned that the university bears or 80. anniversary of the university together with Radio costs connected with the event that may not be obvious Kraków, but also an event to celebrate the Millennium at fi rst. Th ese are: preparation of the grounds where the or Polish access to Th e European Union. In 2004, which festivities takes place, sports equipment that belongs to was announced the European Year of Education through the university, labour costs of the workers who help with Sport EYES, “For a Child Smile” festivity was joined organizing the event e.g. workers from carpentry work- with the Malopolska Mathematics Competition. Togeth- shops where majority of the equipment used during the er with Polish Association of Mathematics Teachers we festivities is produced, administrative workers who secure prepared 10 games for groups of four participants: chil- and prepare the event (mowing the lawns, hedges, secur- dren and teenagers from primary, middle and second- ing car parks, preparing the information boards). ary schools of Malopolska region. Th e competitors had Th e other funds are obtained by the organizers from to solve maths problems on an appropriate level while sponsors. Th e ability to obtain funds for organizing doing games involving physical activity. Apart from that events in sport and recreation is a skill essential for man- they could take part in 30 other festivity games not con- agers-to-be. Th erefore, one of the tasks for students is ob- nected with the maths competition. taining sponsors and donators. If students fi nd a sponsor, We also organized anniversary festivities devoted to further talks are conducted by the managers. All funds the work of such prominent personages as dr Henryk Jor- for the event are deposited on the bank account of the dan, or the patronage of our University Bronisław Czech. university. Th e main manager of the event has access to On 18th May 2007, the 100th anniversary of dr Jordan’s those funds. birthday, the creator of Dr. H. Jordan’s Playground in Th e main manager is responsible for the purchase Kraków and co-originator of a modern concept of the- of the equipment needed for preparation of the event. ory of physical education in Poland, apart from 30 oth- He or she places an order for the purchase of needed er competitions, we reconstructed and played 10 games things in the supplies department or buys them him/ that were popular hundred years ago in Dr. H. Jor- herself in shops or at the manufacturers. Unfortunate- dan’s Playground. In 2008, on the 100th anniversary of ly, obtained funds cannot cover all expenses; therefore Bolesław Czech’s birthday, our patron who was a great we usually use the equipment available at the universi- skier and patriot and died tragically of emaciation in con- ty. Most of the equipment made in university’s carpen- centration camp in Auschwitz, the authors of the pro- try workshops and by students, is reused after the event gramme prepared several competitions which referred during games involving physical activity classes and sub- to winter sports and, as every year, more than 30 other sequent festivities. festivity games. Th e event was honoured with the pres- Th e event is not additionally insured as the partici- ence of popular sportsmen who represent Poland in win- pants are school students who are already insured against ter sports, among others Jagna Marczułajtis and Kamil eff ects of accidents and participation in the event itself is Stoch. a part of an organized trip outside school. In the year of Millennium organizers planned an un- Usually “For a Child Smile” festivity is a closed dertaking unique both in terms of programme and in- event as the participants are children and teenagers from volvement of other practical sections of our Universi- schools invited by the organizers. But on few occasions ty. Apart from the Section of Methodology of P.E. and the event was open to all who wanted to take part in Placements, other sections were engaged in prepara- it. Th e open festivities enjoyed immense popularity and tions: Section of Gymnastics, Dances-and-Music Forms, were organized on Saturdays so that they could be at- Alpine as well as Folk Dance Group of Kraków’s AWF. tended by parents with their children. Th ese are multi- Th e shows were organized on the main fi eld of the sta- generational events which are attended by children, teen- dium and about 200 students took part in them, most of agers, parents and frequently by grandparents too. whom were students of physical education. In the shows A crucial element from the marketing point of view there were also involved sportsmen studying at our Uni- is advertising in media. Th ese are traditional media (the

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 87 Paweł Ochwat, Elżbieta Szymańska press, radio, television) as well as the Internet. It is par- ter and wider cooperation with companies and business- ticularly signifi cant for the promotion of the University’s men, many of whom are graduates of AWF or its sup- actions in the area as well as for sponsors whose logo is porters. placed on the poster advertising the event. Th e posters Students, due to organization of sporting and rec- are prepared in printed and electronic versions. Th e lat- reational events classes and participation in the process ter is placed on the university website and websites of the of preparation, realisation and closing the event, are well institutions involved in organizing the event. It is also an prepared to organize sporting and recreational events on opportunity for sponsors, honorary and media patrons their own, especially in school context. Th ey learn how to create the image of institutions supporting worthy to plan strategically and programme the event as well as causes: integration, health and social causes. they acquire skills of negotiation and promotion. We pay a lot of attention to prepare future teachers Conclusions for work with children, which sometimes requires a lot of time, resources and energy. What is most important, Th e sporting and recreational festivity “For a Child Smile” this job allows reaching the set goals and brings satisfac- in Th e University of Physical Education in Kraków pre- tion and enjoyment for the children, teenagers and their sents values which are most important and beautiful in future teachers. Because it is all about fi nding the way to sport and recreation: the enjoyment derived from physi- physically active, healthy and joyful life of young genera- cal activity and the opportunity to succeed for all par- tions, which fi nds expression in a child’s smile, bringing ticipants. Children who participate derive pleasure and satisfaction to all involved in this undertaking. enjoyment from doing sport and recreation, and get the opportunity to achieve success. Th ey have the opportu- nity to compete with peers in spirit of fair play. Children References who are disabled or physically less fi t can integrate with children who are fi tter. Th rough participation in com- [1] Demel M., Humen W. [1970] An Introduction to Physical petitions they develop motor and physical abilities and Reaction, Warsaw. broaden knowledge on presented games and sports disci- [2] Nazar K. [2002] Physiological eff ects of physical inactiv- plines. Professionally prepared performances and shows ity of a human. Cognitive and Practical Prospects of Physi- not only make the event more attractive but also give cal Education Sciences, Grabowski H. (ed.), Kraków: AWF Kraków. chance for young sportsmen to present themselves to [3] Grabowski H. [2002] What You Have to Know about Phys- the wider audience. During the festivities participants ical Education, Kraków: OW „Impuls”. have the opportunity to meet their sports idols. Children [4] Grabowski H. [1997] Th eory of Physical Education, War- playing together integrate with their peers but also their saw: WSiP. teachers and parents, which is important for the educa- [5] Janikowska-Siatka M., Skrętowicz E., Szymańska E. [2008] tional and social reasons. Games Involving Physical Activity. P.E. Lessons and Sport- AWF through organizing the sporting and recrea- ing and Recreational Events, 5th ed., 1999, Warsaw: WSiP. tional festivities “For a Child Smile” promotes itself as [6] Strugarek J. [2006] Organizing and Staging Sporting. Rec- a University which actively works for the area and which reational and Tourist Events, Poznań. [7] Szymańska E. [2008] Organization of Sporting and Rec- professionally prepares its students for the career not only reational and Tourist Events. Basis for Th eory and Method- in teaching but also in various companies. Undoubtedly, ology of Physical Reaction. Textbook for Instructor of Physi- that image is enhanced by cooperation with such institu- cal Reaction – general part. TKKF Publishing, Warsaw. tions as the City Council, the Police or Fire Department [8] Wolańska T. [1997] Lexicon – Sport for Everybody – Physi- and contacts with media. What also seems crucial is bet- cal Reaction, AWF Warsaw.

88 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Sędzia jako kreator widowiska sportowego w piłce siatkowej The Volleyball Referee as a Sporting Show Creator

Anna Bodasińska WWFiS Biała Podlaska Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego Józefa Piłsudskiego w Warszawie

Summary The objective of this paper was to evaluate and describe the volleyball referee’s role and competence as a sporting show creator. The material for empirical analysis was obtained by examining a group of 50 active volleyball refer- ees. A questionnaire form was used in the study, which was conducted in 2013. In the opinion of the respondents, a volleyball referee performs the role of a sporting show creator. The role is particularly visible when fulfi lling the function of the fi rst referee. The qualities that make a sporting show out of a volleyball match are the presence of spectators and fi erce competition between teams. The examined referees consider their eff ect on a sporting show to be signifi cantly smaller than that of the players and spectators. A volleyball referee is perceived as a person who performs a supervising and disciplinary role during a sporting show. Among the abilities needed by a referee to be in charge of a sporting show, the respondents enumerated: mental resilience, decisiveness, good refl exes, knowledge about the sport, and fairness. One in three examined referees spoiled a sporting show by making a wrong decision. Keywords: referee, sporting show, creator, volleyball, match

Streszczenie Celem niniejszej pracy była ocena i charakterystyka roli oraz kompetencji sędziego piłki siatkowej jako kreatora widowiska sportowego. Materiał do analiz empirycznych uzyskano w wyniku badania grupy 50 czynnych sę- dziów piłki siatkowej. Narzędziem zastosowanym w niniejszej pracy był kwestionariusz ankiety. Badania prze- prowadzono w 2013 roku. W opinii badanych, sędzia siatkarski pełni rolę kreatora widowiska sportowego. Rola ta uwidacznia się szczególnie przy sprawowaniu funkcji sędziego I. Cechy konstytuujące mecz siatkarski jako widowisko sportowe to obecność kibiców oraz występowanie zaciętej rywalizacji między drużynami. Badani sę- dziowie oceniają swój wpływ na widowisko sportowe jako znacząco mniejszy niż wpływ zawodników i kibiców. Sędzia siatkarski jest postrzegany jako osoba pełniąca w trakcie widowiska sportowego rolę nadzorczą i po- rządkową. Wśród kompetencji potrzebnych sędziemu do prowadzenia widowiska sportowego badani arbitrzy wymieniają: odporność psychiczną, zdecydowanie i refl eks, wiedzę dotyczącą dyscypliny oraz sprawiedliwość. Co trzeciemu z badanych sędziów zdarzyło się popsuć widowisko sportowe błędną decyzją. Słowa kluczowe: sędzia, widowisko sportowe, kreator, piłka siatkowa, mecz

Wstęp Nie ulega wątpliwości, że w czasie meczu sędzia siat- karski przyjmuje określoną rolę w zakresie czuwania nad Mnogość obecnych w literaturze defi nicji słowa ‘kreator’ właściwym przebiegiem spotkania. W zakresie jego obo- pozwala na dostosowanie tego pojęcia do specyfi ki pracy wiązków znajduje się kontrola nad grą i wszystkim co sędziego siatkarskiego. Uwypuklając najistotniejsze ele- z nią związane. W jego rękach spoczywa nadzorowanie menty tychże defi nicji, na potrzeby niniejszej pracy ter- meczu siatkarskiego – widowiska sportowego [Gorący min ten ujęto w następujący sposób: „kreator to osoba 2005, s. 25; Wierzbicka 1993, s. 43–50]. tworząca coś, ustanawiająca czy wprowadzająca pewne Warto zatem zwrócić uwagę na wartości, którymi wi- działania czy zjawiska, ukierunkowane na osiągnięcie za- nien charakteryzować się sędzia siatkarski – kreator wido- mierzonego celu” [Kopaliński 2007]. wiska sportowego.

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 89 Anna Bodasińska

By móc w sposób sprawny i zorganizowany prowa- ne znaczenie w pierwszych minutach spotkania, „gdyż są dzić mecz siatkarski, sędzia powinien posiadać takie ce- one wskazówką dla trenerów i zawodników dotyczącą in- chy jak: dobry wzrok, zdolność koncentracji, nienaganna terpretacji przebiegu meczu przez sędziów” [Richardson prezencja, wysoka kultura osobista, umiejętności dyplo- 1990, s. 9]. Konsekwentne postępowanie arbitra staje się matyczne z domieszką poczucia humoru, zdecydowanie bardziej przewidywalne, co może pomóc w dostosowaniu i refl eks, odporność psychiczna, oraz, co najważniejsze, się zawodników do ducha walki sportowej. powinien lubić swój zawód [Richardson 1991, s. 3; Go- Niektórzy autorzy sugerują, że sędziego powinien ce- rący, Jeż 2007, s. 27–31]. chować także zdrowy rozsądek. Nie jest wskazane sztyw- Praca sędziego (sędziowanie) jest czynnością, która ne trzymanie się przepisów i bycie jedynie ich egzeku- wymaga nieustannego doskonalenia, tak samo jak ma to torem. „Praktycznie mówiąc, sędzia obowiązkowo musi miejsce w przypadku zawodników. Aby osiągnąć wysoki poświęcić błąd techniczny dla czynników propagando- poziom tej umiejętności, nie wystarczy jedynie uczestni- wych. To jest właśnie sztuka dobrego sędziowania!” [Ja- czyć w dużej liczbie meczów siatkarskich. Do uzyskania siński 2005, s. 12]. odpowiednich kompetencji potrzebna jest wiedza i do- Na sylwetkę dobrego sędziego składają się również świadczenie. Można je zdobyć dzięki obserwacji bardziej takie cechy jak: wrażliwość, pewność siebie i wiara we doświadczonych sędziów. W początkach kariery pomoc- własne możliwości. Do jego zadań nie należy szukanie ne w tym względzie jest posiadanie wzoru do naślado- popularności czy aprobaty, a jedynie sumienne wyko- wania. Dzięki radom bardziej doświadczonych kolegów nywanie swojej pracy. Dlatego też wysoki poziom tych kształtują się umiejętności i poszerza się wiedza dotycząca cech nie pozwala sędziemu zwątpić w swoje umiejętności tajników sędziowskiej profesji [Richardson 1990, s. 2]. i utratę obiektywizmu [Richardson 1990, s. 9]. Sędziego można nazwać „graczem bez piłki”, który na Nie bez znaczenia jest również umiejętność współpra- równi z innymi uczestnikami widowiska sportowego od- cy z partnerami w ramach komisji sędziowskiej. W celu czuwa psychiczne wymagania meczu i zmuszony jest po- stworzenia zgranego zespołu sędziowie przed meczem dejmować szybkie i właściwe decyzje oraz posiadać zdol- powinni ustalić wszelkie zasady współpracy. W ramach ność koncentracji [Richardson 1990, s. 2]. przygotowania przedmeczowego winni omówić poten- Wśród ważnych cech, którymi charakteryzować się cjalne sytuacje, które mogą zdarzyć się w trakcje rywa- winien sędzia siatkarski jest wygląd. Dobrze zbudowany, lizacji sportowej i wynikające z nich problemy. W piłce o nienagannej prezencji arbiter jest znacznie lepiej po- siatkowej przygotowanie przedmeczowe zostało formal- strzegany przez uczestników widowiska sportowego niż nie przewidziane. W ofi cjalnym ceremoniale zawodów, ktoś, kto swoim nieschludnym wyglądem i brakiem zde- na 15 minut przed spotkaniem, po losowaniu, sędzio- cydowania budzi niechęć [Kostrzewski 1995, s. 30–33]. wie I i II udzielają sędziom liniowym, sędziemu sekreta- Nie bez znaczenia pozostają także głos i sposób prze- rzowi oraz obsłudze boiska instrukcji i wskazówek, doty- kazu informacji, które są ważnymi elementami w rela- czących sprawowanych przez nich funkcji [Czyżniewski cjach z trenerami i zawodnikami. Dlatego też sędzia nie 1992, s. 36–39]. powinien okazywać zdenerwowania i niepewności w gło- Zatem od sędziego siatkarskiego wymaga się posia- sie, gdyż może to niekorzystnie wpłynąć na przebieg gry dania licznych kompetencji zarówno na płaszczyźnie fi - [Kostrzewski 1995, s. 30–33]. zycznej, jak i psychicznej. To od niego w dużej mierze Istotna wydaje się również koncentracja, czyli „zdol- zależy, czy mecz siatkarski będzie prawdziwym widowi- ność kierowania swojej uwagi na rzeczy najważniejsze skiem sportowym, czy też jedynie zwykłym spotkaniem w chwili podejmowania decyzji w czasie meczu” [Ri- dwóch rywalizujących drużyn. Dlatego ważne jest, by sę- chardson 1990, s. 9]. Można jej się nauczyć, należy też dzia, wykorzystując swoją wiedzę i umiejętności, w spo- ją świadomie kształtować, ponieważ jest szczególnie waż- sób świadomy i zaplanowany prowadził mecz, dążąc do na w obliczu trudnych sytuacji pojawiających się pod- stworzenia widowiska, któremu nadaje wysoką rangę bez czas spotkania siatkarskiego. Takie czynniki jak panujący względu na poziom sportowy jego uczestników. w hali sportowej hałas oraz zachowanie innych uczest- ników zawodów mogą powodować obniżenie pozio- Cel pracy. Materiał i metody badań mu koncentracji, co może mieć niekorzystny wpływ na przebieg widowiska. Tylko skoncentrowany sędzia może Na bazie zebranych materiałów sformułowano cel pracy, w sposób efektywny i konsekwentny kierować grą [Zio- jakim była ocena i charakterystyka roli oraz kompetencji ber 1990, s. 7–8]. sędziego piłki siatkowej jako kreatora widowiska sporto- By uniknąć nieporozumień i móc z łatwością dążyć wego. Do zajęcia się niniejszą tematyką skłoniła autor- do wyznaczonego celu, jakim jest stworzenie z meczu siat- kę chęć zgłębienia tego mało poruszanego przez polskich karskiego widowiska sportowego, sędziego musi charak- badaczy zagadnienia. Przegląd literatury pozwala wysnuć teryzować również konsekwencja w realizacji ustalonych przypuszczenie, iż problematyka związana z aktywnością standardów [Kowalczyk 1993, s. 36–39]. Ma to szczegól- sędziów siatkarskich jest mało popularna.

90 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Sędzia jako kreator widowiska sportowego w piłce siatkowej

W badaniach zastosowano metodę sondażu diagno- badany sędzia to nauczyciel. Ponad 25% respondentów stycznego z wykorzystaniem kwestionariusza ankiety pt. to studenci. Pozostała część reprezentowała zawody ta- „Rola i kompetencje sędziego piłki siatkowej jako kreato- kie jak: konstruktor, ratownik medyczny czy ekonomi- ra widowiska sportowego”. W jego pierwszej części zna- sta. 60% sędziów to gracze rekreacyjni w piłkę siatkową. lazła się instrukcja wypełniania kwestionariusza. Drugą Około 25% deklarowało bycie czynnym zawodnikiem. część stanowiło 19 pytań dotyczących zagadnień związa- Szkoleniem zajmuje się ponad 30% respondentów. nych z problematyką badań. W trzeciej części umieszczo- Dane empiryczne, uzyskane w wyniku badania opi- no metryczkę pomagającą zebrać podstawowe dane o ba- sywanej grupy, poddano obróbce jakościowej i ilościo- danych, takie jak: płeć, wiek, wykształcenie, zawód, staż wej. Analizę podporządkowano przyjętym problemom sędziowski, klasa sędziowska oraz pełnione dodatkowe badawczym i przeprowadzono ją przy użyciu pakietu sta- funkcje (zawodnik piłki siatkowej, trener piłki siatkowej tystycznego SPSS Statistica. Mając na uwadze humani- czy gracz rekreacyjny w piłkę siatkową). styczny charakter niniejszych badań – stroniąc od „kwan- Materiał do analiz empirycznych uzyskano w wyni- tafrenii” [Pawłowski 1986, s. 210] – w ilościowym opra- ku badania grupy 57 czynnych sędziów piłki siatkowej, cowaniu zebranego materiału empirycznego zastosowane przy czym w tym miejscu należy zaznaczyć, że do analiz zostały podstawowe obliczenia statystyczne. wykorzystano 50 kwestionariuszy. Odrzucono bowiem Badanie przeprowadzono w roku 2013. ankiety wypełnione w sposób niekompletny. Materiał badań zbierany był podczas rozgrywek siatkarskich na Analiza wyników badań różnym szczeblu zaawansowania sportowego (rozgryw- ki młodzieżowe województwa podlaskiego, lubelskiego Arbiter siatkarski z racji swojej roli ma pełną władzę eg- i świętokrzyskiego, III liga mężczyzn – województwo lu- zekwowania uprawnień nadanych mu przez przepisy gry, belskie, II oraz I liga kobiet i mężczyzn – województwo w związku z oceną przebiegu prowadzonych przez siebie mazowieckie). zawodów. Jego decyzje mają charakter ostateczny, dlate- Tak zebrane dane pozwoliły na stworzenie charakte- go musi on być zdecydowany w swoich działaniach oraz rystyki badanej grupy. przekonany o ich słuszności. Nie każdy kandydat może 86% badanych stanowili mężczyźni. Wiek badanych zostać dobrym arbitrem piłki siatkowej, a jedynie taki, wahał się w granicach 21–73 lata. Połowa badanych była który posiada określone predyspozycje. między 20 a 30 rokiem życia. Ponad ¾ badanych osób Analizę wyników badań rozpoczęto zatem od ustale- miało wykształcenie wyższe. Co ciekawe, wśród respon- nia rozumienia terminu ‘kreator’ przez sędziów piłki siat- dentów nie było osób z wykształceniem niższym niż śred- kowej. Zebrane dane przedstawia wykres 1. nie. Spośród badanych 60% posiadało I klasę sędziow- Sędziowie siatkarscy rozumieją ten termin jako oso- ską, ponad ¼ legitymowała się II klasą sędziowską, 15% bę coś tworzącą, postępującą odpowiedzialnie, której posiadało zaś klasę związkową. Analiza danych pokazała działania prowadzą do osiągnięcia zamierzonego celu także ogromne zróżnicowanie w długości stażu sędziow- (50%). Co trzeci sędzia uważa, że rola kreatora polega na skiego, który wahał się w granicach od 3 do 50 lat. 50% nadzorowaniu działań przy wykonywaniu danej czynno- badanych posiadało staż sędziowski, który mieścił się ści lub zadania (30%). 20% respondentów sądzi, że kre- w przedziale 3–8 lat. Największą grupę stanowiły oso- ator to osoba ustalająca zasady harmonijnej współpracy by z 10-letnim stażem sędziowskim (15%). Co trzeci i czuwająca nad ich realizacją. Można więc stwierdzić, że

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osoba twórcza, odpowiedzialnie postępująca, której działania prowadzą do osiągnięcia zamierzonego celu osoba nadzorująca działania przy wykonywaniu danej czynności lub zadania osoba ustalająca zasady harmonijnej współpracy i czuwająca nad ich realizacją

Wykres 1. Znaczenie pojęcia kreator w ocenie badanych. Źródło: opracowanie własne

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 91 Anna Bodasińska

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zdarzenie społeczne o charakterze rozrywkowo-rekreacyjnym, zaistniałe z racji organizowanej rywalizacji sportowej, przebie- gające według ustalonych reguł wydarzenie w postaci meczu, meetingu, wyścigu, spotkania, rajdu i innych zawodów, przebiegające w określonym miejscu i czasie wytwór przemysłu sportowo-rozrywkowego, którego celem jest zaspokojenie oczekiwań publiczności

