Is Also Among the ?

by Harley Talman

he had anointed Saul as king and predicted that the Spirit of the Lord would come upon him with power so that he would prophesy and be changed into a different person (1 Sam 10:6).T And thus it happened that “God changed Saul’s heart, and all these signs were fulfilled that day” and he prophesied (10:9,11). This was the last thing that people expected to happen to the “son of Kish.” As a result, “Is Saul also among the prophets?” became a proverb in Israel.1 The same Spirit later empowered him to defeat the Ammonites in battle (11:6).

Yet this same Saul disobeyed God’s word and failed in his kingly office. It seems incredible that one endowed with the Spirit of God could act so con- trary to his will. God eventually rejected him as king, and withdrew his Spirit from him (16:1, 14). Saul persecuted and repeatedly sought to kill him. The way that Saul’s life finished is so tragic that it dominates our memory of him; we forget that he had once been “among the prophets.”

However, in recent years some biblical scholars have sought to restore bal- ance to our corporate memory of Saul. Seeking to rehabilitate his image, Ron finds that despite his failings, Saul could also be “kind, thought- ful, generous, courageous, very much in control, and willing to obey God.”2

Is it advisable that consider undertaking a similar project with the prophet of ? Can the malevolent image of Muhammad in our minds possibly be “rehabilitated”? As surprising as the idea may be, it is worth con- Harley Talman has worked with templating, since one of the most delicate issues we face in seeking construc- for 30 years, including two decades in the Arab world and Africa, tive dialogue with Muslims is our response to the question: “Is Muhammad during which he was involved in also among the prophets?” church planting, theological education, and humanitarian aid. Talman holds This question has also become a very controversial issue within the body of a ThM from Dallas Seminary and a . Disciples of have strong feelings and hold diverse and contrary PhD from Fuller. He presently teaches Islamic studies. convictions about their answer. While the majority of Christians would answer

International Journal of Frontier 31:4 Winter 2014•169 170 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets?

“absolutely not,” some are more tenta- may seem to be a rather ridiculous explain the meaning of some baffling tive or affirming. Many Muslim follow- question: “Which ‘Muhammad’ are Qur’anic phrases. (In contrast, these ers of Christ would answer in the nega- we talking about?” This is actually an Qur’anic phrases make much better tive, but others may continue to affirm important issue. It emerges from the sense if they are read in light of the both halves of the Islamic shahadah: difficulty of ascertaining the actual biblical accounts). Second, there was “There is no god but God and Muham- details of Muhammad’s life due to the the need for guidance in matters not mad is the rasul (messenger) of God”— extreme lack of personal information addressed in the Qur’an which was albeit with a wide range of meanings.3 about him in the Qur’an. Consequent- supplied through the example (sunnah) Many Christians are strongly opposed ly, among scholars Muhammad has at of Muhammad’s life. Furthermore, to any such practice. Perhaps it would least four different identities. being disadvantaged in their debates be beneficial to reconsider this topic. a. Muhammad according to Islamic with Christians, Muslims felt duty The complexity of this matter requires tradition bound to magnify Muhammad’s per- a lengthy treatment. This article will sonage in order to compete with the The Qur’an and the diverse collections biblical prophets and Jesus.5 Andrew focus on a reconsideration of four of the provide the basis for the issues: our understanding of Muham- Rippin adds that this creative story- Muhammad of Islamic tradition. This is telling happened at a time when “the mad and Islam, our theology of revela- the Muhammad that is most popularly tion, the criteria for prophethood, and manifestation of the raconteur’s ability known. However, the foundation for the possibilities for a positive prophetic to elaborate, entertain and enhance popular Muhammad is questionable. 6 role for Muhammad. were highly praised merits.” b. Muhammad of the Qur’an as I. Muhammad and Islam interpreted by Muslim tradition Reconsidered The Muhammad of the Qur’an is Several years ago, I had a conversation Some Muslim somewhat obscure. This is because with an Islamics professor. I told her scholars admit that a many verses in the Qur’an lack suf- of my difficult journey in seeking to ficient context to clarify their mean- understand and assess Muhammad, portion of the words ing. Due to this, there are those who accurately, fairly, and biblically. She and actions attributed interpret the Qur’anic data through a confessed that none of the great Islam- lens shaped by the highly questionable icists knew quite “where to land” with to Muhammad were Islamic traditions. These traditions por- respect to Muhammad. Thus, I was not tray the prophet of Islam as condemn- alone in this journey. I hope that after fabricated. ing of and hostile to Jews, Christians, reading this article others will appreci- the , and Christian doctrine.7 ate the reasons why this challenge has been so perplexing for so many. Some Muslim scholars admit that a c. Muhammad of the Qur’anists Part of the problem lies in the binary portion of the purported words and Scholars, Muslim and Christian, who categories of prophethood that have actions attributed to Muhammad in rely primarily on the internal evidence various hadith were fabricated, e.g., his of the text of the Qur’an are cautious been used in relation to Muhammad. 8 I hope that this article will serve to doing identical to those per- in their acceptance of other sources. broaden our base of theological, his- formed by Jesus—especially since the They view the Qur’an as a much more torical and missiological understand- Qur’an indicates that Muhammad did reliable historical source than Islamic ings of prophethood in general and of not perform miracles (cf. 2:118, 30:58). tradition, but it is difficult to ascertain the person of Muhammad in particu- In addition, many of his biographical therein much personal information lar. While I do not expect immediate accounts (sira) were created long after about Muhammad apart from his his death and are of dubious reli- message. With this limitation, it is acceptance of my proposals, this study 4 may enable readers to identify and ability. Critical scholars believe that argued that the Qur’an affirms and question assumptions that underlie a significant portion of the sira were authenticates the Jewish and Chris- their convictions, stimulating renewed fabricated to serve several purposes. tian Scriptures. Thus, many Qur’anists reflection and discussion. The first was the need to provide maintain that Muhammad’s message context to aid in the interpretation should be interpreted in harmony Recognition of the Right Muhammad of the Qur’anic revelations. Muslims with the previous Scriptures which it Before beginning our quest to as- far removed from the original context claimed to confirm, rather than rely on sess Muhammad we must ask what generated these stories in order to later traditions that contradict them.9

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 171 d. Muhammad of the revisionist historians Applying higher critical methods to uch a fundamental “fact” in Islamic history as the study of Islam, revisionist scholars the location of “” could have been created may reject almost anything attributed to or about Muhammad, including Sby Muslim revisionist historians. the Qur’an, unless it is corroborated What one finds is that when this is from personal faith in Christ. Second, 10 by non-Islamic sources. While many done, our view of Muhammad and Is- the Islamic traditions have not func- theories of the most radical revisionists lam is significantly altered, along with tioned, either historically or widely, are not widely accepted, their research our view of Muhammad in relation to as a preparation for the for the does discredit the traditional and popu- redemptive history. Muslim community.14 However, the lar narrative at a number of points. Qur’an’s testimony about Jesus has The sub-sections which follow reflect In the old TV show, “To Tell the more recently facilitated a number of on various Christian views of Islam, a Muslims in embarking on a journey Truth,” after panel members tried to revised history of Muhammad and the identify the described contestant from that led them to encountering him movement he founded, and a theologi- as savior.15 Nonetheless, historically among imposters, the actual person cal reassessment of the prophet of Islam, was asked to stand up. Similarly, it seems that military, political, and all based on a potentially more objective theological Christian-Muslim conflicts we would like to ask: “Will the real portrayal of his character and actions. Muhammad please stand up?” Unfor- rendered Islam more of an obstruction tunately, the real Muhammad is not Disparate Perceptions of Islam to the gospel than a preparation for it. It could be that the theological conflict among us to reveal himself. But the Muhammad is regarded as the founder has largely been the result of cultural identity which one selects from the of the religion of Islam. Since our conflict—similar to the dynamics above will also greatly judgment of his possible prophethood in the culturally-rooted theological influence one’s view of Islam. will be in large measure determined conflict between Jewish and Gentile by our assessment of Islam, we need Revelation of the Original Islam in the book of Acts. The to consider the origins, history, and late Ralph D. Winter saw early Islam Much of what is considered today as nature of Islam and his relationship to as a contextualization of the biblical representing “orthodox” Islam likely it. Kate Zebiri notes the varied ways faith for those who rejected the represents an understanding that that Christians have looked at Islam.12 developed two or three centuries after alien and unbiblical character of Ara- These include: 16 bian Judaism and Christianity. Muhammad. The most widely accept- as a Christian heresy; as a harbinger of ed version of Muhammad, based upon the end of the world; as diabolical; as Many Eastern Christians gave thanks Islamic tradition, is dubious. a natural or man-made religion; as a to God for the ascendancy of the Arabs, For example, Dan Gibson presents punishment of Christian infidelity . . . ; hailing their armies as liberators from as a praeparatio evangelica (prepara- massive and multiple streams of evi- their Byzantine oppressors. Other con- tion for the gospel); or as an indepen- dence for the astonishing yet compel- quered Christians saw Islam primarily dent way of salvation. On the other as a punishment on Christianity for ling proposal that the first holy city of hand, many Christians, particularly in Islam was Petra, not Mecca.11 If such a their sins and disunity. They expected the modern period, have been hesi- that after they repented, God would fundamental historical “fact” in Islamic tant to categorize Islam in such ways, remove the Muslims, but this never ma- history as the location of “Mecca” could either because this would be specula- terialized. Other Christians (particularly have been created by Muslim revision- tion on matters which can be known 17 ist historians, then how much can we only to God, or because they do not Byzantines) who lost opportunity, sta- trust their accounts of other matters? see Islam as a reified or monolithic en- tus, political power, or territory spoke of Muhammad and Muslims in very pejo- Therefore, there is good reason to be tity but rather in more fluid and un- rative terms.18 As Islam evolved into a skeptical about many aspects of Mu- defined terms which would preclude 13 distinct religion, and became a competi- hammad’s life as well as the emergence making such generalizations. tor to Christianity, Muslim-Christian and expansion of Islam as set forth in An in-depth evaluation of each of relations further degenerated. During Islamic traditions (their authority with these perceptions of Islam is not pos- the Crusades animosity increased on Muslims notwithstanding). Thus, we sible here. However, a few comments both sides and Islamic theology turned are compelled to evaluate the histori- are in order. ever more hostile toward Christianity.19 cal narrative these traditions present in light of non-Muslim historical docu- First, I do not view any kind of Islam Norman ’s extensive study ments and archaeological evidence. as an alternative way of salvation apart of Islam in the 12th–14th centuries