Wykres 2. Znaczenie pojęcia widowiska sportowego w ocenie badanych. Źródło: opracowanie własne w ocenie sędziów, kreator jest osobą odpowiedzialną za W tym kontekście interesujące wydaje się być prze- tworzenie widowiska sportowego, ustalenie zasad współ- analizowanie cech, które według sędziów charakteryzu- działania, nadzorującą ich przebieg i dbającą o realizację ją mecz siatkarski jako widowisko sportowe (wykres 3). ustalonych celów. Dla połowy sędziów (50%) mecz siatkarski jest wi- Drugim, istotnym terminem z punktu widzenia pro- dowiskiem sportowym, gdyż posiada widownię, kibiców. blematyki pracy było pojęcie widowiska sportowego, Co trzeci respondent (30%) zwraca uwagę na potrzebę a precyzyjniej: sposób, w jaki defi niują ten termin sędzio- istnienia zaciętej rywalizacji między drużynami. Sędzio- wie piłki siatkowej (wykres 2). wie pomijają z reguły takie cechy widowiska sportowe- Dla połowy sędziów widowisko sportowe to zdarze- go jak dynamika meczu (10%) czy nagłe zwroty akcji nie społeczne o charakterze rozrywkowo-rekreacyjnym, (10%). zaistniałe z racji organizowanej rywalizacji sportowej, Analiza danych zgromadzonych na wykresie 4 wska- przebiegające według ustalonych reguł, co jest tożsame zuje z kolei, że w ocenie sędziów widowisko sportowe z defi nicją zaproponowaną przez Matusiewicza [1989, w największym stopniu tworzą zawodnicy (70%) i kibi- 1998]. Co trzeci sędzia (30%) uważa, że widowisko spor- ce (20%). Rola sędziów i organizatorów jest według nich towe to wydarzenie w postaci meczu, meetingu, wyścigu, marginalna (na poziomie 5% w każdej z grup). spotkania, rajdu i innych zawodów, przebiegające w okre- Ciekawe rezultaty przyniosły natomiast badania ślonym miejscu i czasie. 20% ankietowanych utożsamia ocen sędziów dotyczących wpływu wyżej wymienionych widowisko sportowe z wytworem przemysłu sportowo- grup na przebieg widowiska sportowego (wykres 5). -rozrywkowego, którego celem jest zaspokojenie oczeki- O ile – w opinii sędziów – to zawodnicy tworzą wi- wań publiczności. dowisko sportowe, o tyle ich wpływ na jego przebieg nie

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posiada widownię, kibiców posiada dynamikę występuje zacięta rywalizacja między drużynami posiada nagłe zwroty akcji

Wykres 3. Charakterystyka meczu siatkarskiego jako widowiska sportowego w ocenie badanych. Źródło: opracowanie własne

92 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Sędzia jako kreator widowiska sportowego w piłce siatkowej

zawodnicy kibice sędziowie organizatorzy

Wykres 4. Twórcy widowiska sportowego w ocenie badanych. Źródło: opracowanie własne

zawodnicy kibice sędziowie organizatorzy

Wykres 5. Wielkość wpływu na widowisko sportowe poszczególnych jego twórców w ocenie badanych. Źródło: opracowanie własne jest już tak bardzo oczywisty (50%). Zmniejsza się także Poczucie większości badanych daje zatem podstawę rola kibiców w tym aspekcie (25%). Elementy te współ- sądzić, że sędziowie siatkarscy chcą decydować o przebie- występują ze wzrostem znaczenia sędziów (15%) i orga- gu widowiska siatkarskiego. nizatorów (10%) dla przebiegu widowiska sportowego. W dalszej części analizy zbadano, która z funkcji ko- Przypuszczać można, że wzrost znaczenia sędziów w przy- misji sędziowskiej pełnionych w trakcie meczu jawi się padku przebiegu widowiska sportowego jest spowodowa- badanym jako wywierająca największy wpływ na kreowa- ny potrzebą utrzymania porządku w trakcie jego trwania. nie widowiska sportowego (tabela 2). Kluczowe z punktu widzenia tematu pracy jest zatem Zamieszczone powyżej dane zdają się potwierdzać pytanie: Czy sędzia pełni rolę kreatora widowiska siatkar- wszelkie przypuszczenia: to sędzia I, spośród wszyst- skiego (tabela 1). kich członków komisji sędziowskiej, wywiera największy Analiza danych wskazuje, że ponad ¾ badanej grupy wpływ na przebieg widowiska sportowego – taka jest opi- zgadza się z omawianą tezą. nia niemal wszystkich badanych sędziów (96%). Można zatem przyjąć, że obsadzanie sędziów w tej funkcji wy- maga od organizatorów widowiska sportowego sięgania

Tabela 1. Sędzia piłki siatkowej jako kreator widowiska siatkarskiego w ocenie badanych

Badani Odpowiedzi N % Tak 38 76 Nie 12 24 Nie mam zdania – – Ogółem 50 100 Źródło: opracowanie własne

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 93 Anna Bodasińska

Tabela 2. Rola poszczególnych funkcji sędziego i jej wpływ na przebieg widowiska sportowego w ocenie badanych

Badani Funkcja N % Sędzia I 48 96 Sędzia II 2 4 Sędzia liniowy – 0 Sędzia sekretarz – 0 Ogółem 50 100 Źródło: opracowanie własne. Tabela 3. Funkcje sędziów preferowane przez badanych

Badani Funkcja N % Sędzia I 40 80 Sędzia II 8 16 Sędzia sekretarz 2 4 Ogółem 50 100 Źródło: opracowanie własne

Tabela 4. Preferencje sędziów co do poziomu trudności pełnienia poszczególnych funkcji

Badani Funkcja N % Sędzia I 25 50 Sędzia II 15 30 Sędzia liniowy – – Sędzia sekretarz 10 20 Ogółem 50 100 Źródło: opracowanie własne po autorytety i silne jednostki, zdolne do autentycznej Co drugi respondent (50%) wyraża przekonanie, że współpracy w atmosferze prawdziwej życzliwości, wypo- najwyższym stopniem trudności charakteryzuje się funk- sażone w szereg zdolności i umiejętności. cja sędziego I, argumentując to większym zakresem od- Dalsze analizy zmierzały do określenia najbardziej powiedzialności, obowiązków i stresu. Niejednokrotnie i najmniej preferowanych przez sędziów funkcji w skła- spotykamy się z sytuacją, gdy kibice gloryfi kują osobę sę- dzie komisji sędziowskiej (tabela 3). dziego I, a kiedy indziej kwestionują jego kompetencje, Funkcją, w której 80% badanych sędziów czuje się a niestety często te dwie skrajności dotyczą tej samej oso- najlepiej, jest sędzia I. Swój wybór badani argumentowali by w przeciągu krótkiego czasu. Dzieje się tak, ponieważ faktem, że funkcja ta łączy się z większą odpowiedzialno- fani dokonują w większości oceny normatywnej, biorąc ścią i większym prestiżem. pod uwagę tylko kryteria sukcesu lub porażki ich zespołu Respondenci, którzy najlepiej czuli się w roli sędzie- [Sas-Nowosielski 2008, s. 70]. go II (16%), argumentowali z kolei swój wybór przede Osoby, które niechętnie wypełniają obowiązki sę- wszystkim mniejszym zakresem obowiązków, sędzio- dziego II, sędziego liniowego czy sekretarza, także od- wie preferujący funkcję sekretarza (4%) odnosili się zaś wołują się do zbyt dużego zakresu obowiązków. 30% re- w równej mierze do kwestii zakresu obowiązków, jak spondentów wyraża niechęć do pełnienia funkcji sędzie- i zdobytego w tym obszarze doświadczenia, które wpły- go II, argumentując to zbyt wysokim stopniem wymagań wało na preferowanie przez nich właśnie tej funkcji. związanych z pełnieniem tej funkcji. 20% sędziów nie- Zestawienie preferencji badanych sędziów co do chętnych do pełnienia funkcji sekretarza przedstawia kil- funkcji sędziowskich, które charakteryzują się najwyż- ka czynników, wśród których najczęściej wskazywany jest szym stopniem trudności, zawiera tabela 4. brak doświadczenia.

94 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Sędzia jako kreator widowiska sportowego w piłce siatkowej

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nadzorcza porządkowa wychowawcza ochronna

Wykres 6. Znaczenie poszczególnych funkcji sędziowskich w widowisku sportowym w ocenie badanych. Źródło: opracowanie własne

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odporność psychiczna sprawiedliwość zdecydowanie i refl eks wiedza o dyscyplinie kultura osobista umiejętność współdziałania w grupie

Wykres 7. Cechy szczególnie potrzebne sędziemu do prowadzenia widowiska sportowego w ocenie badanych. Źródło: opracowanie własne

W pytaniu dotyczącym realizacji funkcji kierowni- wą (40%), posiadać wiedzę o dyscyplinie (30%), wysoką czych widowiska siatkarskiego sędziowie w większości kulturę osobistą (20%) i zdolność współpracy w grupie wskazali na funkcję nadzorczą (60%). Co trzeci respon- (10%). dent podkreśla natomiast znacznie funkcji porządkowej Uzyskane wyniki wskazują zatem, że sędziowanie po- (30%). Funkcja ochronna i wychowawcza znalazły uzna- winno być oparte na merytorycznej wiedzy o dyscyplinie, nie jedynie u 10% respondentów. Ocena realizacji tych właściwym stosunku do wykonywanej pracy i innych lu- funkcji (w mniejszym bądź większym stopniu) świadczy dzi oraz do siebie samego. o braku bierności w zachowaniu sędziów podczas uczest- Ostatnim elementem dotyczącym bezpośrednio roli niczenia w widowisku sportowym. Przypuszczać można, sędziów w widowisku sportowym było sprawdzenie ich że wywiązywanie się sędziego z tejże funkcji, a tym sa- odczuć odnośnie do sytuacji, w których swoimi decyzja- mym akceptacja jej przez innych twórców widowiska, mi negatywnie wpłynęli na poziom widowiska sportowe- świadczy o istotnej roli sędziego w kreowaniu widowiska go (wykres 8). sportowego (wykres 6). Jak pokazują dane, prawie co trzeci sędzia przyzna- W prowadzonych badaniach podjęto także próbę wy- je się do zepsucia swoją decyzją widowiska sportowego, odrębnienia tych cech sędziego, które wydają się być szcze- 45% zaprzecza, jakoby taka sytuacja miała miejsce. Osta- gólnie potrzebne do kreowania widowiska sportowego. teczne wartości nie są jednak możliwe do precyzyjne- Zestawienie opinii sędziów w tym temacie zawarto go określenia, ponieważ co czwarty respondent nie był na wykresie 7. w stanie przypomnieć sobie, czy kiedykolwiek zepsuł wi- Zgromadzone dane powalają wysnuć przypuszcze- dowisko sportowe. nie, że w ocenie respondentów, sędziego powinna cecho- Wśród respondentów, którzy przyznali się do zepsu- wać duża odporność psychiczna (70%) oraz zdecydowa- cia widowiska siatkarskiego, 80% stanowią osoby, które nie i refl eks (50%). Powinien on być osobą sprawiedli- podjęły błędną decyzję w trakcie spotkania.

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tak nie nie pamiętam Wykres 8. Ocena destrukcyjnej działalności sędziego w widowisku sportowym. Źródło: opracowanie własne

Tabela 5. Ocena zdenerwowania sędziów przed meczem

Badani Odpowiedzi N % Tak 5 10 Nie 15 30 Niewielkie zdenerwowanie 12 24 Zależy przed jakim meczem 18 36 Ogółem 50 100 Źródło: opracowanie własne

Tabela 6. Zbieranie informacji na temat drużyn uczestniczących w widowisku siatkarskim w ocenie badanych

Badani Odpowiedzi N % Tak, zbieram zawsze obszerne informacje 12 24 Tak, ale tylko podstawowe 20 40 Wiem, jaką nazwę ma zespół i kiedy odbywa się mecz 15 30 Nie 3 6 Ogółem 50 100 Źródło: opracowanie własne

W toku dalszych analiz zbadano specyfi kę pracy sę- Wyniki badań dotyczące zagadnienia zbierania przez dziego przejawiającą się w zbieraniu informacji dotyczą- sędziego informacji na temat drużyn uczestniczących cych sędziowanych drużyn, odczuwania zdenerwowania w widowisku siatkarskim przedstawiono w tabeli 6. przed meczem i tłumaczenia się z podjętych decyzji. Przygotowując się do meczu 40% badanych zbiera U 36% badanych sędziów poziom zdenerwowania podstawowe informacje dotyczące drużyn, którym będą zależny jest od specyfi ki meczu. Można przypuszczać, że sędziować. Niemal co trzeci respondent wie tylko, jak na- istotnymi w tej kwestii czynnikami mogą być: klasa roz- zywają się zespoły i gdzie odbędzie się mecz, natomiast grywek, ranga meczu, pełniona funkcja, płeć zawodni- 24% badanych sędziów zbiera obszerne i wyczerpujące ków, poziom umiejętności reprezentowany przez drużyny dane o sędziowanych drużynach. czy obecność na meczu sędziego kwalifi katora. Niewiel- Znaczny odsetek sędziów interesujących się zespoła- kie zdenerwowanie deklaruje 24% respondentów, a co mi, którym będą sędziować zawody, świadczy z pewno- trzeci badany twierdzi, że nie odczuwa zdenerwowania ścią o dużej świadomości i odpowiedzialności responden- przed meczem. Uzyskane wyniki wskazują zatem, że zde- tów w zakresie współtworzenia widowiska sportowego. nerwowanie jest nieodłącznym uczuciem pracy sędziego, W kolejnej analizie zbadano reakcję sędziów (związa- które prawdopodobnie wywołuje w arbitrach swoistą od- ną z tłumaczeniem) na podjętą, zdaniem innych uczest- powiedzialność za jakość widowiska sportowego. ników widowiska sportowego, błędną decyzję (tabela 7).

96 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Sędzia jako kreator widowiska sportowego w piłce siatkowej

Tabela 7. Tłumaczenie po meczu kontrowersyjnej decyzji w ocenie badanych

Badani Odpowiedzi N % Tak 3 6 Tak, ale tylko wtedy, gdy zostanę o to poproszony 27 54 Czasami 10 20 Nigdy nie tłumaczę się z podjętych decyzji 10 20 Ogółem 50 100 Źródło: opracowanie własne

60% 50% 40% 30% 60% 20% 25% 10% 5% 10% 0%

zainteresowanie piłką siatkową chęć współtworzenia widowiska sportowego możliwość połączenia pasji z zarobkowaniem atrakcyjność zawodu sędziego

Wykres 9. Motywy podjęcia zawodu sędziego. Źródło: opracowanie własne

54% badanych sędziów tłumaczy swoją decyzję po niono tu charakterystykę funkcji i cech arbitra jako oso- kontrowersyjnej sytuacji jedynie wtedy, gdy po meczu by odpowiedzialnej za jakość widowiska. zostaną o to poproszeni. Co piąty respondent robi to tyl- Na bazie przeprowadzonych analiz stwierdzono, że ko czasami. Taka sama grupa badanych nigdy nie tłuma- w ocenie sędziów kreator jest osobą coś tworzącą, odpo- czy się z podjętych w trakcie meczu decyzji. Można zatem wiedzialnie podejmującą wszelkie działania, które winny przypuszczać, że odczucia sędziów (większości mężczyzn) prowadzić do osiągnięcia zamierzonego celu. w tym względzie uzależnione są od wolicjonalnych cech Z kolei termin ‘widowisko sportowe’ jest rozumia- płci. Mężczyźni z natury „żądni” władzy przyjmują kry- ny jako zdarzenie społeczne o charakterze rozrywkowo- tyczne uwagi trenerów i zawodników jako coś sprzeczne- -rekreacyjnym, zaistniałe z racji organizowanej rywali- go z ich przekonaniem o kreowaniu widowiska siatkar- zacji sportowej, przebiegające według ustalonych reguł. skiego. Dane te potwierdzają więc trafność defi nicji widowiska Interesujących danych dostarczyło badanie mo- sportowego zaproponowanej przez Matusiewicza [1989, tywacji respondentów do podjęcia zawodu sędziego 1998]. (wykres 9). Wśród cech charakteryzujących mecz siatkarski jako Zainteresowanie piłką siatkową było głównym czyn- widowisko sportowe badani sędziowie wymieniają m.in. nikiem podjęcia aktywności sędziowskiej dla 60% bada- obecność widzów, kibiców oraz istnienie zaciętej rywali- nych. Niemal co czwarty badany dostrzega w sędziowa- zacji między drużynami. Koresponduje to z faktem, że niu możliwość połączenia pasji z zarobkowaniem. Tyl- w ocenie sędziów – to właśnie zawodnicy i kibice tworzą ko 10% badanych podjęło pracę sędziego ze względu na widowisko sportowe. Oni również wywierają największy chęć współtworzenia widowiska sportowego, a 5% z po- wpływ na jego przebieg; rola organizatorów i sędziów jest wodu atrakcyjności zawodu sędziego. w ocenie badanych zdecydowanie mniejsza. W tym kontekście interesujący wydaje się fakt, że Podsumowanie ponad ¾ respondentów uważa, iż arbiter siatkarski pełni rolę kreatora widowiska sportowego. Można więc przy- Temat niniejszej pracy koncentrował się wokół roli puszczać, że zadanie sędziego sprowadza się do działa- i kompetencji sędziego piłki siatkowej jako kreatora wi- nia, które nadzoruje przebieg walki sportowej. Potwier- dowiska sportowego. Celem poznania naukowego uczy- dzeniem założenia jest również to, że według badanych

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 97 Anna Bodasińska najistotniejszą funkcją sędziego w widowisku sportowym 1. W opinii badanych, sędzia siatkarski pełni rolę kre- jest funkcja nadzorcza. atora widowiska sportowego. Rola ta uwidacznia się Warto też zaznaczyć, że w ocenie badanych, najbar- szczególnie przy sprawowaniu funkcji sędziego I. dziej znaczący dla przebiegu widowiska jest sędzia I. Co 2. Cechy konstytuujące mecz siatkarski jako widowi- ciekawe, to w tej roli 80% sędziów czuje się najlepiej. sko sportowe – to obecność kibiców oraz występo- Kojarzą oni bowiem tę funkcję z większą odpowiedzial- wanie zaciętej rywalizacji między drużynami. nością oraz z większym prestiżem. Ten duży zakres od- 3. Badani sędziowie oceniają swój wpływ na widowi- powiedzialności jest jednocześnie przyczyną sprawiającą, sko sportowe jak znacząco mniejszy niż wpływ za- że dla połowy arbitrów rola sędziego I jawi się jako naj- wodników i kibiców. Prawdopodobnie wiąże się to trudniejsza. z faktem, iż kibice w głównej mierze przychodzą, W toku dalszych analiz zbadano także cechy sędzie- aby obejrzeć mecz i kibicować zawodnikom, a nie go, które wydają się być szczególnie przydatne do tworze- przyglądać się działalności arbitrów. nia widowiska sportowego. Są to: odporność psychiczna, 4. Sędzia siatkarski jest postrzegany jako osoba pełnią- refl eks i zdecydowanie, sprawiedliwość, wiedza na temat ca w trakcie widowiska sportowego rolę nadzorczą dyscypliny, wysoka kultura osobista i umiejętność współ- i porządkową. pracy w zespole. 5. Wśród kompetencji potrzebnych sędziemu do pro- Zatem można przypuszczać, że rola sędziego w kre- wadzenia widowiska sportowego badani arbitrzy owaniu widowiska sportowego wydaje się być bardzo wymieniają: odporność psychiczną, zdecydowanie ważna. Koresponduje to z faktem, że 1/3 sędziów ma po- i refl eks, wiedzę dotyczącą dyscypliny oraz sprawie- czucie, że zepsuła widowisko sportowe, a 36% arbitrów dliwość. Wniosek ten wskazuje na potrzebę orga- denerwuje się przed niektórymi meczami. Być może po- nizowania kursów i szkoleń, umożliwiających arbi- ziom zdenerwowania przed meczem wiąże się właśnie trom rozwijanie wymienionych kompetencji. z widowiskowością spotkania. Zdenerwowanie może po- 6. Co trzeciemu z badanych sędziów zdarzyło się po- jawiać się również przy zaistnieniu kontrowersyjnych sy- psuć widowisko sportowe błędną decyzją. Wydaje tuacji w meczu. Jak pokazują badania – 54% arbitrów się więc istotne, by uświadamiać arbitrom ich wpływ jest gotowych wytłumaczyć trenerowi i/lub kapitanowi na widowiskowość meczów siatkarskich i kształto- swoją decyzję, gdy zostaną o to poproszeni. wać odpowiedzialność za jego przebieg. Ciekawym zagadnieniem wydaje się być kwestia ra- 7. Ponad 1/3 respondentów denerwuje się przed nie- dzenia sobie ze zdenerwowaniem przed meczem. Być którymi meczami. Z tej perspektywy, istotna wydaje może zbieranie podstawowych informacji na temat dru- się być dalsza diagnoza poziomu i znaczenia odczu- żyn, których mecz sędzia będzie sędziował (co czyni 40% wanego przez sędziów stresu. sędziów), sprawia, że sytuacja staje się bardziej przewidy- 8. Przygotowując się do meczu, uczestnicy badania walna, co wtórnie obniża poziom stresu. Hipoteza ta wy- zbierają podstawowe informacje na temat drużyn, maga jednak dalszej weryfi kacji. którym będą sędziować. Analiza wyników badań wskazała również na czyn- 9. Większość badanych sędziów po kontrowersyjnej niki motywujące do podjęcia zawodu sędziego. Dla sytuacji zaistniałej w trakcie trwania meczu tłuma- większości badanych czynnikiem tym było zaintereso- czy trenerowi i/lub kapitanowi drużyny swoją de- wanie piłką siatkową, a co czwarty arbiter motywowany cyzję, jeśli zostaną o to poproszeni. Taka postawa był sposobnością połączenia w działalności sędziowskiej zdaje się korzystnie wpływać na wizerunek sędziego własnych zainteresowań z możliwością zarobkowania. w opinii pozostałych uczestników spotkania sporto- W tym kontekście nie dziwi fakt, że większość sędziów wego. angażuje się w inne aktywności związane z piłką siatko- 10. Podjęcie pracy sędziego często wynika z zaintere- wą: sędziowie często są także graczami rekreacyjnymi, za- sowania piłką siatkową. Także większość badanych wodnikami i/lub trenerami. sędziów wykazuje aktywność pozasędziowską na Na koniec warto zwrócić uwagę na ograniczoną gruncie piłki siatkowej. liczebność badanej grupy: oczywiste, że jej zwiększe- 11. Przeprowadzone analizy pozwoliły na sporządzenie nie wpłynęłoby na kształt i jakość prowadzonych analiz, portretu sędziego siatkarskiego jako kreatora wido- umożliwiając stworzenie precyzyjniejszego i bardziej ade- wiska sportowego, określenie jego roli i kompeten- kwatnego do rzeczywistości obrazu sędziego – kreatora cji w tym aspekcie. Nie ulega wątpliwości, że z racji, widowiska siatkarskiego. iż badania miały charakter typowo eksploracyjny, przedstawione dane wymagają dalszych, głębszych Wnioski analiz. Ciekawe rezultaty z pewnością przyniosłoby zbadanie związku między poszczególnymi zmien- Dane zgromadzone w wyniku przeprowadzonych analiz nymi. pozwalają na wysnucie następujących wniosków:

98 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Sędzia jako kreator widowiska sportowego w piłce siatkowej

Bibliografi a Matusiewicz C. [1998] Mechanizmy socjologiczne widowiska sportowego. Trening, 1 (37), s. 37–57. Czyżniewski A. [1992] Współdziałanie arbitrów na boisku pił- Matusiewicz C. [1989] Poznawcze aspekty widowiska sporto- karskim. Trener, 4, s. 36–39. wego. Kultura Fizyczna, 9–10, s. 16. Gorący A. [2009] Widowisko sportowe – studium agresji. Uwa- Pawłowski T. (red.) [1986] Tworzenie pojęć w naukach humani- runkowania zachowań agresywnych kibiców piłki nożnej, stycznych. Warszawa: PWN. Pruszków: Wyższa Szkoła Kultury Fizycznej i Turystyki Richardson A. [1990] Wskazówki i rady dla sędziów. Koszy- im. Haliny Konopackiej. kówka, 11, s. 3. Gorący A., Jeż P. [2007] Cechy osobowości sędziów piłki noż- Richardson A. [1991] Cechy dobrego sędziego. Koszykówka , nej. Kultura Fizyczna, 11–12, s. 27–31. 14, s. 2. Jasiński D. [2005] Case Book. Księga Przypadków (tłum.), War- Sas-Nowosielski K. [2008] O niektórych społeczno-pedago- szawa: Komisja Organizacyjna Wydziału Sędziowskiego gicznych aspektach roli trenera. Sport Wyczynowy, 1–3, Polskiego Związku Piłki Siatkowej, s. 12. s. 69–81. Kopaliński W. [2007] Słownik wyrazów obcych i zwrotów obco- Wierzbicka A. [1993] Psychospołeczne uwarunkowania stron- języcznych z almanachem, Warszawa: Ofi cyna Wydawnicza niczości sędziego sportowego, Roczniki Naukowe, Poznań: Rytm. Wydawnictwo AWF, 42, s. 43–50. Kostrzewski R. [1995] Postulowany model sędziego piłki noż- Ziober Z. [1990] Łatwe czy trudne? Taktyka prowadzenia zawo- nej. Trener, 3, s. 30–33. dów, możliwości i sposoby wpływu sędziego na ich przebieg. Kowalczyk M. [1993] Uwarunkowania niesportowego i wybit- Materiały szkoleniowe, Warszawa: PZPN, s. 7–8. nie niesportowego zachowania zawodników a rola sędzie- go w zwalczaniu tych przypadków. Trener, 4, s. 36–39.

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 99 Formy edukacji sportowej w kontekście pedagogiki klasycznego liberalizmu we współczesnym świecie Forms of Sports Education in the Context of the Pedagogy of Classical Liberalism in the Modern World

Bartłomiej Chrzanowski Instytut Pedagogiki Uniwersytet Jagielloński

Nie można sprawiedliwie ocenić charakteru jakiegokolwiek narodu bez zbadania, jakiego rodzaju sporty najczęściej uprawiają jego przedstawiciele. Wojna, polityka i inne nieprzewidywalne okoliczności mogą w różnych okresach dziejów wywoływać różnice światopoglądowe, kiedy jednak panuje pokój i naród nie potrzebuje zakładać żadnej maski, możemy obserwować jego najbardziej prawdziwe oblicze i oceniać naturalne predyspozycje jego obywateli.

Joseph Strutt Sport and Pastimes of the People of England, 1810

Summary This paper concerns sports education and its potential contribution to liberal education in modern times. The article considers two forms of sports education: Olympic and mercantile. The Olympic form of sports education postulates the full development of the human potential – which is reminiscent of the orientation of John Stuart Mill. Unfortunately, this idea cannot exist as a method to achieve a success – which is the most important value for the mercantile form of sports education. This second view has features in common with the assumptions of John Locke’s education philosophy – where one of the main goals is the ability to survive from the reality trap, which life is imbued with. The mercantile form of sports education, however, without Olympic ideas, can lead people to their fall. The article highlights diff erences in forms of sports education and their practical value in providing the postulates of liberal education in the present pedagogical reality. Keywords: liberal education, John Locke, John Stuart Mill, the forms of sport education, olympic form of sport education, mercantile form of sport education

Streszczenie Artykuł odnosi się do sportowej edukacji oraz potencjalnego wkładu, jaki może ona wnieść do pedagogiki kla- sycznego liberalizmu. Rozważania dotyczą dwóch form sportowej edukacji: olimpijskiej i merkantylnej. Edukacja olimpijsko-sportowa postuluje pełny rozwój ludzkiego potencjału – co zbieżne jest z poglądami Johna Stuarta Milla. Niestety, idea olimpizmu nie może funkcjonować jako metoda osiągania sukcesu – który jest wartością najwyższą w świetle edukacji sportowo-merkantylnej. Ta druga forma edukacji sportowej zawiera elementy wy- stępujące w założeniach pedagogicznych Johna Locke’a, dla którego jednym z ważniejszych celów było uświa- domienie wychowanka o czekających na niego w życiu zagrożeniach. Artykuł podkreśla różnice zachodzące pomiędzy oboma formami edukacji sportowej oraz ich praktyczne zastosowanie w realizowaniu pedagogiki klasycznego liberalizmu w teraźniejszej rzeczywistości pedagogicznej. Słowa kluczowe: pedagogika klasycznego liberalizmu, John Locke, John Stuart Mill, formy edukacji sportowej, edukacja sportowo-olimpijska, edukacja sportowo-merkantylna

100 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Formy edukacji sportowej w kontekście pedagogiki klasycznego liberalizmu we współczesnym świecie

Wczesna faza oświecenia to dla kultury fi zycznej wszystkim odciążyć umysł od nadmiaru pracy. Zaleca- bardzo specyfi czny okres – dzieło Kartezjusza Człowiek. ny jest wręcz przesyt rekreacji, prowadzący aż do znuże- Opis ciała ludzkiego stanowi początek postrzegania cia- nia wysiłkiem. Zapewni to promowanie nawyku sięgania ła jako maszyny. Myśl tę rozwinął – z pominięciem już po książkę – właśnie poprzez tak okrężną drogę, zdaniem pierwiastka duszy inspirowanej przez Boga – lekarz Ju- Locke’a, młodzież ma docenić wartość nauki i korzyści lien Off ray de la Mettri. Ateistyczna koncepcja organi- z niej płynących [tamże, s. 133–139]. zmu zbudowanego z „wzajemnie nakręcających się sprę- Co zwraca uwagę w Myślach o wychowaniu, to wyraź- żyn” wywarła silny wpływ na rozwój nauk empirycznych ny dystans autora wobec tradycyjnych w tamtych czasach – skutkuje to dzisiejszym postrzeganiem wychowania fi - form wychowania fi zycznego, do jakich historycy spor- zycznego i sportu jako płaszczyzny badań biomedycz- tu zaliczyliby jazdę konną i szermierkę. Pierwsza spośród nych [Lipoński 2012, s. 347–348]. Można wręcz odnieść wymienionych umiejętności jest – zdaniem Locke’a – wrażenie, że humaniści traktowani są w tej dziedzinie wyraźnie przeceniana w procesie wychowania. Postulo- jako badacze drugiej kategorii. Rozwijający się w dobie wane jest zagospodarowanie tego czasu na opanowanie oświecenia kapitalizm i towarzysząca mu industrializacja bardziej pożytecznych życiowo zdolności. Oczywiście miast spowodowały pogorszenie warunków życia, stano- ostateczna decyzja w tej kwestii należy do rodziców [tam- wiąc bezpośrednią przyczynę kiepskiej kondycji zdrowot- że, s. 217–218]. nej ówczesnych ich mieszkańców. O ile samo dostrzeże- Z większym sceptycyzmem odnosi się autor Myśli nie tego problemu zawdzięczać należy medycynie i biolo- o wychowaniu do nauki szermierki – jest „dobrem ćwi- gii, o tyle promowanie pewnych nawyków zdrowotnych czeniem dla zdrowia, ale niebezpiecznem dla życia” [tam- bez udziału mistrzów pióra, potrafi ących zaszczepić waż- że, s. 218–219]. Z przenikliwą znajomością natury do- ną myśl, byłoby trudne. A za taką osobę niewątpliwie rastającego i mało odpowiedzialnego młodzieńca John uchodził John Locke, przedstawiciel pedagogiki klasycz- Locke przedstawia negatywne konsekwencje obecności nego liberalizmu. tej sztuki w procesie kształcenia: „Zaufanie w tę umie- „Zdrowy duch w zdrowym ciele – oto zwięzłe, lecz jętność może skłonić tych, którzy sądzą, że nauczyli się pełne określenie szczęśliwego stanu na tym świecie” – używać swej szpady, do mieszania się w zwady. Ta zaro- brzmi pierwsze zdanie Myśli o wychowaniu [Locke 1931, zumiałość sprawia, że często są oni, bardziej niż potrzeba, s. 5]. Poruszenie już na samym początku kwestii zwią- przykrzy na punkcie honoru lub drobnych, albo wcale zanych z cielesnością człowieka dowodzi, z jak wielką nieistniejących zaczepek” – celnie argumentuje [tamże, wrażliwością i troską podchodzi Locke do wychowania s. 218–219]. W dodatku człowiek niewykazujący wiel- cielesnego. Zafascynowany historią o kapiącym się w zi- kich zdolności we władaniu szpadą, raczej unikać będzie mie w lodowatej wodzie Senece oraz przypominający in- ciągłego wchodzenia w konfl ikty. Dla potrzeb samoobro- formacje o cudownych efektach takiej praktyki Locke ny zalecana jest raczej nauka zapasów – jeśli „mamy się [1931, s. 8] zaleca hartowanie organizmu tą metodą od jakoś zabezpieczyć przeciw takim przypadkom i […] ktoś najmłodszych lat. Nie może zabraknąć przy tej czynności ma przygotować swego syna do pojedynków, to o wiele nauki pływania, która to umiejętność w skrajnych sytu- bardziej wolałbym, by mój syn był dobrym zapaśnikiem acjach może uratować życie. Godny przypomnienia jest niż lichym szermierzem” [tamże, s. 218–219]. Pojedyn- fakt, że w starożytnej kulturze rzymskiej (którą angielski ki bez broni mają mniej ofi ar – użyteczność takiej formy fi lozof uważał za wzór) brak tej zdolności wyróżniał oso- rozwiązywania konfl iktów staje się bezpośrednią przyczy- by źle wychowane [tamże, s. 11]. ną włączenia, kosztem szermierki, sztuk walki (czyli spor- Hartowanie ciała to również dbałość o skromność tu) do procesu wychowania. Pogląd ten zyskał entuzja- posiłków – do pewnego wieku pozbawionych mięsa. Jego stów – już w XVIII i XIX wieku boks był jedną z umiejęt- późniejsza obecność w jadłospisie jest jak najbardziej do- ności wymaganych właśnie od dżentelmenów [Lipoński puszczalna, ale też w stosunkowo małych ilościach i bez 2012, s. 406 – 408]. przypraw. Celem prostoty posiłków, składających się Autor Myśli o wychowaniu traktował kulturę ciele- głównie z chleba, jest nieprzyzwyczajanie człowieka do sną jako fundament ludzkiej egzystencji – miała pomóc smaków, których nadmierna ilość może przynosić po- utrzymać organizm w zdrowiu. Współczesny dorobek na- ważne zaburzenia organizmu. W dodatku taka postawa uki uznaje to stanowisko za oczywisty truizm. Jednak co kształtuje pozytywny nawyk jedzenia dopiero w chwili przykuwa uwagę w poglądach Locke’a, a jest stosunkowo nasilającego się głodu. Zwolennikami właśnie takiej die- rzadko eksponowane, to postrzeganie przez niego zdro- ty byli i fi lozof Seneka, i cesarz Oktawian August, któ- wia jako wartości autotelicznej (co stanowi delikatne wy- rych przywołuje Locke [1931, s. 14–17]. Z punktu wi- łamanie się z poglądów przepełnionych utylitaryzmem). dzenia rozwoju rekreacji ruchowej warte odnotowania są W artykule Th us I Th ink John Locke opisał zestaw dóbr zalecenia co do charakteru i celu, jaki miała ona pełnić gwarantujących szczęście i przyjemność. Wśród nich w życiu kształtującego się dżentelmena. Ruch na świeżym znajdują się: wiedza (knowledge), dobre imię (reputation), powietrzu ma nie tylko wzmocnić organizm, ale przede nadzieja na wieczne szczęście (the expectation of eternal

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 101 Bartłomiej Chrzanowski

and incomprehensible happiness in another world), czynie- obok stadionu [Bronikowska, Bronikowski 2009, s.: 24]. nie dobra (doing good) oraz zdrowie (health), dzięki któ- Ten absolutny brak tolerancji dla kłamstwa poparty budo- remu możliwe jest odczuwanie cielesnej rozkoszy [Locke waniem „wrażliwości na wstyd i niesławę” oraz pielęgno- 1664, za: Goldie 1997, s. 296–297]. Sport stanowi za- waniem naturalnej potrzeby bycia chwalonym można od- tem niezbędny składnik w życiu człowieka. naleźć również w poglądach Johna Locke’a. W jego odczu- Nie sposób zweryfi kować, na ile powyższe my- ciu zwracanie szczególnej uwagi na próbę oszustwa miało śli Locke’a zainspirowały późniejszych pedagogów do przynieść wymierne efekty w postaci wychowanka wkom- zwracania szczególnej uwagi na ten aspekt oddziaływań, ponowanego w społeczny ład [Wrońska 2012, s. 136]. zwłaszcza że o kulturze fi zycznej w wychowaniu mó wili Idea perfekcji płynąca z postulatów olimpijskich już starożytni Grecy i Rzymianie. Nie wolno też zapo- bliższa jest spojrzeniu drugiego reprezentanta pedagogiki mnieć o azjatyckim spojrzeniu na aktywność fi zyczną, klasycznego liberalizmu – Johna Stuarta Milla. Traktował która traktowana była przede wszystkim jako forma me- on edukację jako cel pracy wychowawczej – wykształce- dytacji. Sporą rolę odegrały średniowieczne obrządki kul- nie jednostki prowadzić miało do chęci ciągłego rozwi- turowe i swoiste dla każdego regionu świata gry ludowe. jania jej zdolności i umiejętności [tamże, s. 179]. Posta- Na znaczący rozwój kultury cielesnej w czasach nowo- wa ciągłego powracanie do nauki wydaje się być zbieżna żytnych wpłynęło pojawienie się ruchu gimnastycznego z fundamentem olimpizmu – postulatem uczestnictwa. (przełom XVIII i XIX wieku) oraz powrót w 1896 roku Mill, mimo ogromnej wrażliwości na estetykę, nie pi- do igrzysk olimpijskich. sał o kulturze cielesnej tyle co jego poprzednik – Locke. Twórcy nowożytnych igrzysk, z baronem Pierrem de Można jedynie domniemywać, że człowiekowi wychowy- Coubertainem na czele, uczynili ze sportu cel sam w so- wanemu w XIX-wiecznej Anglii na bazie kultury grec- bie – uczestnictwo nastawione na osiąganie coraz to lep- kiej (już jako dziecko mówił i pisał po grecku) przesłanie szych rezultatów. Proces samodoskonalenia jednostki za- edukacji sportowo-olimpijskiej z pewnością byłoby bar- warty został w motcie „szybciej, wyżej, mocniej” (gr.: dzo bliskie. citius, altius, fortius) i stał się najważniejszym aspektem Współcześnie olimpizm, choć piękny i podniosły udziału w zawodach [Bronikowska, Bronikowski 2009, w swym przekazie, traktowany jest jako specyfi czna for- s. 38]. Wzorem stała się grecka kultura fi zyczna, w której ma apelu skierowanego do osób uczestniczących w rze- nacisk kładziono na harmonijny rozwój człowieka. Uoso- czywistości sportowej – celem jest pobudzanie szlachet- bieniem cenionego tam piękna i dobra, tzw. kalokagathii, ności drzemiącej w rywalizujących zawodnikach. To dro- był wielki myśliciel Arystokles – znany bardziej pod przy- ga „doskonalenia osoby ludzkiej wiodącego ku prawdzie, domkiem Platon (co najprawdopodobniej znaczyło „sze- dobru i pięknu” oparta na „pedagogice nadziei i pedago- rokoplecy”). Najsłynniejszy uczeń Sokratesa atletyczną gice rozwoju przez radość” – wyjaśnia Krzysztof Zuchora budowę ciała zawdzięczał swoim sportowym pasjom, do [2009, s. 241]. Niestety wartości olimpijskie, choć obec- których zaliczyć należy m.in. przynoszące mu spore suk- ne w świecie sportu, wcale nie mają zapewnionej tam wy- cesy zapasy. Tak więc postępowanie zgodne z olimpijską łączności. Coraz częściej do głosu dochodzi świadomość, doktryną należy rozumieć jako pracę uwzględniającą ca- że – jak zaznacza Zuchora – zostały one narzucone tej łość ludzkiego potencjału. przestrzeni z zewnątrz [tamże, s. 241]. Zaowocowało to ważnym dla pedagogiki faktem – Olimpijska refl eksja przepełniona jest fi lozofi ą per- spośród sześciu fundamentalnych zasad olimpizmu zapi- fekcjonizmu – pokrywa się zatem z poglądami zafascy- sanych na Karcie Olimpijskiej aż cztery z nich dotyczą nowanego grecką kulturą Johna Stuarta Milla. Ale dla za- procesu edukacji człowieka. Zaliczać do nich należy: wodników wyczynowych może sprawiać wrażenie zbyt 1. postulat harmonijnego oddziaływania na kształtowa- ogólnej. Nie zostały w niej bowiem zawarte żadne wska- nie człowieka, zówki dotyczące metody osiągania sukcesu. Choć ciężko 2. koncepcję perfekcji przez wyczyn, gdzie wynik spor- byłoby zakwestionować obecność idei fair play we współ- towy jest stawiany na równi z rezultatami fi zycznymi czesnym sporcie, to wydaje się, że refl eksji pedagogicznej i estetycznymi, ucieka inny ważny aspekt sportowego współzawodnic- 3. nacisk na łączenie aktywności sportowej z realizowa- twa – zwycięstwo. I związane z tym metody wychowania. niem zasad etycznych – uczestnictwo jako cel zawo- Sport kładzie ogromny nacisk na realizowanie konkretne- dów rozgrywanych w duchu fair play, go celu – osiągnięcie wyniku. Może to mieć nieodłączny 4. kształtowanie relacji między przeciwnikami na ba- związek z jego korzeniami – pierwsze wzmianki o pew- zie pokoju zawartego na czas igrzysk [Błajet 2012, nych formach aktywności, które mają wiele wspólnego s. 32]. ze współczesnym rozumieniem sportu, można odnaleźć Rywalizacji sportowej towarzyszyła uczciwość – prze- jeszcze przed pojawieniem się greckiej myśli olimpijskiej. jawy wszelkiego krętactwa kończyły się jawnym potępie- Pierwotne gry służyły doskonaleniu umiejętności niem zawodnika przez wystawienie mu pomnika hańby niezbędnych do prowadzenia wojen i polowania. Grecja (zanes), który stawiano w specjalnej alei znajdującej się taki obraz współzawodnictwa odrzuciła, ale powrócił on