31:4 Winter 2014 172 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? portrays the nearly universal negative after him forever…. But now you are do not seem to have been repugnant to the sons of and God is ac- picture of Islam in the West.20 Europe- many Christians of that period—un- complishing his promise to Abraham ans often viewed Islam as the work of like the situation that developed a 21 and his seed for you. Love sincerely 29 the devil or Antichrist. This diabolic only the God of Abraham, and go century later. It appears that many view of Islam still prevails in the West, and seize the land which God gave to local Christian communities did not as well as among national Christians in your father Abraham.”25 oppose the movement—in contrast to the Middle East. I, too, held this view the Byzantine Christians. in the past. Sebeos also has Muhammad in alli- ance with the Jews and notes that the Significant external evidence from However, there are good reasons to Muslim movement’s first governor of archeology supports the ecumeni- challenge this pejorative view, as some was a Jew.26 cal character of the Believers move- reputable Christian scholars have been ment. For example, a coin found in doing. The critical question is: Does In addition, some reject the historical dated in the 640s or 650s is our present perception of Islam accurately narrative proposed by Islamic tradi- inscribed with “Muhammad” and a represent what Islam was in the time of tion based on internal evidence of the person holding a cross.30 Similar coins Muhammad and what he intended his Qur’an. They argue that Muhammad were minted by Muslim caliphs for up movement to be? began his mission as an ecumenical to a century. However, the Christian movement of monotheist “Believers” symbols were removed during the Divergent Histories of Muhammad and that included numbers of Jews and Umayyad era.31 All inscriptions, coins Muslims Christians. Its focus was on devotion and papyri with the shahāda until Abdul-Haqq puts Muhammad in the 685 contain only the phrase “There tradition of the ḥunafā’ (plural of ḥanīf ): is no god, but God” with no mention Pre-Islamic “Hunafa” God-fearers were of Muhammad. This would not have pagan Arabs who had been exposed Inscriptions hindered Jews, Christians or other to Jewish and Christian monotheism. monotheists from joining the ranks They claimed that their monotheistic contain only the phrase of the Believers.32 The absence of tradition dated back to the Friend of “There is no god, archaeological evidence of widespread God, Abraham. It was handed down violence and destruction of churches by those spiritually alive during the but God” with no and towns in Syria-Palestine further pre-Islamic history of Arabia. Accord- supports the ecumenical character of ing to the Koran, the prophet Muham- mention of 33 Muhammad’s movement. mad came only as a reformer and a warner to pagan Arabs,22 calling them Muhammad. Non-Muslim historical documents in back to Abrahamic monotheism.23 the formative period also point toward this . In Egypt during Support for Abdul-Haqq’s view is (esp. prayer and almsgiving) and the the early period of Islam, the Arabic found in the Armenian “Chronicle practice of righteousness and good papyri make no mention of “Muslims,” of Sebeos,” a very early (7th century) deeds in preparation for the Day of but instead we only find the terms record of how non-Muslims perceived 27 Judgment. Immeasurably more suc- “believers” (mu’minûn) and “emigrants” Muhammad and his mission among 34 cessful than Jerry Falwell’s ambitions (muhajirûn). Syrian Christians saw the sons of :24 for the Moral Majority, Muhammad the movement as linked to descen- [Muhammad] as if by God’s com- mobilized what we might call the dants of Abraham and Hagar through mand appeared to them as a preach- Monotheistic Moral Majority, a move- Ishmael who confessed one God. er [and] the path of truth. He taught ment that respected and incorporated them to recognize the God of Abra- Little more than a decade after the Jews and Christians for two to three ham, especially because he was learnt death of Muhammad, a document and informed in the history of . generations after his death. Fred Don- (dated 644 ad) written by Syrian Now because the command was ner concludes that this “confessionally Christians describes a religious discus- from on high, at a single order they open” ecumenical movement was “in sion between the emir of the “im- all came together in unity of religion. no way antithetical to the beliefs and migrants” (the Arab conquerors) and Abandoning their vain cults, they practices of some Christians and Jews.” the Syrian , John of Sedreh. turned to the living God who had They could belong not only because of It noted that the immigrants accepted appeared to their father Abraham.… their religious identities but because the , like Jews and , 28 He said: “With an oath God promised they were “inclined to righteousness.” and described how Jewish scholars this land to Abraham and his seed The movement’s theological teachings with the emir examined the Christians’