102 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Formy edukacji sportowej w kontekście pedagogiki klasycznego liberalizmu we współczesnym świecie w starożytnym Rzymie – ćwiczenia i zabawy rekreacyj- zwoleniem na oszustwo. Każda luka w regulaminach gry ne poza bramami miasta określano terminem disporte. może doprowadzić do zachowań niezgodnych z ich lite- W przeciwieństwie do kultury podbitego narodu „Rzym rą, wręcz sprzecznych z intencjami ludzi, którzy je two- nie pozwalał na luksus «marnotrawienia» sił ludzkich na rzyli. W ten właśnie sposób szlachetna edukacja sporto- cele sportu igrzyskowego” – objaśnia specyfi kę czasów hi- wo-olimpijska (czyli udział i samodoskonalenie) ustępuje storyk sportu Wojciech Lipoński [2012, s. 132]. Warto miejsca nastawionej tylko na zwycięstwo edukacji, na- zaznaczyć wyraźny dystans, a nawet brak zaufania Im- zwijmy ją, sportowo-merkantylnej. perium Rzymskiego do greckich wzorów wychowaw- Wydaje się, że ta druga forma (sportowo-merkantyl- czych: wprawdzie dzieci nauczane były przez znakomicie na) edukowania zawodnika opiera się na następujących wykształconych Greków, ale to kształcenie (łac. doctri- założeniach: na) w żadnym wypadku nie mogło ingerować w prze- 1. opanować należy umiejętności niezbędne do osią- strzeń wychowania fi zycznego. Pedagogiczne postulaty gnięcia sukcesu, dotyczące formy uczestniczenia w rywalizacji sportowej 2. wynik jest sprawą najważniejszą (bo stanowi atrak- postrzegane były wręcz jako „nazbyt zniewieściałe i zli- cyjną wartość marketingową [Lipiec 2001]), beralizowane” – ich wprowadzenie uniemożliwiłoby po- 3. najważniejsza dla osiągania wyników jest skutecz- konanie potencjalnego przeciwnika oraz utrudniało roz- ność i bezkompromisowość, wój i utrzymanie granic Imperium [tamże, s. 134]. Wła- 4. z przeciwnikiem prowadzona jest permanentna woj- śnie dlatego proces wychowania (łac. educatio) fi zycznego na obejmująca każdy obszar życia. obywatela rzymskiego rozpoczynał się od 17 roku życia Założenia te brzmią dość niepokojąco, by nie powie- i był w pełni powierzany armii [Bartnicka, Szybiak 2001, dzieć złowrogo. Jeszcze bardziej może przygnębiać w tym s. 42–50]. kontekście pogląd, że sport, zdaniem wielu badaczy, to Wojsko, aby utrzymać optymalną formę fi zyczną, odzwierciedlenie cywilizacji, w której występuje [Błajet korzystało ze sportu – w zamian sport sięgał po wojen- 2012, s. 16]. Czy rzeczywiście? ne legendy. Organizowane na ówczesnych arenach igrzy- Dziś korzystne i szczególnie warte uwagi jest to, co ska z udziałem gladiatorów były inscenizacjami zna- daje fi nansowy zysk – niemal każdy produkt, w tym rów- nych i ważnych dla historii bitew. Odrzucono olimpizm nież sport, musi na siebie zarabiać. Nastawienie na re- na rzecz brutalnej i zmilitaryzowanej siły. Przepełniona alizację takiego celu prowadzi do stopniowej erozji stan- okrucieństwem i bezkompromisowością rywalizacja re- dardów etycznych w biznesie. Dyktaturę biznesowe- alizowała cel, jakim było zabawianie tłumu – dzięki zre- go relatywizmu znakomicie oddaje znane w środowisku alizowaniu zasady „chleba i igrzysk” sprawiał on (tłum) przedsiębiorców powiedzenie „dobry menedżer umie czy- wrażenie znacznie spokojniejszego. W ten właśnie sposób tać przepisy lepiej niż ich autorzy” [Dylus 2002, s. 274]. sport stał się zwyczajnym towarem na sprzedaż (łac. mer- Także sama uczciwość bardziej staje się chwytem marke- cari): poprzez właściwe używanie sportu jako widowiska tingowym, otoczką towarzyszącą wykreowanej potrzebie władza ma zagwarantowany spokój. niż faktycznie realizowanym standardem działania. Oszu- Przepełnione cwaniactwem współzawodnictwo ści czyhają na każdym kroku, a spryt stawiają najwyżej. w okresie średniowiecza próbowano złagodzić wprowa- Rodzi to wręcz zasadnicze pytanie: na ile sport, mający dzając wywodzącą się z rycerstwa postawę fair play. Nie- rzymskie korzenie i realizujący patologiczne aspekty ryn- stety nie zmieniło to znacząco charakteru rywalizacji – ku, łączy się z pedagogiką klasycznego liberalizmu? dżentelmeńskie uczestnictwo zawsze w końcu zastępowa- „Jedyną obroną przed światem jest jego dokładna no atrakcyjniejszą, bo nastawioną na sukces rozgrywką znajomość” – uważa John Locke [Locke 1931, s. 89–98]. z udziałem ludzi maksymalnie zdeterminowanych. Z cza- Poznanie nasyconego cwaniactwem i brutalnością wycin- sem bezwzględny i nieakceptujący porażek wymiar spor- ka rzeczywistości to doskonały materiał szkoleniowy dla tu doprowadził do wytworzenia nadmiernych oczekiwań młodego człowieka. „Opiekun […] powinien pouczyć względem uczestników. Bliżej czasów nam współcze- go o chytrości ludzi i sposobach ich postępowania, powi- snych ich sukces zaczął przekładać się na pieniądze – ki- nien zedrzeć maskę, jaką okrywają ich niektóre zawody biców i sponsorów [Rutkowska 2011]. i pozory i nauczyć swego wychowanka rozpoznawać, co Przy tak ogromnym nacisku na wynik realizowa- leży na dnie pod temi pozorami” [tamże, s. 89–98]. Efek- nie postulatu „zawodnicy pierwsi, wygrywanie drugie” ty takich lekcji są, zdaniem autora Myśli o wychowaniu, staje się, zdaniem praktyków, wyjątkowo trudne [Mar- cenniejsze od znajomości starożytnych języków, dzieł tens 2009, s. 32–34]. Presja rodzi zachowania dewiacyj- i współczesnych spekulacji natury fi lozofi cznej i metafi - ne – przejawiające się między innymi w postaci cynicz- zycznej. Umożliwiają nabycie najważniejszej cnoty, której nej kalkulacji (faul taktyczny). Koncentrowanie się na praktyczne zastosowanie odnajduje człowiek nie tylko na mozolnym budowaniu sprawności fi zycznej umożliwia- polu bitwy, ale również w trudnym i stawiającym coraz jącej osiąganie sukcesu zostaje zastąpione (w myśl zasa- to wyższe wymagania życiu. Tą cnotą jest męstwo [Wroń- dy „zwycięzców się nie sądzi”) kunktatorstwem i przy- ska 2012, s. 139].

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 103 Bartłomiej Chrzanowski

Wprowadzenie do szkoły formalnie istniejących za- zgodzić. Potem, po zakończeniu kariery, przerwaniu jej jęć z – nazwijmy to – życiowego cwaniactwa może zna- przez kontuzję, będzie już znacznie gorzej. W społeczeń- cząco podważyć autorytet pedagogów, utrudnić im pra- stwie znajdzie się wówczas jednostka, która nie ma już cę oraz, w nieodległej perspektywie, wymiernie obniżyć zdolności do uprawiania sportu na wyczynowym pozio- poziom kapitału społecznego. Wydaje się zatem, że je- mie, ale pozostały w niej skłonności i predyspozycje, by dynym możliwym rozwiązaniem jest zwiększenie nacisku zagrażać niewinnym obywatelom. na uwzględnianie zajęć sportowych w procesie oddziały- Samo ujarzmienie instynktów (choć w przypadku wań wychowawczych. Ich obecność można porównać do agresji bardzo ważne) nie zaprowadzi człowieka do ni- swoistej szczepionki – doświadczenie oszustwa (zarówno czego konstruktywnego – pozytywna tożsamość nie rodzi w charakterze ofi ary, jak i sprawcy) wyrabia umiejętność się tylko dlatego, że ktoś został mistrzem świata. To bar- poruszania się po świecie przepełnionym pułapkami, dzo ciężka praca nad sobą, której towarzyszyć powinna a także (dzięki znajomości niegodziwej metodyki dzia- „wyższa narracja”. Sportowcy odnajdują ją w olimpizmie łania) utrudnia funkcjonowanie na rynku dwulicowym – często przekazywanym w sposób pośredni i nieuświa- przedsiębiorcom. W ten sposób realizowany jest postulat domiony, np. poprzez mądrego trenera, uczącego szacun- Johna Stuarta Milla, według którego człowiek nie może ku do ciężkiej pracy i przeciwnika oraz dającego dobry dbać tylko o moralność prywatną, ale również winien przykład samym sobą (podobnie, w nienachalny sposób, pielęgnować publiczną [tamże, s. 162]. ale na zasadzie modelowania pracował jako wychowawca Przedstawione wyżej stanowisko prowadzi jednak do John Locke [Wrońska 2012, s. 212]). Choć metoda za- uzasadnionych obiekcji – nauka o występkach może źle głodzenia „chwastów” (realizowana przez Milla) nie do wpłynąć na jednostkę skłonną do ich popełniania. Połą- końca się sprawdza w praktyce terapeutyczno-resocja- czenie tych zdolności z drzemiącymi w każdym człowieku lizacyjnej, to jednak samo ich okiełznanie z pewnością patologicznymi instynktami, które wyraźnie dostrzegali nie wystarcza. Potrzebna jest ambicja kształtująca ruty- obaj przedstawiciele liberal education, może nieść ze sobą nę działań nastawionych na ciągłe samodoskonalenie się. tragiczne skutki. W końcu już u dzieci, zdaniem Locke’a, Konfl ikt zachodzący pomiędzy dwiema formami można zaobserwować narcystyczną agresję przejawiającą edukacji sportowej (olimpijskiej i merkantylnej) może się w chęci zdominowania otoczenia, a także czerpania zamienić się w znakomitą współpracę. Warunkiem ko- satysfakcji z okrucieństwa i ulegania zmysłowym pragnie- niecznym jest realizowanie powyższej „żonglerki” postaw niom. Z kolei u Johna Stuarta Milla opisane zostały in- w przemyślany, racjonalny i nienarzucający się sposób. stynkty niszczenia oraz panowania (ten drugi prowadzi Zaakceptować należy bolesny dla rzeczywistości sporto- do podporządkowania swojej woli innym ludziom) jako wej fakt, że dla ogromnej rzeszy pozbawionych geniu- szczególnie zagrażające rozwojowi nawet najlepszych po- szu rzemieślników sukces osiągany jest za pomocą cy- tencjałów. Zalecenie Milla dotyczące tej kwestii jest jed- nicznych zachowań, nastawionych wyłącznie na wynik. noznaczne – chwasty, parafrazując fi lozofa, należy zagło- Realizowanie olimpizmu podczas meczu, choć histo- dzić przez nieużywanie [tamże, s. 150–151]. ria sportu dowodzi, że czasem się zdarza, jest sprzeczne Wobec instynktów odmienne stanowisko zajęli z działaniem nastawionym na osiągnięcie pożądanego re- przedstawiciele psychologii hormistycznej. C. Burt po- zultatu. A kolejne porażki nie tylko wzmacniają wyuczo- stulował walkę z tym aspektem natury człowieka poprzez ną bezradność, ale też przyczyniają się do dramatycznego jego poznanie, zdefi niowanie i skierowanie na odpowied- obniżenia samooceny. Sama idea fair play też może zo- nią płaszczyznę – nazywał to kanalizacją instynktów. Po- stać zdyskredytowana – gest piłkarza Garrinchy (wybicie stępowanie przeciwne przypomina „proszenie ryby, aby piłki na aut w sytuacji, gdy przeciwnik nabawił się urazu zechciała latać niczym ptak, lub też drapieżnika pustyn- i trzeba było mu udzielić pomocy) po kilkudziesięciu la- nego, aby spokojnie leżał obok jagnięcia i jak ono jadł tach często stosowany jest jako dobry manewr taktyczny tylko zieleninę”. W efekcie zalecane jest radzenie sobie (tzw. „gra na czas”), a nie jako przejaw autentycznej troski np. z agresją poprzez „gwałtowne i konkurencyjne spor- o zdrowie przeciwnika. ty”, tj.: piłkę nożną, atletykę i boks [Pospiszyl 2007, Na szczęście istnieje przestrzeń, w której idea kalo- s. 78–82]. Przypomina to jeden z przywołanych wcze- kagathii nie musi się spotkać z wyśmianiem lub wypa- śniej pomysłów Locke’a, który krwawą szermierkę chciał czeniem. Jest to okres pomiędzy zawodami. Realizowanie zamienić na bezpieczniejsze zapasy. Tylko gdzie w tym apelu olimpijskiego może pomóc w utrzymaniu dobrej wszystkim odnajdziemy olimpizm? formy dzięki optymalnemu funkcjonowaniu mentalne- Edukacja sportowa-merkantylna wykorzystuje natu- mu w trakcie sezonu, który na ogół wypełnia wiele skraj- ralne predyspozycje każdej osoby do określonej dyscypli- nych wydarzeń. Pasmo zwycięstw, seria porażek, powo- ny sportu, ale nie uwzględnia oddziaływania nastawio- łanie do kadry, odnowienie się kontuzji – ta huśtawka nego na budowanie szlachetności. Oczywiście, na czas stanów emocjonalnych towarzyszących każdemu spor- uczestniczenia w życiu sportowym może ona zapewnić towcowi jest zabójcza. Brak jasnych drogowskazów może sportowcowi dochodowy zawód – ciężko się z tym nie prowadzić do stanu zagubienia. Tymczasem umysł spor-

104 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Formy edukacji sportowej w kontekście pedagogiki klasycznego liberalizmu we współczesnym świecie

Wykres 1. Formy edukacji sportowej

Sportowo-merkantylna Sportowo-olimpijska

Postawa wychowanka zgodna z duchem pedagogiki klasycznego liberalizmu

towca powinien być czysty. Dlatego też tak wartościowe rzeczywistości niż jego rówieśnicy pozbawieni kontaktu (nie tylko dla zachowania ładu duszy, o którym pisał Lo- z rywalizacją boiskową – wynika to z ogromu presji, wy- cke [Wrońska 2012, s. 135], ale nawet ze szkoleniowe- rzeczeń oraz dylematów moralnych, z jakimi musi sobie go punktu widzenia) okazuje się uwzględnianie edukacji radzić każdy zawodnik. Jednak przepełniona skrajnymi sportowo-olimpijskiej. emocjami sportowa przestrzeń wymaga odskoczni, dzię- Harmonijny tryb życia umożliwia sportowcom osią- ki której zawodnik powróci do harmonii i nie zmarnu- gnięcie dojrzałości, która winna być rozumiana jako od- je swojego potencjału na próbach odreagowania napięcia powiedzialne dysponowanie wolnością i swoim losem w sposób, który może zaszkodzić jego karierze. [tamże, s. 141]. Zawodnik staje się dobrze funkcjonują- Dlatego też tak cenny dla procesu oddziaływań wy- cym przedsiębiorcą, którego kapitał (tj. talent i lata cięż- chowawczych wydaje się perfekcjonizm Johna Stuarta kiej pracy) przykuwa uwagę potencjalnych inwestorów Milla. W jego ujęciu celem wychowania było wypracowa- (tj. klubów i sponsorów). Pomaga mu w tym perfekcjo- nie nawyku do utrzymywania ciągłego kontaktu z nauką nizm, który determinuje konieczność realizowania idei – właśnie taki wydźwięk zawiera przesłanie olimpijskie. kalokagathii – jej obecność gwarantuje spokojną głowę, Można zatem domniemywać, że znany z zamiłowania do a w konsekwencji wymierny efekt w postaci maksymalnie estetyki Mill nie omieszkałby wykorzystać w swoim pro- wykorzystanego potencjału podczas trwającej kariery. Po- gramie idei kalokagathii, odpowiedzialnej za piękno ciała łączenie sportowego merkantylizmu z olimpizmem (obie i duszy. Doprowadziłoby to jednostkę do uczestniczenia te formy edukacji sprawiają wrażenie spójnych z poglą- w świecie sportu, w którym olimpizm przeplata się z mer- dami Johna Locke’a i Johna Stuarta Milla ) może dopro- kantylizmem. Wówczas wychowanek, „wyleczony” z na- wadzić do ukształtowania postawy, która jest bardzo zbli- iwności życiowej, z pewnością jeszcze bardziej doceniłby żona do efektu wychowania realizowanego w konwencji wszelkiego rodzaju działania nastawione na pielęgnowa- klasycznego liberalizmu. nie przestrzeni społecznej. Wychowany na bazie greckiej Powyższe przemyślenia prowadzą do utworzenia się kultury oraz zafascynowany rywalizacją starożytnych in- modelu teoretycznego przedstawionego na wykresie 1. telektualistów Mill zalecał przymus szkolny – można do- Pedagogika klasycznego liberalizmu w ujęciu mniemywać, że gdyby żył w XXI wieku, to pokusiłby się Locke’a kładzie większy nacisk na utylitarność podej- o rozszerzenie tego obowiązku na uczestnictwo we współ- mowanych działań wychowawczych. Stąd sport trakto- zawodnictwie sportowym [tamże, s. 180]. wany jest przede wszystkim jako środek umożliwiający Sport, choć dla niektórych jest ostatnią szansą na zadbanie o zdrowie postrzegane jako wartość autotelicz- sukces, dla większości społeczeństwa powinien być spo- na – z jednej strony hartuje organizm, z drugiej umożli- sobem aktywnego spędzania wolnego czasu. Kształtu- wia względnie bezkrwawe rozwiązywanie konfl iktów po- je osobowość nastawioną na ciągłe poprawianie swoich między zwaśnionymi ludźmi. W poglądach autora Myśli osiągnięć, co determinuje samoistnie zachodzący pro- o wychowaniu nie brakuje postulatów, których wprowa- gres jednostki oraz, w konsekwencji, może stanowić po- dzenie w proces wychowania może okazać się stosunko- moc w pracy wychowawczej. Świadomość występującego wo łatwe i skuteczne dzięki edukacji sportowo-merkan- tam nacisku na dewiacyjność zachowań wcale nie zwalnia tylnej. Doskonałym przykładem jest nauka o niebezpie- z uczestnictwa – zawsze można wybrać pozbawione bru- czeństwach czyhających w życiu każdego człowieka – ich talności (ale nie cwaniactwa) sporty niekontaktowe. Po- poznanie było dla Locke’a sprawą najwyższej wagi. Mło- wyższe formy edukacji sportowej sprawiają wrażenie cen- dy adept sportu sprawia wrażenie zdecydowanie bardziej nego i zgodnego z założeniami pedagogiki klasycznego przygotowanego mentalnie do przepełnionej pułapkami liberalizmu składnika wychowawczego.

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 105 Bartłomiej Chrzanowski

Bibliografi a Locke J. [1931] Myśli o wychowaniu, Heitzman M. (tłum.), Lwów–Warszawa: Książnica–Atlas. Łuszczyńska A. [2012] Psychologia sportu i aktywności fi zycznej. Bartnicka K., Szybiak I. [2001] Zarys historii wychowania, War- Zagadnienia kliniczne, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Nauko- szawa: Wydawnictwo Akademickie „Żak” i Wyższa Szkoła we PWN. Humanistyczna w Pułtusku. Martens R. [2009] Jak być skutecznym trenerem, Warszawa: Bauman Z. [2007] Szanse etyki w zglobalizowanym świecie, Kra- Centralny Ośrodek Sportu. ków: Wydawnictwo Znak. Matkowski A. [1992] Sport a język współczesnego polskiego dys- Bauman Z. [2008] Zindywidualizowane społeczeństwo, Gdańsk: kursu społecznego. Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne. Encyklopedia piłkarska FUJI. Od Realu do Barcelony. Historia Błajet P. [2012] Od edukacji sportowej do olimpijskiej, Kraków: Pucharu Mistrzów, Katowice: Wydawnictwo GiA. Ofi cyna Wydawnicza „Impuls”. Miłosz C. [1993] Historia literatury polskiej, Kraków: Wydaw- Bolchover D., Brady C. [2007] 90-minutowy menedżer. Lekcje nictwo Znak. z pierwszej linii zarządzania, Poznań: Zysk i S-ka. Mikułowski-Pomorski J. [2002] Etos warstw społecznych: In- Bronikowska M., Bronikowski M. [2009] Edukacja olimpijska teligencja. Między państwem a samodzielnym wyborem. dla gimnazjum. Poradnik dla nauczycieli, Warszawa: Polski Kondycja moralna społeczeństwa polskiego, Włoszek R. Komitet Olimpijski, (red.), Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM i Komitet Socjolo- Castro R. [2008] Garrincha. Samotna gwiazda, Poznań: Zysk gii PAN. i S-ka. Miszalska A. [2002] Moralność a demokracja – uwagi o stylu Czajkowski Z. [1994] Poradnik trenera, Warszawa: Resorto- moralnym współczesnego społeczeństwa polskiego. Kon- we Centrum Metodyczno-Szkoleniowe Kultury Fizycznej dycja moralna społeczeństwa polskiego, Włoszek R. (red.) i Sportu. Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM i Komitet Socjologii PAN. Dylus A. [2002] Erozja standardów etycznych w biznesie. Kon- Rutkowska K. [2011] Sport i media – związki zależności. Sport dycja moralna społeczeństwa polskiego, Włoszek R. (red.), Wyczynowy, 3 (539), Warszawa: AWF w Warszawie. Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM i Komitet Socjologii PAN. Skąpska G. [2002] Hipokryzja prawna czy hipokryzja moral- Goldie M. (red.) [1997] Locke. Political Essays, Cambridge: na? Stosunek do bezprawia wyrządzonego w przeszłości na Cambridge University Press. przykładzie restytucji mienia, Kondycja moralna społeczeń- Jacher W., Swadźba U., [2002] Etos pracy w Polsce. Kondy- stwa polskiego, Włoszek R. (red.), Kraków: Wydawnictwo cja moralna społeczeństwa polskiego, Włoszek R. (red.), Kra- WAM i Komitet Socjologii PAN. ków: Wydawnictwo WAM i Komitet Socjologii PAN. Szwarc A.J. [1971] Sport a prawo karne, Poznań: Uniwersytet Kojder A. [2002] Korupcja i poczucie moralne Polaków. Kon- im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu. dycja moralna społeczeństwa polskiego, Włoszek R. (red.), Tatarkiewicz W., [1983] Historia fi lozofi i, t. II, Warszawa: Pań- Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM i Komitet Socjologii PAN. stwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Lipiec J. [2010] Aksjologiczne podstawy idei fair play. Fair play Urban B., Stanik J.M. (red.) [2007] Resocjalizacja, t. I, Warsza- w sporcie i olimpizmie. Szansa czy utopia, Żukowska Z., wa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Żukowski R. (red.), Warszawa: PKOl – Klub Fair Play. Wasilewski J. [2002] Moralność elit politycznych. Kondycja Lipiec J. [2001] Czysty sport – czyste pieniądze. Dylematy moralna społeczeństwa polskiego, Włoszek R. (red.), Kra- etyczne epoki komercjalizacji, Studia Humanistyczne, 1, ków: Wydawnictwo WAM & Komitet Socjologii PAN. Kraków: AWF im. Bronisława Czecha w Krakowie. Wrońska K. [2012] Pedagogika klasycznego liberalizmu. W dwu- Lipoński W. [2001] Encyklopedia sportów świata, Poznań: Ofi - głosie – John Locke i John Stuart Mill, Kraków: Wydawnic- cyna Wydawnicza Atena. two Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Lipoński W. [2012] Historia sportu, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Zuchora K. (red.) [1997] Kultura fi zyczna. Sport, Warszawa: Naukowe PWN. Instytut Kultury.