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 173 quotations from the Scriptures. Much of their discussion was about the vidence indicates that Christians who first Scriptures; yet, there was no reference encountered Islam regarded it as an alternative to the Qur’an (perhaps indicating that it was not yet circulating) and there EChristology, and only later as a Christian heresy. was no mention of a new religion. The 40 was transmitted until Muhammad 35 movement, began to be redefined term “Islam” was never used. to exclude Jews and Christians and encountered and embraced it. The Syriac Christian sources viewed the morph into a distinct religion—one cultural compatibility and appeal of conquest as an ethnic (Arab) ascen- that over the centuries grew increas- this type of Christology would seem 41 dency more than a sectarian religious ingly negative toward Christianity. to have allowed this to happen quite 47 36 naturally. Such a Christology would one. John of Phenek (d. 690s), a During the Crusades and reconquest Nestorian Christian observed, “Among not have compromised the Abrahamic of Spain, mutual hostility increased monotheism of the ḥunafā’, as did the them [the Arabs] there are many markedly (as seen in the change from Christians, some of whom are from aberrant Christologies of the Christians a Muslim understanding of tāhrīf as the heretics, others from us.” that Muhammad refuted in the Qur’an. the Jewish/Christian distortion of the Syriac writers referred to their leaders in meaning of Scripture to the corruption W. Cantwell Smith also questions secular and political terms, not by reli- of the actual text of the Scriptures).42 the notion that Islam was originally 48 gious titles. Muhammad was called “the a separate religion. The early con- Reassessment of Muhammad’s sideration of Islam as a Christian first king of the immigrants,” and oc- Theology casionally called “the Guide,” “Teacher,” heresy, along with the many theo- “Leader” or “Great Ruler.”37 A letter (c. In light of the above considerations, logical divisions in the Middle Ages, 647) from Isho’yahb III, the Nestorian many Christian scholars are reassess- and the Muslim veneration of Jesus, patriarch in Iraq, states that they ing their position on Muhammad, compel Smith to believe that conver- not only do not fight Christianity, they acknowledging him as an important sion from Christianity to Islam may even commend our religion, show religious leader whose prophetic mes- then have been regarded as merely a honor to the priests and monasteries sage contains much that the Bible change to another theological posi- and of our Lord, and make gifts affirms—even if Islam eventually tion.49 This harmonizes with the view to the monasteries and churches.38 became more hostile to Christianity.43 of scholars who contend that Qur’anic verses allegedly critical of Christianity It appears that two civil wars over It is significant that during the first are best understood as challenging or political leadership created and inten- century Christians did not seem to correcting unorthodox Christianities sified divisions between the Believ- think of Muhammad as a false prophet. or disputed Christologies.50 Reliable ers. The companions of the prophet The evidence indicates that Christians historical and textual evidence sup- disappeared from the scene and with who first encountered Islam regarded it ports this understanding. them the last vestiges of the prophet’s as an alternative Christology, and only charisma and eschatological motiva- later as a Christian heresy. Therefore, It is also significant that for more than tion. Donner observes, it likely had more commonality with a century orthodox churchmen re- The conquests by now apparently had Christianity than is recognized today. ferred to Muhammad’s followers using become less a matter of the personal Recent studies demonstrate that the the same terminology as they did of zeal of individual Believers driven by Meccan can fit into a context of other branches of ancient Christianity. vision of an impending Last Judgment conflicting Christianities, not the pur- This indicates that they viewed Islam and more a lucrative form of state ported pagan context of Muslim tradi- as an alternative Christology, not as policy intended to keep revenues and 44 a different religion. C. Jonn Block plunder flowing into the treasury.39 tion. There is also much to be said in favor of considering the original Islam concludes that they even recognized a distinction between the After the Second Civil War (680- as a Jewish heresy because of its many parallels. Even more fruitful may be teachings of Muhammad and the be- 692), ‘Abd al-Malik sought to restore haviors of his followers to the degree Umayyid political rule by appealing the suggestion of its links with Jewish 45 that Muhammad himself may have to religious authority and designated Christianity. Azzi, a Lebanese been considered a prophet from a himself as Muhammad’s successor. Christian, argues from Islamic sources Christian perspective (Hence, the first attested documentary that Muhammad’s mentor, Waraqa use of khalifa/caliph occurs in this pe- ibn Nawful, was an Ebionite Christian (as we shall see in the testimony of riod). For reasons that are not entirely priest.46 Several German scholars think Timothy I).51 Block asserts: (1) Surahs clear, “Islam,” the inclusive Believers that a Jewish Christian Christology 4:171 and 5:173 are not a rejection of