106 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Kierowanie w placówce oświatowej Directing in an Educational Establishment

Małgorzata Tomecka Wyższa Szkoła Edukacja w Sporcie

Summary The aim of the present work is to show the function of directing as a multi-aspect acting on employees in the management of an educational establishment. The process of education and the evaluation it involves, under- stood as a practical assessment study of the school, results in constant changes, which can be either catalysed or made an obstacle of by teachers in their implementation. Teachers are a professional group that perform work which is characterized by a specifi c service in giving themselves to others, as well as a group that is espe- cially prone to burnout syndrome. Proper directing teachers could reduce the negative consequences of the strains put upon them. To analyse the issue, selected scientifi c theories characteristic of the humanities and social sciences, including sciences regarding organization and management, as well as commentaries resulting from participant observation have been used. On the basis of the gathered data it results, particular care of the educational establishment director should be those aspects of directing the teaching staff on which the direc- tor/manager has a direct infl uence. Keywords: directing, communication, motivation, leadership

Streszczenie Celem niniejszego opracowania jest pokazanie funkcji kierowania jako wieloaspektowego działania na pracow- ników w zarządzaniu placówką oświatową. Proces edukacji i związana z nim ewaluacja, rozumiana jako prak- tyczne badanie oceniające szkołę, powodują ciągłe zmiany, wobec których nauczyciele stają się katalizatorami lub przeszkodą w ich wprowadzaniu. To grupa zawodowa wykonująca pracę charakteryzującą się swoistą służbą w dawaniu siebie innym i jest szczególnie narażona na wypalanie się. Można zniwelować negatywne konse- kwencje obciążeń nauczycieli poprzez właściwe nimi kierowanie. Do analizy zagadnienia zostały wykorzystane wybrane teorie naukowe, charakterystyczne dla nauk humanistycznych i społecznych, w tym nauk o organizacji i zarządzaniu, opatrzone komentarzami wynikającymi z obserwacji uczestniczącej. Z analizy zebranych danych wynika, że szczególną troską dyrektora placówki oświatowej powinny się stać te aspekty kierowania kadrą na- uczycielską, na które dyrektor/zarządca ma bezpośredni wpływ. Słowa kluczowe: kierowanie, komunikacja, motywacja, przywództwo

Wprowadzenie zawartością portfela, wiedzą, emocjami, czasem itd.), na- tomiast człowiekiem należałoby kierować. W niniejszym Zarządzanie i kierowanie to terminy często stosowane opracowaniu przyjmuję stanowisko, że zarządzanie to zamiennie. Na określenie działań ukierunkowanych na kierowanie ludźmi i dysponowanie zasobami organi- ludzi spotyka się takie terminy, jak: „[…] „gospodarka zacji, a zatem sam termin „kierowanie” dotyczy wybra- kadrowa”, „zarządzanie personelem”, „zarządzanie zaso- nego obszaru zarządzania ukierunkowanego na czynnik bami ludzkimi”, „kierowanie kadrami” i wiele innych” ludzki. [Listwan 2000, s. 7]. W rozważaniach defi nicyjno-termi- Organizacje są wytworem społecznym i działają jako nologicznych dotyczących omawianego tematu H. Król grupy celowe w nieustannie zmieniających się warunkach pisze o „zarządzaniu (administrowaniu, kierowaniu) per- gospodarczych, politycznych, globalizacji, konkuren- sonelem, zarządzaniu zasobami pracy (potencjałem pra- cji, technologii, czy też nowych profesji. Na wszystkich cy, zasobami ludzkimi, potencjałem społecznym, o po- poziomach mikro-, mezo- i makrostrukturalnych obsza- lityce zatrudnienia i o zarządzaniu kapitałem ludzkim” rów zarządczych występują sytuacje nieprzewidywalno- [Król 2002, s. 1]. W moim przekonaniu zarządzać moż- ści, spontaniczności i tymczasowości w doborze metod na wszystkim (informacją, gospodarstwem domowym, i środków kierowania. System edukacji jest przykładem

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 107 Małgorzata Tomecka

nieustających i bardzo dynamicznych przeobrażeń w na- Komunikacja w edukacji szym kraju, a dyrektorzy szkół stają wobec konieczności stymulowania innowacyjności pracowników. Edukacja i komunikacja masowa stanowią czynniki roz- Komunikację, motywowanie i przywództwo uznaję woju kulturowego i cywilizacyjnego współczesnych spo- za najistotniejsze determinanty w funkcjonowaniu jed- łeczeństw. Obecnie skuteczne organizacje to te, które nostek i grup we współczesnym świecie organizacji i za- sprzyjają zmianom, innowacjom i opanowały sztukę ich rządzania, w tym w placówce oświatowej. W wielu or- wprowadzania. System edukacji jest przykładem nieusta- ganizacjach rośnie popularność zespołów, które z reguły jących przeobrażeń, a dyrektorzy szkół stają wobec ko- osiągają lepsze wyniki niż pojedyncze osoby, co w przy- nieczności stymulowania innowacyjności pracowników. padku zindywidualizowanego środowiska nauczycieli sta- Koncepcja ciągłego doskonalenia sama w sobie sugeru- nowi znaczącą trudność w aspekcie kierowania. Efektyw- je ustawiczne zmiany i nauczyciele wobec tych zmian ny członek zespołu to ten, który wychodzi poza osobiste mogą być katalizatorami lub przeszkodą na drodze do ich cele dla dobra zespołu (organizacji), a komunikacja jest wprowadzenia. Opór wobec zmian może opóźnić dosto- jednym ze środków prowadzących do efektywnej działal- sowanie się i postęp organizacji. W procesie zmian nie- ności w grupach. Choć w teorii jest to możliwe, to jed- zbędna staje się zatem właściwa komunikacja. nak w praktyce doskonała komunikacja nie istnieje, na- Żadna grupa nie ma prawa istnieć bez transmisji tomiast możliwy jest wzrost jej skuteczności poprzez wła- znaczeń między jej członkami. Komunikacja jest zwią- ściwe rozpoznanie działających w niej mechanizmów. zana z pracowniczym układem hierarchicznym oraz speł- Istnieją różne sposoby wyjaśniania, dlaczego nie- nia formalną i nieformalną funkcję kontrolną. Wszystko, którzy ludzie wkładają więcej wysiłku w swoją pracę niż co jest przewidziane ofi cjalnymi regułami postępowania, inni. Należy zatem przyjrzeć się wczesnym i współcze- jest formalnym układem przywilejów i obowiązków do- snym teoriom motywacji w aspekcie wartości progno- tyczących pracownika i pracodawcy. Natomiast komuni- stycznej. Czynniki motywujące w edukacji są zdetermi- kacja i sprawowanie kontroli może mieć przebieg niefor- nowane specyfi ką uwarunkowań systemowych i charak- malny, poza ustalonymi ofi cjalnymi regułami postępo- terem świadczonej pracy na rynku usług oświatowych. wania. Zaznaczyć trzeba, że „komunikacja nieformalna Zwiększenie wydajności pracy, co w przypadku nauczy- sprzyja też lepszej wymianie informacji między kierowni- cieli oznacza wyniki udokumentowane zewnętrznymi eg- kiem a pracownikami” [Karwacki 2007, s. 597]. Często zaminami, jak również zadowolenie pracownika w syste- w taki właśnie sposób dyrektor szkoły uzyskuje informa- mie oświaty, to pojęcia trudne do zdefi niowania, ale moż- cje, do których nie miałby dostępu w przypadku formal- liwe do uogólnienia. nego ich przypływu, oraz świadomie rezygnuje z pisem- Dyrektor, kierownik, zarządca, menedżer czy też nej formy komunikacji. W rzeczywistości szkolnej jest lider są określeniami osoby, która potrafi przewodzić in- to zjawisko powszechne i niepokojące, bowiem zażyłość nym ludziom. W praktyce często trudno ocenić stosun- w kontaktach powoduje rozluźnienie dyscypliny pracy, ki między przywódcą a członkami grupy, stopień złożo- a nieofi cjalne rozmowy prowadzone są jedynie z wybra- ności zadań, czy też pozycję władczą. Zachowania ludzi nymi nauczycielami. w pracy rzadko są zjawiskiem przypadkowym i można Przekazywanie informacji między członkami orga- je rozpatrywać na poziomie jednostki, grupy i systemu nizacji odbywa się poprzez komunikaty ustne, pisemne organizacyjnego. Wiedza o modelach ułatwiających roz- i niewerbalne. Komunikacja ustna jest głównym sposo- poznanie skutecznych sposobów oddziaływania na pod- bem przekazywania informacji na zasadach formalnych władnych, z uwzględnieniem teorii przywództwa i pod- rozmów, przemówień, dyskusji zarówno face to face, jak staw sprawowania władzy, powinna ułatwić w praktyce i w grupie. W małych grupach/zespołach pracowniczych wyjaśnianie, przewidywanie i kontrolę nauczycieli z per- często występują formalne sieci komunikacji. takie jak: spektywy dyrektora placówki oświatowej. „łańcuch”, „koło” czy „kokon”, a ich skuteczność zale- Mając powyższe na uwadze, interesujące wyda- ży od celów/zadań zespołu. Natomiast jedną z popular- je się być poznanie tych aspektów kierowania kadrą pe- nych form komunikacji ustnej jest nieformalna sieć plo- dagogiczną, na które dyrektor placówki oświatowej ma tek i pogłosek. Z badań wynika, że sieć ta przekazuje do- wpływ, a które z punktu widzenia nauczyciela są ważne kładne informacje w 75%. W organizacjach występują dla zniwelowania niekorzystnych obciążeń związanych takie zjawiska, jak tajemniczość i rywalizacja, co stwarza z wykonywanym zawodem. W celu analizy tego zagad- warunki do pojawiania się pogłosek stanowiących przed- nienia zostaną wykorzystane założenia wybranych teorii miot podniecających plotek [Robbins 1998, s. 224–227]. naukowych charakterystycznych dla nauk humanistycz- W reakcji na to, co jest dla nas ważne, niejednoznaczne nych i społecznych, w tym nauk o organizacji i zarządza- i niepokojące, pojawiają się pogłoski, które utrzymują się niu. Praca ma charakter teoretyczno-przeglądowy z wy- aż do momentu spełnienia oczekiwań, ograniczenia lub korzystaniem takich metod badawczych, jak analiza lite- ustąpienia niepokojów. Plotki i pogłoski są ważną częścią ratury przedmiotu i obserwacja uczestnicząca. sieci komunikacyjnej, która wskazuje zarządzającym or-

108 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Kierowanie w placówce oświatowej ganizacją na sprawy ważne i budzące niepokój podwład- kacji, ale wnioski wynikające z ich obserwacji muszą być nych. Najważniejszymi zaletami komunikacji ustnej są ostrożne. Komunikacji niewerbalnej niemal zawsze towa- prędkość i sprzężenie zwrotne, a główną wadą efekt „głu- rzyszą komunikaty ustne. Powinny pozostawać ze sobą chego telefonu” [Robbins 1998, s. 221]. w zgodzie, wzmacniając się wzajemnie, a jeśli są sprzecz- Sieć plotek i pogłosek jest cennym instrumentem ne, to cierpi na tym przejrzystość komunikatu. Pozycja, przełożenia ofi cjalnego komunikatu na własny żargon ruch ciała, odległość między nadawcą a odbiorcą oraz pracowniczy. Z uwagi na trudność w wyeliminowaniu wyraz twarzy to podstawowe elementy, na bazie których tego rodzaju sieci przełożony powinien wykorzystać ją odczytujemy mowę ciała [Robbins 1998, s. 222, 223]. do swoich potrzeb. Mimo że istnieje możliwość rozpo- Nie mniej istotnymi determinantami rozpoznawania się wszechniania szkodliwych informacji, sieć można wyko- w wielości znaczeń są intonacja, spojrzenie, paralingwi- rzystać np. do szybkiego zbadania reakcji na jakąś decyzję styka, otoczenie czy ubiór. Każdy człowiek jest jednym jeszcze przed jej ostatecznym podjęciem. Posłużę się przy- wielkim komunikatem, a mowa ciała służy często wyra- kładem, jakim było w niedalekiej przeszłości uzyskanie żaniu skumulowanych w nim emocji. Nauczyciele są za- przez kierownictwo szkoły, w której pracuję, informacji zwyczaj uważnymi obserwatorami zachowań niewerbal- na temat opinii nauczycieli o zamiarze wprowadzenia e- nych uczniów, potrafi ącymi właściwie je zinterpretować. -dzienników zamiast tradycyjnej dokumentacji. Pomysł Oznacza to, że tak samo poprawnie odczytują język ciała spotkał się ze znaczącym, nieformalnym oporem, wyni- swoich kolegów i przełożonych. Kierownictwo szkoły czę- kającym z braków logistycznych do jego wprowadzenia. sto zapomina o predyspozycjach podwładnych w tym za- Następnie podczas formalnej dyskusji podano delikat- kresie i nie przywiązuje należytej uwagi do tego typu ko- nie w wątpliwość zasadność przedsięwzięcia, co w konse- munikatów wysyłanych w stronę nauczycieli i odwrotnie. kwencji oddaliło jego realizację w czasie. Znaczące w komunikacji i kierowaniu są emocje, Drugim sposobem przekazywania i pozyskiwania bowiem „to emocje czynią niekiedy życie możliwym do informacji jest komunikacja pisemna, do której zalicza- zniesienia, a nawet pięknym” oraz „sprawiają, że życie jest my każdą formę przekazywania na piśmie słów i sym- godne człowieka” [Zimbardo, Ruch 1998, s. 352]. Od- boli. Główną zaletą tego rodzaju komunikatów jest to, czuwanie emocji jest subiektywnym procesem psychicz- że są materialne i sprawdzalne oraz można je przecho- nym, a niewłaściwe obchodzenie się z nimi może wywo- wywać przez długi czas. Podczas procesu pisania dokład- ływać zaburzenia natury psychicznej, psychosomatycznej niej możemy przemyśleć, co chcemy przekazać, i staran- i innych stanów chorobowych. „Proces emocjonalny jest niej dobieramy słowa. Ujemnym skutkiem tego rodzaju odpowiedzią mechanizmów regulacji na sygnały posiada- komunikacji jest jej czasochłonność oraz brak sprzęże- jące znaczenie dla biologicznej bądź psychicznej równo- nia zwrotnego [Robbins 1998, s. 221, 222]. Zatem naj- wagi podmiotu” [Stolecka 2011, s. 154]. Źródłem emo- częściej nie ma żadnej pewności co do trafności odbioru cji negatywnych jest wszystko to, co zakłóca równowa- komunikatu zgodnie z zamierzeniem. Komunikaty pi- gę, a źródłem emocji pozytywnych to, co tę równowagę semne w szkole, zamieszczane na tablicach ogłoszeń lub przywraca. Poziom aktywacji (intensywność) powoduje w dziennikach zarządzeń, są istotnym narzędziem orga- zmiany, które wyrażają się we wzroście lub spadku na- nizującym pracę nauczycieli, którzy są zobowiązani do pięcia emocjonalnego od pobudzenia do zobojętnienia. zapoznania się z ich treścią. Natomiast kierownictwo nie Natomiast dodatni znak emocji jest związany ze stanem ma pewności, czy komunikaty zostały we właściwym cza- przyjemności, a ujemny ze stanem przykrości. Treść emo- sie odczytane, zrozumiane i czy doszło do realizacji przy- cji pozwala na jakościowe określenie różnic między emo- dzielonych zadań. Problem powstaje w sytuacji absencji cjami i nadanie im określonego, czytelnego dla podmiotu nauczyciela, którego nikt nie informuje o stosownych, i otoczenia wyrazu, jak np. złość, smutek [Stolecka 2011, ofi cjalnych zaleceniach, zmianach, wymogach itd. Zda- s. 153,154]. rza się również, że nauczyciel kończąc pracę, zapoznaje Gdy natężenie emocji staje się duże i obejmuje sieć się z wytycznymi kierownictwa, a już następnego dnia skojarzeń, przybierają na sile procesy wyolbrzymiania jest zaskoczony zmianą, np. ma dodatkowe zastępstwo i niedoceniania. To może spowodować, że człowiek spo- lub dyżur. Jeśli w odpowiednim momencie zapozna się ze strzega, wyobraża sobie lub myśli w sposób zniekształ- zmianami, to zrealizuje zadanie, a jeśli nie zdąży, to po- cony pod wpływem przeżywanego stanu. W takiej sy- wstaje problem. W dzisiejszej zbiurokratyzowanej szkole tuacji traci on zdolność do obiektywnego spostrzegania ten rodzaj komunikatów jest powszechny i nader uciążli- i obiektywnej oceny rzeczywistości, z uwagi na swoje ak- wy dla wszystkich zaangażowanych w proces kształcenia. tualne odczucia. Wszystkie aspekty życia społecznego są Przeróżne wymogi i związana z nimi konieczność wpro- związane z wymianą emocji z innymi ludźmi, co wywiera wadzania stosownych procedur przekraczają czasem gra- ogromny wpływ na nasze życie. Nie zawsze jednak do- nice absurdu. strzegamy, jak takie procesy przebiegają. Emocje zależ- Komunikacja niewerbalna nie jest tak oczywista, jak ne są od sytuacji, od tego, jak zrozumiemy nasze pobu- się wydaje. Ruchy ciała są ważnym elementem komuni- dzenie (+, –) oraz od zjawiska empatii. Relacje z innymi

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 109 Małgorzata Tomecka

osobami w dużej mierze nieświadomie kształtują na- zuje, że reagujemy raczej na symbole autorytetu niż na sze emocje. Ponieważ zjawisko „zarażania się wzajemnie konkretną osobę. Autorytet daje nam poczucie bezpie- emocjami” dotyczy nie tylko jednostek, ale także grup, czeństwa, a upodobnienie się do niego dostarcza przy- obserwuje się, że w ciągu zaledwie 2 godzin u wszystkich jemności i podnosi samoocenę. Reguła niedostępno- osób w grupie wytwarza się dobry lub zły nastrój [Stolec- ści pokazuje, że to, co jest mniej dostępne, jest bardziej ka 2011, s. 156 – 158]. wartościowe, bowiem niedostępność zwiększa pragnienie Rzadko kiedy ktokolwiek zastanawia się nad emocjo- posiadania. W przypadku tajności niektórych informacji nalnością nauczycieli, bowiem z reguły wychodzi się z za- pozwala ona ludziom na poczucie bycia w elicie wybra- łożenia, że zawód ten wykonują osoby o wysokim stop- nych [cit. za: Hamer 2005, s. 212–271]. Zaprezentowa- niu profesjonalizmu, zrównoważone emocjonalnie. Na- ne powyżej reguły znajdują odzwierciedlenie w rzeczywi- tomiast nauczyciel musi mieć świadomość swoich emocji stości szkolnej w różnych relacjach: nauczyciel – uczeń, i ich wpływu na uczniów, którzy je odbierają i dostoso- nauczyciel – nauczyciel, dyrektor – nauczyciel, nauczy- wują się do nich. Emocjonalność dyrektora jest nie mniej ciel – rodzic oraz dyrektor – rodzic. znacząca w sytuacji kierowniczej, uwzględniającej dłuż- Wpływ społeczny jest pojęciem szerszym niż mani- sze spotkania pracownicze, jak np. kilkugodzinne konfe- pulacja, której cechą charakterystyczną jest zysk mani- rencje rady pedagogicznej. Doświadczanie negatywnych pulatora kosztem manipulowanego. Manipulować moż- emocji jest rzeczą naturalną w zawodzie nauczycielskim na również treścią i sposobem przekazywania informacji, i poważnym błędem jest ich ukrywanie za wszelką cenę. czyli procesem komunikacji. Wywieranie wpływu inter- Lepszym rozwiązaniem wydaje się być głośne przyznanie personalnego jest istotą kierowania, a zarządzanie w edu- się do emocjonalnego dyskomfortu i uprzedzenie o moż- kacji nie jest wolne od manipulacji. Istnieją sposoby, aby liwości wystąpienia negatywnych konsekwencji. Nauczy- się przed nią bronić, głównie dzięki wiedzy o jej techni- ciel czy dyrektor może poinformować (co i tak jest wi- kach. W procesie kierowania szczególnej wagi nabierają doczne), że jest np. zirytowany z uwagi na jakąś sytuację kompetencje komunikacyjne, zachowania, wzorce i zasa- czy osobę, i prosić, aby w danej chwili otoczenie było dla dy współpracy stwarzane przez dyrektora szkoły oraz kli- niego wyrozumiałe. maty emocjonalne. Nie bez znaczenia jest asertywność, Szczególnie w zarządzaniu ukierunkowanym na lu- a u jej podstaw poszanowanie godności drugiego człowie- dzi ważne jest zagadnienie wpływu społecznego, który ka i empatia. Posłuszeństwo wobec autorytetu dyrektora oznacza wszystkie rodzaje oddziaływań jednych ludzi na jest silnie zakorzenione w społeczności szkolnej i przynosi drugich. W interakcjach społecznych wpływ ten doko- oczywiste korzyści, ale z drugiej strony prowadzi do zbyt- nuje się zwykle podczas komunikacji, a jego celem jest niej uległości wobec niego. Tylko komunikacja otwarta dokonanie zmiany przekonań i postaw, poprzez które na- stanowi podstawę efektywności kierującego w placówce stępuje zmiana działań i zachowań. Cialdini wymienił 6 oświatowej. reguł wpływu na ludzi. Reguła wzajemności to kulturo- wy nakaz odwdzięczania się za otrzymany dar, a jej siła Motywacja w edukacji polega między innymi na tym, że ulegamy niechcianym przysługom. Reguła wzajemności ustępstw osłabia na- Istnieje związek pomiędzy emocjami a efektywnością szą czujność i sprawia, że najprawdopodobniej ustąpi- działań, o którym pisze J. Reykowski: „Pobudzenie emo- my pod wpływem kogoś, komu niezręcznie nam odmó- cjonalne i intensywność motywacji to zjawiska w zasadzie wić. Reguła zaangażowania i konsekwencji jest zwią- identyczne, a więc te same twierdzenia, które wypowia- zana z zamiarem konsekwentnej realizacji zamierzonego da się na temat intensywności motywacji, mogą odnosić celu dla osiągnięcia dobrego samopoczucia. Lubimy być się do pobudzenia emocjonalnego. […] Źródła procesów konsekwentni, ponieważ jest to cecha nagradzana spo- emocjonalnych mogą być identyczne ze źródłami proce- łecznie, a brak konsekwencji powoduje obniżenie naszej sów motywacyjnych – i jedne, i drugie bywają następ- oceny. Reguła społecznego dowodu słuszności decydu- stwem tego samego zaburzenia równowagi w systemie re- je o tym, jakie poglądy czy zachowania uznamy za wła- gulacji. Co więcej, procesom motywacyjnym w trakcie ściwe. Często stosujemy się do opinii innych ludzi, kie- ich przebiegu towarzyszą określone zmiany emocjonalne, dy nie jesteśmy przekonani o słuszności własnego wybo- a w związku z tym stan emocjonalny może być wskaźni- ru, jesteśmy mniej pewni siebie i mamy niewystarczającą kiem aktualnego poziomu motywacji. Z tych i innych wiedzę. Reguła sympatii dotyczy ulegania wpływowi jeszcze niewymienionych tu względów można traktować osób, które po prostu lubimy, a im więcej przyjemnych diagnozę procesów emocjonalnych i procesów motywa- skojarzeń, komplementów, tym większa sympatia. Im cyjnych jako czynność w wielu wypadkach niemal iden- większa sympatia, tym bardziej osłabiona jest nasza czuj- tyczną” [cyt. za: Stolecka 2011, s. 151]. Efektywność po- ność. Ingracjacja to jedna z technik manipulacji skoncen- szczególnych osób w organizacji jest zależna nie tylko od trowana na samoocenie i oznaczająca nieuczciwe wkrada- ich uzdolnień, ale również od motywacji. O znaczeniu nie się w łaski drogą sympatii. Reguła autorytetu wska- ciężkiej pracy w osiąganiu powodzenia mówił już Albert