31:4 Winter 2014 174 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? the Trinity but a tri-theism as promot- utterances in the older revelations To explore the possibility of ascribing make . . . the cogent imperatives . . . ed by John Philoponus (pp. 44-52); (2) a legitimate prophetic role for Mu- the self-denunciation . . . along with 19:35 corrects the adoptionism hammad requires a theological discus- the fact that he unselfishly endured sion about revelation, types of proph- of the Nestorians; (3) Surah 5:116 con- years of hostility and humiliation in demns Mariolatry; (4) the rejection of Mecca in the unshakable conviction ecy, and the impartation process of the Jesus as “son of God” in Surah 2:116- of his lofty task. It is more difficult Qur’an. This I will proceed to do. I will 117 pertains to Christian corruption with the later Madinese revelations, subsequently propose a set of criteria, of an apocryphal 4 Ezra text; and (5) in which it is often only too easy to both invalid and proper, for evaluating Muhammad defended the Christianity detect the human associations, to a prophet. Finally, I will reconsider the 52 of his in-law, Waraqa ibn Nawful. avoid the supposition that his par- possibility of viewing Muhammad as oxysms . . . could sometimes be artifi- a prophet. This more positive attitude toward Mu- cially brought on, and there is even hammad, his message and his mission a tradition which makes ‘A’isha say II. Theology of Revelation is not a new innovation, but rather a re- to the Prophet: “Thy Lord seems to Reconsidered turn to the trend of the earliest period have been very quick in fulfilling thy of Christian-Muslim encounter. After prayers.” It must not be forgotten In this section I look at the possibility a millennium of spiteful scholarship, however that natures like this, with- of special revelation in the present (or most Christians unfortunately assume out actually being conscious of it, are church) age, the nature, kinds and recip- that their forebears always regarded able to provoke the same states of ients of post-canonical and present-day Muhammad as a false prophet.53 prophecy, the power of general revela- Rehabilitation of Muhammad tion as an impetus to prophecy, and finally the source, character, manner, and Biblical scholars have sought to make process by which the Qur’an was given. a more accurate and balanced as- sessment of Saul’s life and character. Most Christians Special Revelation in the Present Should a similar effort be conducted unfortunately assume I fully affirm the traditional theologi- with the prophet of Islam? cal distinction between general and that their forebears special revelation; yet, I suggest that To begin with, available information we reassess some of our assumptions. from Islamic sources on Muham- always regarded­ mad’s early life portrays him as a Muhammad as a false Christopher Little defines special sincere seeker of truth and of honor- revelation as able character, a picture that has not prophet. God’s communication of himself at been appreciated by Christians and specific times in specific ways with spe- Western societies. These tend to have cific truths in order to reconcile specific individuals and communities to himself. belabored his moral failures. Recog- excitation which earlier arose with- nizing this, Montgomery Watt states, out their assistance; and so probably It is also redemptive (aimed at rec- “Of all the world’s great men none not only were his followers in Ma- onciling humanity to God), personal, has been so maligned as Muhammad.” dina . . . but he himself was convinced, progressive, and propositional (com- He mitigates most of Muhammad’s that the spirit was continually hover- municating knowledge essential for alleged moral failures by pointing out ing about him to communicate the belief and adherence in order to have a that they were largely for the sake revelations to him. By this we do not 56 of strengthening Islam’s position or of course mean that in his ecstatic right relationship with God. Scrip- departing from tribal tradition and condition he received the divine com- tural modalities (or means) of special were not serious departures from the munications in extenso, as we now revelation include the casting of lots, standards of his time.54 have them in the Kur’an; only the the urim and thummin, dreams, vi- foundations were given him, which he sions, theophanies, , the proph- 57 F. Buhl views Muhammad’s character afterwards developed into discourse ets, Jesus Christ and the Bible. After in a positive manner in light of his of greater lengths. Since in doing this a study of pertinent biblical figures in early reception of divine communica- he used the external forms of the old salvation history, Little asserts, tions (but not his infallibility). He says: Arab soothsayers it is natural that the The response of faith to the truths The scientific student therefore does Meccans took him for one, but it does revealed by way of the modalities of not see in Muhammad a deceiver but not follow that he was spiritually akin special revelation is the sole means by fully agrees with the impression of from the first to those soothsayers which God redeems people through- sincerity and truthfulness which his who were inspired by djinns [spirits].55 out human history.58