110 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Kierowanie w placówce oświatowej

Einstein: „Geniusz to 10% polotu i 90% potu” [cyt. za: i drugie mogą być trafne z powodu uwzględnienia czyn- Robbins 1998, s. 87]. Mniej sformalizowaną defi nicją ników sytuacyjnych. motywacji jest chęć zrobienia czegoś dla zaspokojenia ja- Uznając, że stosunek człowieka do pracy zależy od kiejś potrzeby. jego postawy wobec pracy, Frederick Herzberg opra- W latach 50. ubiegłego wieku sformułowano trzy cował teorię czynników motywacyjnych i higienicz- konkretne teorie motywacji, a na ich podstawie rozwinę- nych. Ustalił również, że zadowolenie z pracy jest związa- ły się teorie współczesne. Choć te wczesne teorie spotyka ne z czynnikami wewnętrznymi takimi, jak: uznanie, roz- krytyka i ich zasadność jest kwestionowana, to praktycy wój osobisty, awanse, odpowiedzialność, sama praca czy zarządzania wciąż się nimi posługują. Najbardziej znanym osiągnięcia. Natomiast niezadowolenie z pracy jest spo- sposobem rozpoznawania motywacji jest powszechnie wodowane czynnikami zewnętrznymi – polityką fi rmy, znana teoria hierarchii potrzeb Abrahama Maslowa. systemem administracji, nadzorem, stosunkami między- Potrzeby pojawiają się według porządku w taki sposób, że ludzkimi, warunkami pracy i płacami. Zdaniem Herz- zaspokojenie potrzeby niższego rzędu umożliwia pojawie- berga, kierownicy eliminując czynniki powodujące nieza- nie się potrzeby wyższego rzędu. Teoria autonomii funk- dowolenie w pracy, będą raczej uspakajać pracowników cjonalnej jest poprawką G. Allporta do hierarchii potrzeb niż prowadzić ich do większej motywacji [Robbins 1998, Maslowa i zawiera się w stwierdzeniu, że „u ludzi doro- s. 92–95]. Mimo krytyki teorii Herzberga, podobnie jak słych (jak wszyscy wiemy) kolejność zaspakajania i waga teorii Maslowa czy McGregora, wszystkie zdobyły znaczą- potrzeb bywa różna” [Hamer 2005, s. 131]. Teoria Maslo- cą popularność i jest niewielu zarządzających, którzy nie wa zdobyła uznanie dzięki logiczności. znaliby ich zaleceń. Wszystkie wymienione teorie mają Teoria X i teoria Y Douglasa McGregora poddają zastosowanie, w większym lub mniejszym stopniu, rów- analizie sposób postępowania kierowników z pracowni- nież we współczesnym kierowaniu kadrą nauczycielską. kami i kształtują ich zachowania w stosunku do pracow- Wielość teorii motywacyjnych czy motywowania ników. Kierownik stosujący teorię X przyjmuje cztery za- powoduje, że zasadna jest prezentacja wybranych współ- łożenia: czesnych teorii motywacji, które − wedle mojej oceny − 1. „Pracownicy z natury nie lubią pracy i unikają jej, mają istotne znaczenie w kierowaniu placówką oświato- kiedy tylko to jest możliwe. wą. Według psychologów spośród licznych czynników, 2. Skoro pracownicy nie lubią pracy, musi się ich zmu- które wpływają na nasze myślenie i działanie, szczegól- szać, sprawować nad nimi kontrolę lub grozić im ka- nie ważne są dwa motywy społeczne: „Pierwszy doty- rami, by osiągnąć zamierzone cele. czy potrzeby posiadania słuszności, dotarcia do prawdy 3. Pracownicy unikają odpowiedzialności. Chcą otrzy- i zachowania się odpowiedniego do sytuacji. Drugi nato- mywać wyraźne dyrektywy, kiedy tylko to jest moż- miast to potrzeba podtrzymania poczucia własnej warto- liwe. ści (wysokiej samooceny zależnej często silnie od opinii 4. Większość pracowników ponad wszystkie inne czyn- innych ludzi)” [Hamer 2005, s. 127]. Dla zachowania niki związane z pracą ceni bezpieczeństwo i wykazuje dobrego mniemania o sobie zwykle dokonujemy wybo- się małą ambicją.” ru tendencyjnie zniekształconego obrazu świata zamiast adekwatnej jego percepcji. Poza tym oba motywy często Natomiast w teorii Y kierownik przyjmuje cztery pozostają ze sobą w sprzeczności, bowiem dla lepszego inne założenia: samopoczucia zniekształcamy fakty, chociaż nie całkowi- 1. „Pracownicy uważają pracę za coś równie naturalne- cie [Hamer 2005, s. 127]. W przełożeniu na środowisko go jak odpoczynek albo zabawa. szkolne koncepcja tych dwóch wpływów jest zasadniczo 2. Człowiek angażujący się w dążenie do osiągnięcia ce- czytelna, bowiem nauczyciel z jednej strony: lów sam sobą kieruje i sprawuje nad sobą kontrolę. – chce mieć słuszność − być nieomylnym, mieć zawsze 3. Przeciętny człowiek może się nauczyć przyjmowania rację; odpowiedzialności, a nawet może do niej dążyć. – ma potrzebę prawdy − zgłębia niezbędną specyfi czną 4. Uzdolnienia twórcze – to znaczy umiejętność podej- i ogólną wiedzę; mowania trafnych decyzji – powszechnie występują – dostosowuje się do sytuacji − zwykle właściwie reagu- w całej populacji i niekoniecznie są wyłączną dome- je na zajęciach i „nie wychodzi przed szereg” na kon- ną kierownictwa” [cyt. za: Robbins 1998, s. 91, 92]. ferencjach. Jeżeli odniesiemy teorie McGregora do hierarchii po- Z drugiej strony dla zachowania dobrego samopo- trzeb Maslowa, to w założeniach teorii X ludzie są zdomi- czucia nauczyciel ma potrzebę poczucia wysokiej warto- nowani przez potrzeby niższego rzędu, w założeniach teo- ści opartej głównie o to, „co sądzą o mnie inni?” – kie- rii Y − przez potrzeby wyższego rzędu. Autor teorii X i Y rownictwo szkoły, uczniowie, rodzice, inni nauczycie- przyjął za bardziej uzasadnioną teorię Y. Choć nie ma do- le i pozostali pracownicy. Zapewne zmodyfi kuje zalety wodów na uzasadnienie jednych czy drugich założeń dla pierwszego wpływu w taki sposób, który umożliwi mu zwiększenia motywacji pracowników, zarówno jedne, jak funkcjonowanie we właściwym dla niego samopoczu-

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ciu. W przypadku dyrektora placówki oświatowej, który Nauczyciel ma potrzebę osiągnięć w sferze naucza- najczęściej jest również nauczycielem, potrzeba poczucia nego przedmiotu i, jak to ujmuje znakomity fi lozof i so- własnej, wysokiej wartości jest zwielokrotniona zakresem cjolog Florian Znaniecki, „urabianych” przez niego wy- obszarów jego oceny. chowankach [Znaniecki 2001, t. 2]. Chce uczyć lepiej W następnej kolejności wymieniam zjawisko facy- i inaczej niż ktokolwiek do tej pory. W sposób szczególny litacji społecznej jako „procesu polegającego na tym, że takie dążenia dotyczą początkujących nauczycieli i tych obecność innych ludzi zwiększa mobilizację organizmu zaangażowanych w zawodową rywalizację. Odczuwanie wskutek silnego pobudzenia fi zjologicznego. Nawet ka- pragnienia osobistych osiągnięć jest w edukacji jednym raluchy pokonują labirynt szybciej, gdy inne karaluchy z najważniejszych determinantów motywacyjnych. Na- im się przyglądają ” [Hamer 2005, s. 128, 129]. Głównie grody za sukces po prostu „bywają”, a ich atrakcyjność chodzi o to, że obecność innych ludzi jest dla nas czynni- jest daleko niewystarczająca. Odpowiedzialność i roz- kiem motywującym do lepszej pracy, jednak nie zawsze. wiązywanie problemów w tym zawodzie to codzienność, W zadaniach prostych, dobrze wyćwiczonych i typowych a informację zwrotną o swoich działaniach nauczyciele przy obecności innych ludzi nastąpi poprawa sprawno- otrzymują natychmiast. Zarówno nauczyciel, jak i dyrek- ści ich wykonania. Natomiast wykonywanie zadań trud- tor szkoły o dużej potrzebie osiągnięć podejmują ryzy- nych, skomplikowanych i źle przygotowanych znaczą- ko w swoich działaniach zawodowych, gdy prawdopo- co się pogarsza, szczególnie kiedy jesteśmy lub czujemy dobieństwo powodzenia i niepowodzenia będzie mniej się niekompetentni. Poziom skuteczności naszych dzia- więcej jednakowe. Wykonywanie zawodu nauczyciela łań zależy zatem od obecności innych ludzi, a nie tylko jest działaniem w warunkach posiadania władzy, ale jej od kompetencji [Hamer 2005, s. 128]. Szkoła jest szcze- wysoka potrzeba może zaciemnić obraz nauczycielskiej gólnym rodzajem organizacji, w której zjawisko facyli- powinności. Należy mieć wpływ na uczniów, sprawować tacji społecznej występuje nieprzerwanie każdego dnia. nad nimi nieustanną kontrolę i być osobą dla nich zna- Kompetentni nauczyciele, których jest wielu, codziennie czącą, ale nie kosztem efektów nauczania. Zjawisko ry- wypadają błyskotliwie przed audytorium uczniów, a ci walizacji może wystąpić pomiędzy nauczycielami, u któ- mniej kompetentni i z tremą szybciej się wypalają. Na- rych istnieje wysoki poziom omawianego motywu, oraz wet wprawny mówca, jakim jest niewątpliwie nauczyciel, pomiędzy nauczycielem i dyrektorem. Dyrektor ma po- nie będzie wolny od wpływu facylitacji społecznej w wa- dobne pragnienia jak nauczyciel, a nie byłby zarządcą/ runkach dla niego nowych, trudnych lub takich, do któ- kierownikiem, gdyby nie odczuwał większej potrzeby rych nie był w pełni przygotowany. Mam tu na wzglę- władzy. dzie wszelkiego rodzaju zebrania z rodzicami, szczegól- Jednostki, którymi są nauczyciel czy dyrektor, przy- nie te organizowane pierwszy raz, kiedy spontaniczność stępują do grup z powodu kilku przyczyn, a należą do i nieprzewidywalność mają swoje konsekwencje we wza- nich: potrzeba bezpieczeństwa, pozycji, wysokiej samo- jemnych relacjach. Myślę również o konferencjach rady oceny, przynależności, siły i osiągania celów. Dzięki temu pedagogicznej, konkursach międzyszkolnych czy na szer- otrzymują pewne korzyści, takie jak: zmniejszenie nie- szą skalę, przeróżnych kursach i szkoleniach, w których bezpieczeństwa związanego z osamotnieniem, możliwość aspekt trudności, skomplikowania czy kompetencji jest uzyskania uznania i prestiżu, poczucia własnej wartości. nadzwyczaj wyraźny. Zjawisko facylitacji może przybrać Liczebność grupy i współdziałanie dają jej siłę do wyko- szersze ramy z uwagi na wielość wypełnianych funkcji/ nania określonego zadania czy pracy. W zakładach pracy obowiązków przez dyrektora/nauczyciela. Oczywiście występują grupy formalne i nieformalne, które mają swo- wraz z doświadczeniem i nabywaniem coraz to nowych ich liderów. Również w szkole funkcjonuje taki podział kompetencji zawodowych i społecznych maleje negatyw- i należy zaznaczyć wagę grupy w odniesieniu do jednost- ny wpływ zjawiska facylitacji. ki, która nie przynależąc do żadnej z nich, zostaje wyalie- Kolejną, opartą o udokumentowane podstawy, istot- nowana. O ile w przypadku dyrektora takie wyobcowa- ną teorią jest teoria trzech potrzeb, którą opracował nie jest często naturalne (wynika ze sprawowania funkcji David McClelland i jego współpracownicy. Według niej zarządczej), o tyle dla szeregowego nauczyciela pod wie- w miejscu pracy występują trzy motywy lub potrzeby: loma względami jest mało komfortowe. 1. „Potrzeba osiągnięć – dążenie do wyróżniania się, Kary i nagrody są również motywatorami i narzę- do osiągnięć w odniesieniu do określonego zbioru dziami wpływu społecznego. H. Hamer szczegółowo norm, do zdobycia powodzenia. opisuje, kiedy kary i nagrody najlepiej motywują, czy- 2. Potrzeba władzy – potrzeba powodowania, aby inni li są skuteczne w procesie zmiany negatywnej postawy. postępowali w sposób zgodny z zamierzeniem danej „Kara to dowolne zdarzenie, które występując po ja- osoby. kiejś reakcji obniża prawdopodobieństwo jej wystąpie- 3. Potrzeba przynależności – pragnienie przyjacielskich, nia w przyszłości”, nagroda natomiast podwyższa takie bliskich stosunków międzyludzkich” [cyt. za: Rob- prawdopodobieństwo [Hamer 2005, s. 133, 134]. We- bins 1998, s. 95, 96]. dług Edwarda Deciego w karach i nagrodach zawie-

112 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Kierowanie w placówce oświatowej rają się dwie informacje: aspekt kompetencji i kontro- nować dyrektor. Poza ogólnie znanymi i obowiązującymi li. W pierwszym przypadku kara informuje o osiągnię- szczeblami awansów zawodowych dyrektorzy szkół mają tej niskiej efektywności/ sprawności działania, a nagroda możliwość przyznania dodatków motywacyjnych i na- – o wysokiej. W drugim kara informuje, czego chcemy gród dyrektora. Powszechnie wiadomo, że czynnik eko- uniknąć, a nagroda o tym, co jest ważne i do czego dąży- nomiczny jest najsilniejszym motywatorem ludzkich my [cyt. za: Hamer 2005, s. 134]. Jeśli nauczyciel lub dy- działań. Dyrektorzy mają możliwość symbolicznego, nie- rektor wykorzystuje do zmiany postaw tego typu narzę- materialnego nagradzania nauczycieli, ale korzystają z tej dzia, to zobowiązany jest pamiętać, że nagroda jest lepsza formy stosunkowo rzadko, co uznaję za poważny błąd od kary z uwagi na utrwalenie pożądanego zachowania. w kierowaniu przez motywowanie. Truizmem wydaje się Poza tym w przypadku kary ważniejsza jest konsekwencja stwierdzenie, że nawet zwykłe: „Dziękuję za dobrze wy- niż siła i nieuchronność od surowości. Należy natomiast konaną pracę” może dostarczyć podwładnemu dużego zaznaczyć, że nagrody mogą mieć również destrukcyjny zadowolenia i będzie znaczącym czynnikiem motywują- wpływ na osoby pracujące tylko dla tego rodzaju moty- cym. Natomiast celowa deprecjacja działań nauczyciela, wacji. W edukacji system kar i nagród jest mało elastycz- do którego dyrektor ma stosunek negatywny, powoduje ny, zdecydowanie subiektywny i słabo dostosowany do nie tylko frustrację u podwładnego, ale wpływa również dynamiki zmian na rynku dóbr oświatowych. Dzisiaj rze- niszcząco na jego system motywacyjny i prowadzi do po- czywistość szkolna jest zdominowana nie przez nagrody czucia głębokiej niesprawiedliwości. i kary, ale przez biurokrację, spowodowaną niestabilnym prawem oświatowym i brakiem zaufania w miejscu pracy. Wybrane teorie przywództwa W tym miejscu przedstawiam teorię, która moim a edukacja zdaniem, skupia wszystkie inne w jedną zwartą całość − sprawiedliwość. W teorii sprawiedliwości [Robbins Przywództwo to działanie, jak pisze Jacenta Łucewicz, 1998, s. 101–104] chodzi o to, że pracownicy nie żyją polegające „na zwiększeniu zaangażowania i «naładowa- w próżni i mierzą to, co wnoszą do pracy, oraz to, co nia» pracowników energią”. Taki stan rzeczy ujawnia się z niej uzyskują. Własne nakłady i efekty porównują z in- w kilku aspektach: „pracownicy czują się ważni, ucze- nymi osobami w miejscu pracy i często uznają, że wystę- nie się i kompetencje są istotne, praca jest ekscytująca, puje stan niesprawiedliwości. Kiedy pojawia się niespra- a pracownicy stanowią część wspólnoty” [Łucewicz 2002, wiedliwość, to znaczy, że pracownicy uzyskują niedosta- s, 34]. Nieodzownym atrybutem przywódcy staje się od- teczne lub nazbyt wysokie nagrody. powiedzialność i swoista służba, a od przywódcy jako Według tej teorii pracownik/nauczyciel dostrzegają- szefa organizacji oczekuje się najwięcej. Rola przywódcy cy niesprawiedliwość wybiera jedną lub więcej z poniż- wymaga od kierującego organizacją umiejętności komu- szych możliwości: nikowania się, sprawnego działania i kreatywnego my- 1. „Zniekształca obraz nakładów lub wyników albo ślenia. Przywódca/dyrektor powinien wywierać wpływ własnych, albo cudzych. (pozytywny) i wykazywać się zdolnością do podejmo- 2. Zachowuje się tak, aby skłonić innych do zmiany ich wania ryzyka, reagowania na zmiany, delegowania zadań nakładów lub wyników. i zwiększania uprawnień w zakresie odpowiedzialności. 3. Zachowuje się tak, aby zmienić własne nakłady lub Właśnie taki dyrektor w dobie współczesnych dynamicz- wyniki. nych zmian w systemie oświaty jest jednostką pożądaną. 4. Wybiera odmienny punkt odniesienia. Źródła wpływu na grupę dla osiągania określonych 5. Odchodzi z pracy” [Robbins 1998, s. 102]. celów mogą mieć charakter formalny, jak i nieformalny. Pierwsze cztery możliwości są często stosowane przez Jest wiele opracowań poświęconych przywództwu, a nie- nauczycieli. Wyjątek stanowi ostatnia sytuacja. Odejście które z nich pozostają ze sobą w sprzeczności. Omówię z pracy nauczyciela z powodu stanu niesprawiedliwości zatem skrótowo cztery koncepcje [cyt. za: Robbins 1998, jest zjawiskiem marginalnym, ponieważ obecnie to nie s. 238–263], z których wynika, co składa się na skuteczne nauczyciele rezygnują z pracy, tylko ich się jej pozbawia. przywództwo z uwzględnieniem kierowania w placówce Z perspektywy dyrektora i nauczyciela zasada sprawie- oświatowej. dliwości ma ogromne znaczenie motywujące. Zarów- Pierwszą jest teoria cech, za pomocą której stara- no względna, jak i bezwzględna wartość nagród wywiera no się wyróżnić cechy systematycznie wiążące się z przy- znaczący wpływ na pracowników. Dotyczy to szczególnie wództwem. S.P. Robins zwraca uwagę, że gdybyśmy na środowiska szkolnego, w którym uczy się młodych lu- podstawie ogólnych określeń stosowanych w mediach dzi poszanowania wielu zasad, a sprawiedliwość wobec mieli opisać przywódcę na podstawie takich cech jak: in- podwładnych wydaje się być tą dominującą. Należy rów- teligencja, charyzma, prawość, siła itd., doszlibyśmy do nież zwrócić uwagę na to, że w obecnym systemie wyna- wniosku, że przywódca w 1/3 odznacza się cechami har- grodzeń pracowników oświatowych niewiele jest moty- cerza, a w 2/3 Chrystusa. W tej teorii wyróżniono sześć watorów fi nansowych nauczycieli, którymi może dyspo- cech różniących przywódców od nie-przywódców, a mia-