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 175

However, some currently question whether God continues to use among his type of prophecy, exercised as a gift of the the unevangelized other modalities of Spirit in the early church, was not infal­lible, but special revelation besides Jesus Christ was carefully examined, evaluated, or weighed. and the Bible (yet never in contradic- T tion to the Bible). Three of the stron- a denial of present manifestations of prophets whose utterances do not ger reasons to support that he does are: these other modalities cannot satisfac- supersede biblical authority. 1. Throughout church history prom- torily explain their abundant appear- Special Revelation Beyond the inent theologians have held that ance in mission history. For example, Jewish-Christian Border dreams are a source of divine rev- Woodberry’s research showed over half While acknowledging such a possibil- elation. Morton Kelsey declares: of Muslim background believers sur- Everyone of the apologists veyed experienced one or more dreams ity for those in the Judeo-Christian . . . believed in healing and or visions before or after conversion.63 heritage, some may question the dreams, in supernaturally given possible existence of such prophets information and visions. Post-Canonical and Present-day outside of this stream. However, they Prophecy should remember that Balaam was the Kelsey lists subsequent church Having examined evidence for the recipient of divine revelation from the leaders who continued to hold to theological possibility of post-canoni- true God whom he claimed as “the 59 this view of the supernatural. cal special revelation, we can now look Lord my God” (Num. 22:18). 2. The situation of many unevange- specifically at the possibility of valid Don Richardson offers a possible exam- lized today parallels that of many present-day prophecy. This requires ple of revelation to a pagan seer/prophet individuals in the OT (such as that we first understand the nature of 64 and philosopher-poet. Epimenides Eve, , Abraham, Melchize- prophecy in the Bible. dek, and ) who, though not provides the backdrop for Paul’s quot- Conservative evangelicals recognize possessing God’s written word, ing him (:28) in his sermon two kinds of prophets. The ma- received a message from him about the “unknown god.” This pagan jor prophets of the canonical OT through other modalities of spe- poet/prophet was consulted as to the 60 were mediums of the authoritative cial revelation. cause of an unrelenting plague in Ath- revelation that became the inerrant ens. He concluded their offense was not 3. Even after God’s word was or infallible Word of God—in their against any of the Athenian gods, but an enscriptured, he continued to use original autographs. The second kind unknown god. He advised them to let other revelatory modalities. For was in the schools of the prophets, a loose hungry sheep on the lush pastures example, even though the magi distinction evidenced by passages such of Mars Hill. On each place where a and Cornelius were acquainted as Numbers 12:6-8 and 11:29. Their hungry sheep lay down without grazing, with Jewish Scripture, God used “charismatic and enigmatic” mes- that sheep was sacrificed, and the plague a star and an to lead them 66 61 sages are the type envisioned by ’s subsided. The Herman Bavinck quote to salvation. prophecy that Peter said was fulfilled above listed this passage as of Although I had been taught that God on (Ac. 1:16). This type of God’s revelation among the pagans.67 no longer used revelatory modalities prophecy, exercised as a gift of the General Revelation is Special apart from the Scriptures, this posi- Spirit in the NT church, was not infal- tion lacks clear biblical support. On lible, but had to be carefully examined, For those who cannot accept the pos- the contrary, Scriptures like Joel 2:28ff. evaluated, or weighed as 1 Corinthians sibility of present day special revela- indicate that prophecy, dreams and 14:29 and 1 Thessalonians 5:19-21 tion, Johan H. Bavinck, the Dutch visions will characterize the pouring instruct. The word used here is diakrino missionary theologian, expands the out of God’s Spirit in the last days.62 and implies a mixed quality that had traditional boundaries of general Moreover, there is no theological to be sifted like chaff from wheat. We revelation. Bavinck does this by chal- reason to prohibit God from employ- must also recognize that it was Christ’s lenging a theological understanding of ing them. On the contrary, to so assert apostles (and not these prophets) who general revelation that is often associ- would seem to limit His sovereignty. were the heirs of the OT canonical ated with “infantile natural theology” Scripture itself testifies that God did prophets, with regard to authorship of or “philosophical conclusions of the not restrict Himself to Hebrew proph- infallible revelation in the NT.65 Ac- human mind.”68 Though available to ets to communicate His message, for cepting the validity of this distinction all, God is actively engaged in it—in a He not only used Balaam but even between these two types of prophecy, way that others would associate with used Balaam’s donkey. Furthermore, we can allow for a continuance of special revelation. Bavinck explains:

31:4 Winter 2014 176 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets?

When the Bible speaks of general We meet figures in the history of the impress the eye but which deceive revelation, it means something quite non-Christian religions of whom we none save the unwary? Does prophet- different. There it has a much more feel that God wrestled with them in hood have no part but that of a mere personal nature. It is divine concern a very particular way. We still notice channel otherwise uninvolved? The un- for men collectively and individually. traces of that process of suppression doubted fact that the original source God’s deity and eternal power are and substitution in the way they re- is beyond prophethood itself need not evident; they overwhelm man; they sponded, but occasionally we observe reduce the prophet to a pair of lips.72 strike him suddenly in moments when a far greater influence of God there he thought they were far away. They than in many other human religions.71 Fazlur Rahman relies on the earliest creep up on him; they do not let go account of Ibn Hisham that states that of him, even though man does his Thus Bavinck can acknowledge that Muhammad “awoke” as inferring his best to escape them. Escaping from Muhammad (at least at some point and revelation came while he was in a state them and repressing them is the hu- in some way) encountered the true and of a vision or quasi-dream. Rahman man answer to God’s revelation, an living God in his revelatory experiences. presents a reasoned rejection of theo- answer that becomes evident in the Contradictory differences from biblical history of the religion of man. . . . ries that attribute Muhammad’s reve- revelation could be attributed to imper- latory experiences to epilepsy, but he 69 In the “night of power” of which fect responses by him, by the community also rejects the traditional Islamic idea the ninety-seventh sura of the Koran that succeeded him, and by the People of of an angel speaking to Muhammad in speaks, the night when “the angels the Book whom they encountered. Let us a normal state of consciousness, attrib- descended” and the Koran descended look closer at what may have transpired. from Allah’s throne, God dealt with uting that to the creative theological Muhammad and touched him. God labors of later orthodoxy—a formula- wrestled with him in that night, and tion that is actually anti-Qur’anic. God’s hand is still noticeable in the an- This was supposed to guarantee the swer of the prophet, but it is also the externality of the Angel or the Voice result of human oppression. “The great in the interests of safeguarding the moments in the history of religion are Human religion is “objectivity” of the Revelation. The the moments when God wrestled with the result of varied attempt may seem to us intellectu- man in a very particular way. . . .” ally immature, but at the time when God can at times, as it were, stop responses of repression the dogma was in the making, there the noiseless engines of repression were compelling reasons for taking and exchange and overwhelm man and substitution to this step, particularly the controver- to such an extent that he is power- divine encounter. sies against the rationalists. A great less for the moment. There is, also, deal of Ḥadīth . . . commonly accept- always the silent activity of the Holy ed later, came into existence portray- Spirit inside man, even if he resists ing the Prophet talking to the Angel Him constantly. The way in which in public and graphically describing speaks of Cyrus, the anointed The Impartation Process of the appearance of the latter. Despite one, who was called by His name and Qur’anic Revelation the fact that it is contradicted by the girded by God (Is. 45:4, 5), indicates Qur’an which says “. . . We sent him that the Bible certainly leaves the pos- Kenneth Cragg declares that we can- (the Angel) down upon your heart sibility open for God to anoint those not honestly appraise the Prophet of that you may be a warner” (XXVI, who do not know Him with His Spirit Islam apart from a true understanding 194, cf. II, 97) this idea of the exter- and to gird them for certain tasks to of the manner in which the Qur’anic nality of the Angel and the Revela- which He calls them.70 revelation was imparted to him, for tion has become so ingrained in the “His words are not his own devising. general Muslim mind that the real 73 Bavinck asserts that it was truly God The Qur’an is revelation imparted” picture is anathema to it. (not an evil angel) whom Muhammad (Surah 53:3,4). Cragg understands Rahman supports his view that the encountered in his revelatory experi- and appreciates the traditional Islamic Prophet’s revelations were inner spiri- ences. He holds that human religion view of waḥy (revelation) as “celestial tual experiences with Surah 53:11-12 is the result of varied responses in dictation,” but he rejects any view of “The heart has not falsified what it degrees of repression and substitution Muhammad’s inspiration that expung- has seen,” and Surah 17:1 and 81:23. (as in Rom. 1:18-28) to these divine es human involvement. encounters. Religions are not all the Hence, he rejects the doctrine of a Is apostolate really to be understood same, and we can infer that he recog- by the analogy of stone figures devised physical mi`rāj (ascension of Muham- nizes in Islam a high degree of divine by cunning plumbers and sculptors to mad) and charges it with being “no influence, when he says: more than a historical fiction” that was