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 113 Małgorzata Tomecka

nowicie: „Ambicja i energia, pragnienie przewodzenia in- Trzecią w kolejności teorią, uwzględniającą czynniki nym i wywierania na nich wpływu, uczciwość i prawość, sytuacyjne, jest teoria ścieżki do celu, opracowana przez wiara w siebie, inteligencja, głęboka wiedza techniczna Roberta Housa, która jest współcześnie jednym z naj- w dziedzinie objętej zakresem odpowiedzialności przy- bardziej uznanych sposobów traktowania przywództwa. wódcy” [cyt. za: Robbins 1998, s. 240]. W tym modelu przywódcy wskazują ścieżkę swoim pod- Wymienione wyżej cechy nie wystarczają do wyja- władnym, aby pomóc im przedostać się do celu i ułatwia- śnienia istoty przywództwa, zwiększają jedynie prawdo- ją po niej podróż, zmniejszając znajdujące się tam pułapki podobieństwo tego, że dana osoba będzie skutecznym i przeszkody. Zachowanie przywódcy jest czynnikiem przywódcą. Wadą teorii cech jest to, że nie uwzględnia motywującym dla podwładnych, jeżeli: zaspokaja potrze- czynników sytuacyjnych. Rozpoczęto zatem badanie isto- by podwładnych w zależności od efektów ich działań oraz ty przywództwa poprzez wyszukiwanie szczególnych za- zapewnia nagrody potrzebne do efektywnego działania, chowań skutecznych przywódców. W ten sposób powsta- szkoli, wspiera i kieruje nimi. Hous wyróżnił cztery za- ła teoria zachowań, która z punktu widzenia zastosowań chowania przywódcze, takie jak: przywódca dyrektywny, różni się od teorii cech odmiennością założeń. Wnioski wspierający, partycypacyjny i nastawiony na osiągnięcia. dla tej teorii, wynikające z doświadczeń przeprowadzo- W odróżnieniu od poglądów Fiedlera − zakłada, że przy- nych przez naukowców Uniwersytetu Ohio State oraz wódcy są elastyczni i mogą zachowywać się odpowiednio Uniwersytetu Michigan mniej więcej w tym samym cza- do wymienionych ról w zależności od sytuacji. Zależność sie, były znacznie bardziej korzystne dla przywódców zo- między zachowaniem przywódcy a wynikami oparta jest rientowanych na pracowników, a mniej korzystne dla również o dwie klasy zmiennych sytuacyjnych: zmienne tych, którzy zorientowani byli na zadanie. Natomiast środowiskowe i zmienne stanowiące część cech charakte- wyodrębnienie kilku cech lub preferowanych zachowań ryzujących podwładnego. Zasadność teorii potwierdza, okazało się niewystarczające w prognozowaniu skutecz- że „na efektywność i zadowolenie pracowników na ogół nego przywództwa. Wyodrębniono zatem czynniki sy- pozytywny wpływ wywiera dopełnianie przez przywódcę tuacyjne, które wpływają na skuteczność przywództwa, tego, czego brakuje albo u pracownika, albo w warunkach czyli teorie sytuacyjne. Pierwszą z teorii jest model Freda pracy” [Robbins 1998, s. 254]. Fiedlera zakładający, że styl przywództwa jest wrodzony Powyżej przedstawiłam teorie dotyczące przywód- i nie można go zmienić, aby dostosować przywództwo do ców, którzy prowadzą, motywują i wyjaśniają wymagania sytuacji. Fiedler uważał, że to, co sądzimy o innych, wię- dotyczące celów. Ostatnią z przedstawionych w niniej- cej mówi o nas samych i opracował kwestionariusz naj- szym podrozdziale teorii jest przywództwo charyzma- mniej lubianego pracownika (NLW). Było to narzędzie tyczne, czyli transformacyjne. Tego rodzaju przywódcy do badania, w jakim stopniu dana osoba jest nastawio- posiadają siłę osobistych uzdolnień, która przekształca na na zadania (nielubiany współpracownik opisywany stronników, powodując zwiększenie świadomości doty- w niekorzystnych kategoriach), a w jakim na wzajemne czącej znaczenia i wartości ich zadań. Przywódcy chary- stosunki (w korzystnych kategoriach). Na tej podstawie zmatyczni potrafi ą tak inspirować do wykonywania za- Fiedler wyróżnił trzy czynniki sytuacyjne: dań, że podwładni „skaczą za nimi w ogień”. Cechy, które 1. „Stosunki między przywódcą i członkami grupy – odróżniają przywódców charyzmatycznych od niechary- stopień zaufania podwładnych do przywódcy, wiary zmatycznych, to: wiara w siebie (pewność siebie), wizja w niego i okazywanie szacunku. (jej niezwykłość), silna wiara w wizję (eskalacja zaangażo- 2. Struktura zadania − wysoki lub niski stopień struktu- wania), niezwykłe zachowania (nonkonformizm), wize- ralizacji zadań przydzielanych pracownikom. runek agenta zmiany (zmiany stanu obecnego) [Robbins 3. Pozycja władcza – stopień, w jakim przywódca może 1998, s. 258–260]. Podwładni przywódców charyzma- wywierać wpływ na zmienne cechujące władzę, takie tycznych są między innymi bardziej pewni siebie, pra- jak: zatrudnianie, zwalnianie, nakładanie kar, przy- cują dłużej, są bardziej świadomi znaczenia swojej pracy, znawanie awansów i podwyżek płac” [Robbins 1998, uzyskują wyższe oceny efektywności niż podwładni przy- s. 248]. wódców skutecznych, ale nie charyzmatycznych. Należy Na tej podstawie Fiedler stwierdził, że większy wpływ zaznaczyć, że przywódcy charyzmatyczni mogą idealnie na sprawowanie kontroli ma ten przywódca, który ma sprawdzić się w sytuacji kryzysu, ale po jego wygaśnię- silniejszą pozycję władczą, lepsze stosunki z członkami ciu i powrocie do normalnych warunków, często osiągają grupy oraz przedstawia zadania bardziej ustrukturyzowa- słabe wyniki. Dzieje się tak dlatego, że zachowanie przy- ne. W praktyce często trudno stwierdzić lub ocenić to wódcy, bardzo pewnego siebie, może stać się ciężarem po jednoznacznie. Ponieważ według autora styl przywódz- ustąpieniu kryzysu. Ponadto tego rodzaju przywódcy są twa jest niezmienny, można zastosować następujące roz- m.in. autokratyczni i zapatrzeni w siebie, a takie zacho- wiązania: wybrać przywódcę, który w danej sytuacji naj- wania mogą doprowadzić do odejścia dobrych pracowni- bardziej się do niej nadaje, lub zmienić sytuację, aby do- ków. Analiza przedstawionych teorii wskazuje, że wszyst- stosować ją do przywódcy. kie dotyczą zadań i ludzi.

114 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Kierowanie w placówce oświatowej

We wstępie do rozdziału wspomniałam o kreatywno- szenia podaży dyrektorów. Gdyby szkolenie okazało się ści przywódcy, a cechami takiego przywództwa są: właściwe, można by uzyskać znaczącą liczbę skutecznych, – „wzmożona świadomość swojego własnego potencja- wyszkolonych przywódców dyrektorów. łu; – kompleksowa znajomość swoich słabych i mocnych Podsumowanie stron; – nawyk do zachęcania innych do przekazywania in- Rzeczywistość szkolna pokazuje wagę teorii sytuacyjnych formacji zwrotnej; w przewodzeniu nauczycielom, których takie cechy, jak: – pragnienie wiedzy; wysokie wykształcenie, doświadczenie zawodowe, potrze- – integracja pracy z życiem; ba niezależności i często indywidualizm – mogą zastąpić – poszanowanie odmienności innych ludzi” [Alexsan- potrzebę wsparcia ze strony dyrektora. Poza tym w pla- der, Wilson 1998, za: Łucewicz 2002, s. 34]. cówce oświatowej sformalizowane przywództwo można Skuteczny dyrektor/przywódca zapewne przeanalizu- zastąpić sformalizowanymi celami, sztywnymi regułami je wszystkie czynniki w celu właściwego ukierunkowania i zasadami postępowania (procedury). Nadinterpretacją swojej misji oraz powierzonych mu zasobów ludzkich. jest zatem uznawanie, że jedynie zachowanie przywódcy/ Taka postawa jest szczególnie oczekiwana w kierowaniu, dyrektora, nawet jeśli jest charyzmatyczny, prowadzi na- nie tylko z perspektywy podwładnych (nauczycieli), ale uczycieli do osiągania celów. Nie ujmując wagi zagadnie- również, a może przede wszystkim – z perspektywy po- niom związanym z przywództwem, należy pamiętać, że wierzonych nauczycielom uczniów. są one kolejną zmienną niezależną w wyjaśnianiu prze- Przywództwo a władza to terminy blisko ze sobą biegu procesu kierowania ludźmi. związane. Człowiek lub grupa ludzi ma władzę nad in- Jak w każdej organizacji, tak również w szkole, aby nym człowiekiem lub grupą, jeżeli jest w posiadaniu doprowadzić do realizacji celów, przydatne jest dyspono- pewnej wartości i ma możliwość dysponowania tą war- wanie władzą. Dyrektor, dążąc do maksymalizacji swo- tością, która stanowi przedmiot dążeń czy aspiracji in- jej władzy, chce przede wszystkim zwiększenia zależno- nej jednostki lub zbiorowości. Przywódca lub grupa, bę- ści od niego podwładnych mu nauczycieli. Trzeba jednak dąc w posiadaniu władzy, nabywa zdolność do wywie- pamiętać, że władza działa w dwóch kierunkach i nauczy- rania wpływu, a nawet przymusu dla osiągnięcia celów ciele również dążą do uzależnienia od siebie dyrektora. własnych bądź grupy oraz ma możliwość dzielenia zaso- Wynikiem tego jest nieustająca walka, ponieważ chcąc bów pomiędzy jej członkami. W tym miejscu, z uwagi na uzależnienia od siebie innych, jednocześnie dążymy do obszerność tematu i ograniczone ramy niniejszego opra- minimalizacji własnej zależności. cowania, tylko wspomnę o wyróżnionych przez J. Fren- Wszędzie tam, gdzie gromadzą się ludzie, ktoś spra- cha i B. Ravena pięciu układach władzy: wymuszania, na- wuje nad nimi władzę. Każdy człowiek pragnie posiadać gradzania, z mocy prawa, eksperckiej i odniesienia [cyt. własną niszę, w której będzie mógł wywierać wpływy, po- za: Robbins 1998, s. 268–271]. Natomiast kluczem do zyskiwać nagrody i piąć się po szczeblach kariery życio- wszelkiego rodzaju władzy jest zależność [Robbins 1998, wej i zawodowej. W sytuacji, kiedy zwiększenie własnych s. 272–274]. Jeżeli tylko my sprawujemy kontrolę nad wpływów i władzy jest ryzykowne, trudne lub wręcz nie- czymś, czego inni potrzebują, to stają się oni od nas za- możliwe, jednostka podejmuje wysiłki zmierzające do leżni i zdobywamy nad nimi władzę. Zależność wzrasta stworzenia koalicji. Szkoła nie jest wolna od wszelkiego w momencie, kiedy sprawujemy kontrolę nad zasobami, rodzaju „towarzystw wzajemnej adoracji”, zwanych da- które są ważne i rzadkie. Potrzeba pozyskania rzadkie- lej nieformalnymi układami powiązań i zależności. Na- go i ważnego zasobu może być uzależniająca zarówno dla uczyciele, podobnie jak w innych organizacjach, łączą pracownika, jak i pracodawcy, np. dysponowanie ważną się w grupy nieformalne, w celu poprawy swojej sytuacji wiedzą lub informacją. kosztem innych, pozostających poza grupą własną osób. W środowisku szkolnym występują wszystkie przyto- Istotnym rodzajem wpływu na jednostki lub grupy w za- czone w tym rozdziale mechanizmy przywództwa i wła- kresie wymiany informacji jest komunikacja i nieformal- dzy. Stanowisko dyrektora jest związane w znaczącym ny jej rodzaj – nieformalna sieć plotek i pogłosek. stopniu z autorytetem formalnym, zatem sprawująca je Z badań wynika, że „nastrój i zachowania przywódcy jednostka może odgrywać rolę przywódczą. Gdyby jed- są siłą napędową nastrojów i zachowań wszystkich innych nak teoria cech była do końca prawdziwa, to ludzie po- osób” [Stolecka 2011, s. 150], co ma kolosalne znacze- winni rodzić się przywódcami, zatem w szkolnej rzeczy- nie dla efektywności działań organizacyjnych w edukacji. wistości spotykalibyśmy się z sytuacją dyrektora z uro- Ludzie boją się uzewnętrznienia swoich uczuć w obawie dzenia. Gdyby natomiast teorie zachowań doprowadziły przed krytyką, a cóż dopiero nauczyciele w większości do jednoznacznych ustaleń wyznaczników tych zacho- postrzegani jako swoiste „alfy i omegi”. Właśnie w oba- wań, można byłoby wyszkolić przywódców. Ten kieru- wie przed ośmieszeniem, będącym jedną z najdotkliw- nek byłby zapewne atrakcyjny z punktu widzenia zwięk- szych sankcji satyrycznych, zachowują powściągliwość,

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 115 Małgorzata Tomecka

a często wręcz niepożądany umiar w wypowiadaniu swo- dwiczyński A. (red.), Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe ich poglądów, przekonań, czy też zwyczajnie prawdy. PWN. Podsumowując całość opracowania: szczególną tro- Król H. [2002] Czynnik ludzki w organizacji. Szkice z zarzą- ską dyrektora/zarządcy placówki oświatowej powinny dzania zasobami ludzkimi, Król H. (red.), Warszawa: Wy- dawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Przedsiębiorczości i Zarządza- być te aspekty kierowania nauczycielami, na które dyrek- nia. tor/przywódca ma bezpośredni wpływ. W mojej ocenie Listwan T. [2000] Przedmiot i znaczenie zarządzania kadrami. jest to otwartość w komunikacji, adekwatne do możli- Zarządzanie kadrami. Podstawy teoretyczne i ćwiczenia, Li- wości motywowanie, emocjonalne przywództwo, spra- stwan T. (red.), Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Akademii Eko- wiedliwość, a nade wszystko zaufanie i jego najistotniej- nomicznej. szy wymiar – prawość. Natomiast nauczyciele – z racji Łucewicz J. [2002] Współczesne determinanty zarządzania ka- swej wyjątkowej, doniosłej społecznie misji – nie mogą drami. Zarządzanie kadrami, Listwan T. (red.), Warszawa: i nie powinni być bezrefl eksyjnie podporządkowani kie- C.H. Beck. rownictwu szkoły, wadliwemu systemowi oraz absurdal- Robbins S.P [1998] Zachowania w organizacji, Warszawa: Pol- skie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne. nym procedurom. Stolecka K. [2011] Stany emocjonalne a komunikacja. Komu- nikacja i edukacja – ku synergiczności porozumiewania się, Wosik-Kowal D., Sarzyńska E., Maliszewski W.J., Fiedor Bibliografi a M. (red.), Toruń: Wyd. A. Marszałek. Zimbardo P.G., Ruch F.L. [1998] Psychologia i życie, Warszawa: Hamer H. [2005] Psychologia społeczna, Warszawa: Centrum Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Doradztwa i Informacji Difi n. Znaniecki F. [2001] Urabianie osoby wychowanka. Socjolo- Karwacki M. [2007] ZZL w małych i średnich przedsiębior- gia wychowania, t. 2, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe stwach. Zarządzanie zasobami ludzkimi, Król H., Lu- PWN.

116 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Krakowski Park dra Henryka Jordana w relacjach prasy niemieckojęzycznej z lat 1890–1908. Rekonesans badawczy Henryk Jordan Park in Kraków in German Press Articles (1890–1908). A Scientifi c Reconnaissance

Małgorzata Jacko Zakład Historii i Organizacji Kultury Fizycznej Wydział Wychowania Fizycznego i Sportu Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego im. B. Czecha w Krakowie

Summary The fi gure of Henryk Jordan (1842–1907) and his life’s work, i.e., a sports park and playground for children, con- tinues to fascinate people until the present day. After Professor Jordan’s death, many works devoted to the aforementioned subject were published. However, the emergence of new source materials puts even greater emphasis on Henryk Jordan’s contribution and of his park to the development of physical education in Europe. Seen in this context, Jordan Park seems to be an institution which during Jordan’s lifetime was unique on our continent and maybe throughout the world. Specialists in the fi eld of hygiene and physical culture came to Kraków from all over Europe to gain fi rst-hand experience of the organization and functioning of this institu- tion. The foreign press described the origins and the activities of the Park, comparing it to other playgrounds in Berlin, Braunschweig, Bremen, Koblenz, and London. The present article will concern an area that hasn’t been researched until now, that is the accounts of Jordan Park published in the German press. Keywords: Henryk Jordan, park, physical education, sports, the press

Streszczenie Henryk Jordan (1842–1907) i dzieło jego życia w postaci parku gier i zabaw dla dzieci fascynuje do dnia dzisiej- szego. Po śmierci Profesora Jordana powstało szereg publikacji związanych z tym tematem. Jednak w świetle nowych materiałów źródłowych jeszcze wyraźniej można mówić o wkładzie Henryka Jordana i jego parku w roz- wój wychowania fi zycznego w Europie. W tym kontekście Park Jordana jawi się jako instytucja, która za życia Henryka Jordana byłą jedyną tego typu na naszym kontynencie, a może nawet w świecie. Specjaliści z zakresu higieny i kultury fi zycznej przybywali do Krakowa z całej Europy, aby na miejscu zapoznać się z organizacją i funkcjonowaniem placówki. Prasa zagraniczna opisywała powstanie i działalność Parku, porównując go do innych placów zabaw w Berlinie, Brunszwiku, Bremie, Koblencji i Londynie. Niniejszy artykuł dotyczyć będzie obszaru, który do tej pory nie został szerzej zbadany, a mianowicie doniesień na temat Parku Jordana ówczesnej prasy niemieckojęzycznej. Słowa kluczowe: Henryk Jordan, park, wychowanie fi zyczne, sport, prasa

ostać doktora Henryka Jordana i jego najwięk- dan, pionier nowoczesnego wychowania fi zycznego w Pol- sze dzieło – Park Jordana, opisywano już w wie- sce przygotował Henryk Smarzyński [Smarzyński 1958]. Plu publikacjach. Pierwsze opracowanie na ten te- Również Barbara Łuczyńska w 2002 roku wydała książ- mat napisał Bolesław Filiński już w 1891 roku i zaty- kę Fenomen Henryka Jordana [Łuczyńska 2002]. Z okazji tułował je Park dra Jordana i kilka uwag o wychowaniu 100-lecia śmierci Henryka Jordana ukazały się materia- [Filiński 1891]. Park został opisany w broszurze z 1894 ły konferencji naukowej „Henryk Jordan, humanistyczne roku Miejski park Jordana w Krakowie wydanej nakładem wyzwanie naszych czasów”, zorganizowanej w Akademii samego Jordana. Obszerną publikację Dr Henryk Jor- Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie, pod redakcją Ma-

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 117 Małgorzata Jacko

riana Bukowca [Bukowiec 2007]. To tylko niektóre pu- dziewcząt odśpiewujących krakowiaka skomponowanego blikacje związane z tym tematem. na cześć założyciela parku i przemarsz I Pułku „Dzieci Również prasa krajowa i zagraniczna opisywała fe- Krakowskich”*. nomen tej placówki wychowawczej. Niniejszy artykuł Dalej w artykule znajdujemy dokładne godziny ćwi- pragnie zwrócić uwagę na doniesienia prasy niemiecko- czeń i ogólną liczbę uczestników: w tygodniu 500, na- języcznej z zakresu tego tematu. Niepublikowane mate- tomiast w środy 700 osób. Ze względu na udział dzieci riały źródłowe wyraźnie ukazują wkład Henryka Jordana żydowskich frekwencja w soboty wzrasta do 900, w nie- i jego parku w rozwój wychowania fi zycznego nie tylko dzielę zaś do 1200 uczestników (z powodu młodzieży w Polsce, ale i w całej Europie. W kontekście nowych rzemieślniczej). Liczba nauczycieli wynosi: w tygodniu czasów Unii Europejskiej mamy więc czym się poszczy- dziesięciu, w soboty dwunastu, a w niedzielę piętnastu. cić w zakresie wychowania fi zycznego. Dokonując anali- Na koniec tekst odnosi się do wpływu ćwiczeń fi zycznych zy tekstów dostępnej prasy, zwłaszcza wiedeńskiej, Park na rozwój organizmu młodego człowieka. Jordana jawi się jako instytucja, która za życia Henry- Pierwszy z prezentowanych tekstów już w tytu- ka Jordana była jedyna tego typu na naszym kontynen- le podkreśla, że zasadnicza jego część będzie poświęco- cie, a może nawet w świecie. Specjaliści z zakresu higieny na Parkowi Henryka Jordana. Wymienienie go w gronie i kultury fi zycznej przybywali do Krakowa z całej Euro- placów zabaw w Berlinie, Brunszwiku, Bremie, Koblen- py, aby na miejscu zapoznać się z organizacją i funkcjo- cji i Londynie już było dużą nobilitacją. Jednak dokładny nowaniem placówki. Interesował ich przede wszystkim jego opis i poświęcenie mu około 1/3 objętości obszer- aspekt organizacji i prowadzenia wychowania fi zycznego nego tekstu (5 i pół strony maszynopisu) daje obraz, że w Parku. był on z punktu widzenia autora najważniejszą placówką. Najwcześniejsze wzmianki prasy niemieckojęzycz- Następną pozycją o Parku Jordana w prasie niemiec- nej o Parku Jordana odnajdujemy w obszernym arty- kojęzycznej jest artykuł autorstwa Schepsa „Wo wollen kule nieznanego autora zatytułowanym „O dziecięcych unsere Kinder spielen?”, zamieszczony w Wiener Tagblatt placach zabaw i o Parku Henryka Jordana w Krakowie”. 29 maja 1890 roku [Wiener Tagblatt 1890]. Tekst ten od- Został on zamieszczony w wiedeńskim miesięczniku Hu- bił się szerokim echem w prasie polskiej. Krakowski Ku- manität 3 maja 1890 roku w pierwszą rocznicę istnie- rier Polski z 3 czerwca 1890 roku zamieszcza obszerne nia Parku [Humanität 1890]. Periodyk ten zajmował się jego tłumaczenie. Również warszawski Kurier Codzienny promowaniem dzieł społecznych. W pierwszej części ar- z 11 czerwca 1890 roku, nr 159, zapoznał czytelników tykułu autor porusza ogólnie temat związany z organi- z jego treścią. Autor wiedeńskiego artykułu opisuje z za- zacją i funkcjonowaniem placów zabaw dla dzieci [op. chwytem organizację parku dla dzieci, nie wymieniając cit., s. 113–115]. Jako najlepsze przykłady wymienia od razu jego lokalizacji. W pewnym momencie jednak Berlin, Brunszwik, Bremę, Koblencję, Londyn i krótko informuje czytelników, że: „ten znakomity, niezrównany je charakteryzuje. Dalej informuje czytelników, że pięk- park dziecięcy znajduje się… niestety nie w Wiedniu, jest nym i rozległym placem zabaw dla dzieci wykazało się to Park dr Jordana w Krakowie” [op. cit]. I stawia reto- także miasto Kraków [op. cit., s 115–116]. Jest on dzie- ryczne pytanie: „Gdzie nasze dzieci bawić się powinny?” łem przyjaciela dzieci, prof. dr Henryka Jordana, który (stąd tytuł artykułu). Autor zwraca uwagę, że park ten założył park o powierzchni 8 ha i podarował go miastu powinien stanowić wzór do naśladowania dla Wiednia. Kraków. Autor określa, że jest to piękna, celowa i służą- Na koniec stwierdza, że mają Austriacy wszelkie powody, ca zdrowiu instytucja opieki społecznej dla dzieci i że jest by zazdrościć Krakowowi Parku Jordana. chwalony jako dobrodziejstwo dla Krakowa. Następnie Krótki artykuł w podobnym tonie pojawił się przedstawia w punktach skrócony regulamin funkcjono- 4 czerwca 1890 roku w Österreichische Volks-Zeitung za- wania placówki i obowiązki ćwiczących. tytułowany „W trosce o dzieci” [Österreichische Volks-Zei- W dalszej części tekstu chwali szczególny charakter tung 1890]. Tym razem działalność Parku Jordana zosta- ćwiczeń i opisuje dokładnie prowadzone zajęcia. Zwra- je porównana do dwóch towarzystw działających w An- ca w nich uwagę na sekcję młodych dziewczynek w wie- glii „National Health Society” (Narodowe Towarzystwo ku od sześciu do ośmiu lat, które ujeżdżały drewniane- Zdrowia) i „Ladies’ Sanitary Association” (Towarzystwo go konika. Podkreśla, że ten mały konik jest jak dotąd Zdrowia Pań), które postawiły sobie za cel wywieranie jedynym sprowadzonym ze Szwecji do Europy Środko- wpływu na wychowanie fi zyczne dzieci i skierowanie go wej. „Koń ten naśladował dokładnie ruchy galopującego konia i budził ogromną ciekawość ćwiczących” [op. cit., * W Parku Jordana od początku działalności wprowadzono s. 116]. W dalszej części dotyczącej opisu Parku Jordana ćwiczenia wojskowe. Początkowo były one nieobowiązkowe. przedstawia niezwykłe dla niego wydarzenie. Prawdopo- Kiedy jednak okazało się, że cieszą się ogromnym zaintere- sowaniem, zostały wprowadzone na stałe w program parku. dobnie było to zakończenie roku pracy w parku z wystę- Pierwszym oddziałom chłopców biorących w nich udział pami artystycznymi i pokazami gimnastycznymi. Zwień- nadano nazwę „Dzieci Krakowskich”. Oddziały te posiadały czeniem opisywanych uroczystości był pochód młodych mundury w biało-niebieskie barwy i własny sztandar.

118 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Krakowski Park dra Henryka Jordana w relacjach prasy niemieckojęzycznej z lat 1890–1908. Rekonesans badawczy na możliwie najbardziej racjonalne tory. W krótkim do- „Uczniów zaś pogrupował w pułki i te pułki w każdą niesieniu prasowym autor informuje czytelników, że tak- sobotę wykonują w parku ćwiczenia wojskowe zgodnie że Kraków posiada podobną instytucję. Jest ona jedyna z austriackimi przepisami. Widok odbywających się w tę w swoim rodzaju i z trudem można wskazać drugą, któ- sobotę ćwiczeń napawa podniosłymi uczuciami. Z wy- ra by również odpowiadała najwyższym wymogom higie- biciem godziny 6:00 wieczorem zbiera się pierwszy pułk ny, jakie tam są prezentowane. Na koniec wyraża swoje uczniów. «Żołnierze» pojawiają się w prostych, eleganc- ubolewanie, że niestety nie ma takiej placówki w Wied- kich płóciennych garniturach i mają nakrycia głowy z ta- niu. Apeluje również, aby taki wzorowy zakład, jaki jest kiego samego materiału. Zgodnie z praktyką austriackie- w Krakowie, w odpowiednim czasie powstał również go wojska, na komendę Staszczyka, porucznika rezerwy, w Wiedniu. zajmują pozycję przed schronem do czterech potyczek. Już następnego dnia po powyższym artykule, Dyscyplina była bez zarzutu. Gdy każdy oddział zapre- 5 czerwca 1890 roku, gazeta codzienna Wiener Tagespost zentował broń, rozwinięto zgodnie ze zwykłym ceremo- opublikowała relacje przyjaciela gazety z pobytu w Kra- niałem sztandar pułku, a następnie pułk wymaszerował kowie [Wiener Tagespost 1890]. Osoba ta zwiedzała park do wolnego miejsca w parku, gdzie rozpoczęły się ćwi- dla dzieci zaprojektowany przez dra Jordana, stąd tytuł czenia, najpierw w oddziałach, następnie w zamkniętych artykułu „Ogród dla dzieci doktora Jordana”. Opowia- szeregach. Odbywały się one przez ponad dwie godziny da tak o tym zdarzeniu: „Kiedy przekroczyłem bramę w obecności tysięcy ludzi. Popisy były wprost godne po- parku, o którym już zresztą dużo słyszałem i czytałem, dziwu. Dokładne wykonanie wymarszu i zbiórki wzbu- moim oczom ukazał się żywy i barwny obraz” [op. cit.]. dziło najwyższy podziw nawet u zgromadzonych ofi ce- Zastanawiające są te słowa osoby z zagranicy. Jest rok rów zawodowych” [op. cit]. 1890 i park funkcjonuje dopiero rok. Autor doniesienia 25 listopada 1890 roku w niemieckiej gazecie Braun- jednak już o nim dużo słyszał i czytał. Dalej opisuje gru- schweigische Anzeigen ukazał się artykuł „O ocenie gry py ćwiczące, zwracając szczególną uwagę, że wszystkie w piłkę nożną w Brunszwiku” [Braunschweigische Anzei- dzieci były ubrane w piękne i czyste mundurki z płót- gen 1890]. W artykule tym autor prof. dr. Koch przywo- na żaglowego. Głębokie i poruszające wrażenie zrobił na łuje autorytet Henryka Jordana jako człowieka zasłużo- nim widok, który zobaczył w głębi parku. Przed posą- nego i doświadczonego w dziedzinie sportu młodzieżo- giem, przedstawiającym jednego z polskich bohaterów wego, aby ukazać pozytywne strony gry w piłkę nożną. narodowych, stał doktor Jordan otoczony gromadą dzie- My przy okazji dowiadujemy się o przyjeździe Jordana ci, które słuchały z natężoną uwagą jego opowieści o ży- do parku w Brunszwiku*. Według gazety Henryk Jor- ciu i dziełach tego bohatera. Artykuł kończy się pyta- dan przybył tam 1 listopada 1890 roku na boisko do gry niem: „Czy można sobie wyobrazić bardziej praktyczną w piłkę nożną, aby poznać osobiście zasady tej gry. Towa- pedagogikę od tej, którą wprowadził w życie doktor Jor- rzyszył mu Kazimierz Homiński. dan?” [op. cit.] Autor artykułu podkreśla, że chociaż: „nazwisko pro- W następnym miesiącu 8 lipca 1890 roku w Frem- fesora doktora Henryka Jordana z Krakowa tutaj na za- den-Blat ukazał się artykuł „Pułk Dzieci Krakowskich” chodzie ledwie jest znane, to w swojej austriackiej ojczyź- [Fremden-Blat 1890]. Przedstawione były w nim wielkie nie jest on wysoko ceniony i podziwiany z powodu swojej uroczystości w Parku Jordana, których świadkami były ofi arnej i udanej działalności na rzecz promocji sportów osoby informujące o tym wydarzeniu wiedeńską gazetę. młodzieżowych” [op. cit]. W dalszej części tekstu nastę- Nie określają konkretnie, z jakiego powodu miało ono puje opis organizacji i działalności Parku Jordana. We- miejsce, ale według nich stanowiło prawdziwie patrio- dług autora artykułu, wielki sukces, jaki udało się osią- tyczne widowisko [op. cit]. W dalszej części tekstu czy- gnąć Jordanowi, powinien stać się inspiracją i zachętą do tamy, że „wydarzenie to zasługiwało na wielką uwagę, pójścia w jego ślady przez inne regiony Austrii i Niemiec. ponieważ pokazywało, w jakim stopniu Polacy austriac- Jordan udał się do parku w Brunszwiku, ponieważ cy potrafi ą łączyć swoje uczucia narodowe ze szczerą mi- chciał wypełnić jakąś aktywnością fi zyczną boiska w Par- łością i wdzięcznością względem Austrii” [op. cit]. Zna- jąc ideę, która towarzyszyła Henrykowi Jordanowi przy * W Brunszwiku w 1875 roku główny nauczyciel Corvinius podjął próbę urządzenia na wzór angielski świetnie zorgani- zakładaniu parku, nic bardziej mylnego nie można było zowanych placów zabaw. Nie tylko zadbał o to, by miejsce stwierdzić. Podanie również informacji o Polakach au- dla parku było zacienione, wolne od pyłu i przestronne, ale striackich kłóciło się całkowicie z pojęciem narodowej zadbał też o zapewnienie przyrządów gimnastycznych i różno- tożsamości i patriotyzmem wpajanym dzieciom w Par- rodności sportów, których dzieci mogłyby się uczyć: krykiet, ku Jordana. krokiet, piłka nożna i Kaiserball. W wolne od szkoły popołu- Dalsza część artykułu poświęcona została historii po- dnia zajęcia były obowiązkowe. Sekcja sportowa była ciągle tak oblegana, że pilnująca dzieci obsada nauczycielska musiała wstania parku i jego organizacji. Następnie przedstawio- być z roku na rok powiększana. Z tego też powodu często no bardzo dokładny opis Pułku „Dzieci Krakowskich” odwiedzano tę placówkę – jako wzorową pod względem pro- założonego przez Henryk Jordana: wadzenia wychowania fi zycznego.

nr 16  2014 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES 119 Małgorzata Jacko

ku Jordana, w czasie kiedy zaczyna się okres zimowy. pagandy inteligencji polskiej można w Krakowie” [op. Oprócz Brunszwiku zwiedzał w tym celu również boiska cit]. Stolper stawia dalej tezę, że właśnie z tej sfery my- w Berlinie i Görlitz. Jordan był zachwycony grą. Razem śli wzięła swój początek idea Parku Jordana. W dalszej z Homińskim chwilę pograł z gimnazjalistami i zauważył, części tekstu przedstawia krótki życiorys Henryka Jorda- że to wspaniała gra. Na koniec stwierdził: „Zobaczyłem na, niestety zawierający liczne błędne informacje. Oka- i dowiedziałem się dokładnie tego, co mi odpowiada i co zuje się, że autor artykułu osobiście odwiedził Park Jor- jest mi potrzebne do moich celów”[op. cit]. dana, aby zapoznać się z jego działalnością. Oprowadzał Podziw Jordana wzbudziła nie tylko gra – piłka noż- go po Parku sam Henryk Jordan. Stolper tak to wspomi- na, ale również sami zawodnicy. Ucieszył się na widok sil- na: „Z uzasadnioną dumą pokazał mi swoje dzieło twór- nych i zwinnych postaci, podkreślając, że w jego ojczyź- ca tego już wspaniale rozbudowanego placu zabaw, który nie młodzież nie jest aż tak rozwinięta. Henryk Jordan na zwraca uwagę swoim malowniczym położeniem i który koniec swojej wizyty zwrócił się do osób przyjmujących jako młodzieżowe centrum sportu raczej nie ma odpo- go w Brunszwiku, że zazdrości im takiej młodzieży. wiedników na kontynencie” [op. cit]. Artykuł w prasie niemieckiej to kolejny dowód na to, Po raz kolejny zostaje Park Jordana doceniony jako jak wielką troską otaczał Jordan polską młodzież. Wła- jedyna tego typu placówka w Europie. Zwiedzając dalej śnie z tego powodu były te jego wizyty zagraniczne. Szu- park, informuje Stolper, że każdy, kto przychodzi tu po kał ciągle nowych rozwiązań dla lepszego funkcjonowa- raz pierwszy, otrzymuje mały zadrukowany zeszycik, któ- nia jego parku. Przywieziona z Brunszwiku gra w piłkę ry pozwala zlokalizować miejsca przeznaczone na zabawę nożną okazała się strzałem w dziesiątkę. I dlatego warto i który zawiera informacje o historii wielu wybitnych Po- po raz kolejny podkreślić, że to właśnie Henryk Jordan laków, których popiersia ustawione są w parku. W dalszej przywiózł pierwszą piłkę nożną na ziemie polskie i uczył części artykułu następuje dokładny opis działalności par- zasad tej gry. ku. Autor wspomina również, że: „w zimie Jordan wyna- Poruszał już te kwestie w 1990 roku Ryszard Wasztyl jął staw, gdzie młodzież, ale tylko ta wywodząca się z klas w artykułach dotyczących początków piłki nożnej w Pol- pracujących, po południu od godziny 2 do 4 za darmo sce [Wasztyl 1990a, s. 79–82; Wasztyl 1990b, s. 87–88]. dostaje do dyspozycji łyżwy, przy założeniu, że wcześniej Wyraźnie podkreślił w nich, że „pod koniec 1890 roku pojawią się w kościele Pijarów o godzinie 9 na mszy świę- w programie zajęć w Parku dra Jordana pojawiła się po raz tej”. Po oddaniu na miejsce i uporządkowaniu łyżew ma- pierwszy na ziemiach polskich – piłka nożna” [Wasztyl szerują czwórkami ze ślizgawki do miasta z pieśnią na 1990a, s. 80]. Podał również informację, że „w niedzielne ustach, o ile pogoda na to pozwoli” [op. cit]. popołudnie 30 sierpnia 1891 roku odbył się w parku dra Największe wrażenie na Stolperze wywarła postać za- Jordana w Krakowie pierwszy na ziemiach polskich ofi - łożyciela Parku. Pisze, że nie zapomni nigdy tej chwili, cjalny pokaz gry w piłkę nożną z udziałem publiczności” kiedy Henryk Jordan zwrócił się do niego na koniec jego [Wasztyl 1990b, s. 88]. wizyty: „Zatem teraz zobaczy Pan moją polską młodzież Sam Jordan nawiązał do wizyty w Brunszwiku przy wracającą z placów zabaw. Odezwał się dzwon i po kilku okazji odczytu „O zabawach młodzieży” [Jordan 1891, minutach przymaszerowały pierwsze grupy prowadzone s. 12]. Wspomina, że chociaż dni były bardzo chłodne, przez studentów. Z chłopięcych gardeł rozbrzmiewała ra- młodzież gimnazjalna zdjęła surduty i kamizelki i grała dośnie i wesoło melodia marszowa pieśni patriotycznej, kilka godzin, jak gdyby to był sierpień, a nie listopad. dziarskim krokiem przyszli pogodni chłopcy, zatrzymali On natomiast z Kazimierzem Homińskim, chociaż cie- się na komendę, poszli później dalej po wysokich scho- pło ubrani, czuli dotkliwy chłód [op. cit]. dach budynku, żywiołowo przekrzykując się nawzajem, Artykuł w niemieckiej gazecie Braunschweigische An- i wkrótce, o ile nie szli do kąpieli, wracali czym prędzej zeigen nie tylko dokumentuje faktycznie wizytę Henry- ze swoją odzieżą wierzchnią. Wreszcie wyruszali z pieśnią ka Jordana wraz z Kazimierzem Homińskim, ale również na ustach w porządku wojskowym z ogrodu, przez most, jest cenny z tego powodu, że określa jego dzieło w postaci do miasta. Za nimi wieczorne słońce sączyło swoją złotą parku jako wielki sukces. poświatę na Kopiec Kościuszki; z pieśni młodych Pola- Następny artykuł „Park Jordana w Krakowie” au- ków brzmiała ufna nadzieja, że następnego ranka w jesz- torstwa P. Stolpera, zamieszczony w Schlesische Zeitung, cze rozgrzanym świetle słońce musi napełnić swoim bla- nr 151 [1903], podawany jest w bibliografi i opracowań skiem wolną i wielką Polskę” [op. cit]. dotyczących Henryka Jordana, lecz nie spotyka się ni- Obraz ten, który opisał dziennikarz, miał Niemcom gdzie informacji, co w nim jest zawarte. O doniosłości uświadomić, jak wielkim zagrożeniem może być taka jego może świadczyć fakt, że artykuł ukazał się na pierw- działalność. Niemcy szanowali dorobek artystyczny wie- szej stronie i zajmował prawie 3 szpalty tekstu. Rozpo- lu znamienitych Polaków (kompozytorów, malarzy, po- czynał się od informacji na temat politycznych planów etów). Stolper przez swój artykuł pragnął im uświado- dotyczących odzyskania przez Polskę niepodległości. We- mić, że Polacy uczą się również organizacji. „Park Jorda- dług autora artykułu: „najłatwiej poczuć bicie serca pro- na i jego szerokie oddziaływanie pokazuje zaś, jak żadna

120 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 Krakowski Park dra Henryka Jordana w relacjach prasy niemieckojęzycznej z lat 1890–1908. Rekonesans badawczy inna polska inicjatywa narodowa w pruskiej części starej Bibliografi a Polski, że nauczono się tutaj także organizacji” [op. cit]. Wskazywał, jak niebezpieczne okazują się wyciecz- Źródła archiwalne ki Polaków z Górnego Śląska do Krakowa, gdzie według Archiwum Biblioteki Głównej Akademii Wychowania Fizycz- niego Polacy nabierają zapału do działalności propagan- nego w Poznaniu. Wielkopolska Biblioteka Cyfrowa. dowej. Na koniec odnosi się do sytuacji młodzieży nie- http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/publication/45437 mieckiej i apeluje o wspieranie działań na rzecz wzmoc- Humanität, „Ueber Kindersplatze und den Prof. Dr Heirich Jordan’schen Kinderpark in Krakau”, Wien 3 Mai 1890, nienia jej poczucia narodowego, jak i wysiłków na rzecz s. 113–119. jej zdrowia. Artykuł ten, oprócz zachwytu nad pomysłem Wiener Tagblatt, „Wo sollen unsere Kinder spielen”, Wien i organizacją Parku Jordana, pokazuje Park jako realne 29 Mai 1890, s. 6. zagrożenie dla Niemców i przestrzega ich przed tego typu Österreichische Volks-Zeitung, „Zur Kinderpfl ege”, nr 152, działalnością na ziemiach polskich. 4 Juni 1890, s. 4. Po śmierci Henryka Jordana ukazały się krótkie Wiener Tagespost, „Dr Jordan’s Kindergarten”, Wien 5 Juni wzmianki w prasie wiedeńskiej z najważniejszymi in- 1890, s. 6. formacjami biografi cznymi na temat zmarłego. Pisano Fremden – Blatt, „Das Krakauer Kinder-Regiment”, nr 186, Wien, 8 Juli 1890, s. 2. między innymi w: Das interessante Blatt, „Krakauer Uni- Koch, Brauschweigiche Anziegen, „Zur Beurtheiung des Fuss- versitatsprofesor gestorben“, nr 23, Wien, 6 Juni 1907 ball-Spiels in Braunschweig”, Braunschweig 25 November [Das interessante Blatt 1907], Die Zeit, nr 1670, Wien 1890. http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/publication/45436 1907 [Die Zeit 1907], Neues Wiener Tagblatt, nr 136, Die Zeit, nr 1670, Wien 1907. Wien 1907 [Neues Wiener Tagblatt 1907], Wiener Zei- Neues Wiener Tagblatt, nr 136, Wien 1907. tung, nr 115, Wien 1907 [Wiener Zeitung 1907]. Wiener Zeitung, nr 115, Wien 1907. W 1908 roku pojawił się tekst „Troska o kulturę fi - http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/publication/45430 zyczną w Parku Jordana w Krakowie” prof. Maxa Gutt- Guttmann M., Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspfl ege, „Die Pfl e- manna z Wiednia [Guttmann 1908]. Był to przedruk ge der Korperkultur im Jordanpark zu Krakau”, 1908, s. 1–13. z Zeitschrift für Schulgesundheitspfl ege, rocznik XXI. Wy- dało go wydawnictwo Leopold Voss z Hamburga. Arty- Archiwum Biblioteki Uniwersyteckiej we Wrocławiu kuł ten z racji swojej obszerności (13 stron) będzie stano- Stolper P., Schlesische Zeitung, „Der Jordanpark in Krakau”, wił w najbliższym czasie kanwę odrębnej publikacji. nr 151, Breslau, Sonntag, den 1. März 1903, sygn. GSL- Przedstawione artykuły w prasie niemieckojęzycznej PP31292IV, sygn. mikrofi lmu: Mf 5673. dowodzą, że fenomen dra Jordana miał wymiar nie tyl- ko krajowy, ale i europejski. Wizyty gości zagranicznych Archiwum Austriackiej Narodowej Biblioteki w Wiedniu w parku świadczą, że placówka ta cieszyła dużą popularno- Das interessante Blatt, „Krakauer Universitatsprofesor gestor- ścią. Można wręcz mówić o pewnej modzie pisania o par- ben”, nr 23, Wien, 6 Juni 1907. ku. Przemawiają za tym aż cztery artykuły, które pojawiły Opracowania się krótko po sobie w 1890 roku w prasie wiedeńskiej. Nie Bukowiec M. (red.) [2007] Henryk Jordan. Humanistyczne brakuje w prasie również wątków szowinistycznych, któ- wyzwa nie naszych czasów, Studia i Monografi e, nr 47, re się pojawiały między innymi w artykule „Park Jordana Kraków: AWF. w Krakowie” autorstwa P. Stolpera zamieszczony w Schlesi- Filiński B. [1891] Park dra Jordana i kilka uwag o wychowaniu, sche Zeitung. Jak również w artykule „Pułk Dzieci Krakow- Kraków. skich” gazety Fremden-Blat. Jordan H. [1891] O zabawach młodzieży. Przewodnik Higie- Wszystkie wymienione artykuły podkreślają wielkie niczny, nr 2. Miejski Park dra Jordana w Krakowie. Nakładem dra H. Jor- zasługi Henryka Jordana w tworzeniu i działalności Par- dana, Kraków 1894. ku. Autorzy niejednokrotnie wyrażają żal, że dzieło to nie Smarzyński H. [1958] Dr Henryk Jordan, pionier nowoczesnego powstało w ich ojczyźnie. Artykuły te miały mobilizować wychowania fi zycznego w Polsce. ówczesne władze cywilne i społeczeństwo do tworzenia na Wasztyl R. [1990] Początki piłki nożnej i sportu szkolnego ten wzór parków gier i zabaw dla dzieci. w Polsce. Wychowanie Fizyczne i Sport, nr 2, s 77–92. Uzupełnienie badań z zakresu wkładu Henryka Jor- Wasztyl R. [1990] Związek Polski Piłki Nożnej w latach 1912– dana w europejską kulturę fi zyczną staje się więc naglącą 1920. Rocznik Naukowy, t. XXIV, s. 86–103. potrzebą. Zwłaszcza w kontekście naszego członkowstwa Wasztyl R. [1993] Wychowanie fi zyczne i sport w Krakowie w la- w Unii Europejskiej, bo można wykazać nasz konkretny tach 1773–1890, Kraków, s. 188–192. udział w budowaniu jej historii i kultury.

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122 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES nr 16  2014 INFORMATION

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Małgorzata Bednarczyk Lozan Mitev Michał Bronikowski Jerzy Nowocień Miroslav Bobrik Katarzyna Płoszaj Joanna Cewińska Luis Fernando Paulino Ribeiro Marcin Czechowski Otto Schantz Janusz Czerwiński Małgorzata Siekańska Kazimierz Doktór Joanna Słysz Wiesław Firek Aleksandra Tokarz Kostas Georgiadis Joanna Torowska Cecilia Gevat Halina Sekuła-Kwaśniewicz Carlos Pedro Goncalves Mary O’Sullivan Monika Guszkowska Stephan Wassong Jarosław Herbert Katarzyna Wrońska Tomasz Jurek Stanisław Zaborniak Ewa Kałamacka Małgorzata Żemojtel-Piotrowska Tadeusz Koszczyc Ryszard Żukowski Eligiusz Madejski Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego im. Bronisława Czecha w Krakowie University of Physical Education in Kraków, Poland Studies TDE NSOTHMNTE 15 STUDIES IN SPORT HUMANITIES in Sport Humanities 15

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