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 177 developed by “orthodoxy” with fabri- cated hadith, being patterned after the ur problem in handling Muhammad’s ascension of Christ.74 prophethood is that we are unfamiliar with Cragg also challenges the “celestial prophetic figures like him in mission history. dictation” view of Qur’anic revelation O dimension, but of vivid personal com- victims of a costly war, Harris was in from a number of angles. Like Rah- mission known only through vision, prison when in a trance he was called man, he focuses on the fact that the by travail and in intensity of soul.78 Qur’an states that the revelation came to be a prophet of the end times by the via Muhammad’s “heart” (26:194; Such a view not only handles the angel . David Shank chronicles 2:97), not just by way of his lips. He Qur’anic and historic data more his little known story: notes that tanzīl, God’s sending down soundly, but it is also compatible with Convinced through Russellite influ- the revelation, is also applied to the the common biblical portrayal of pro- ences that Christ was soon to bring in the kingdom of peace, Harris pre- giving of iron to mankind in Surah phetic experience (whether it be either dicted World War I as a judgment 57:25: “We have sent down iron which the canonical or the common type of prophecy). As Christians, we do not on the civilized world, and then an- has such great strength and diverse nounced a difficult period of seven regard the Qur’an to be utterly infal- uses for mankind.” This parallel sug- years, before everything was to be gests that a looser manner of bestowal lible and authoritative, but need not transformed by the reign of Christ. of divine revelation than the “ortho- rule out the possibility of God’s calling Seeing himself as the of Mala- dox” view may be what the Qur’an and using Muhammad as a prophet chi 4, he felt he had appeared before intends.75 Moreover, Cragg gives (like Saul in the OT or a charismatic the great and dreadful day of the strong reasons why the orthodox belief prophet in the present era). Lord in order to prepare the people for the coming kingdom of peace, in Muhammad’s illiteracy is quite A second reason for our problem in during which he was to be the judge unlikely. More probably, the disputed handling the issue of Muhammad’s responsible for West Africa.81 meaning of the phrase in Surah 7 al- prophethood is that we are unfamiliar rasūl al-nabī al-ummī (the “unlettered” with the existence of prophetic figures Western missionaries reported that prophet-apostle) means that he was like him who have arisen in mission the number of his converts in a matter the “unscriptured” prophet-apostle; history. Gottfried Oosterwal in his of months exceeded the combined in contrast to the , Modern Messianic Movements reflects efforts of all their missions over Muhammad and his people to whom on the existence of the multitude of decades—100,000 tribal Africans he was sent did not have the Scripture modern religious movements around baptized in 18 months, many of them in their own language.76 This explains the world that have derived their ready to be taught by the “white man why the plural form of ummī often ap- 79 central themes from Christianity. with the Book” ten years after the pears in contradistinction to al-Yahūd In spite of the diverse cultural, social, event.82 Shank typifies his profound (the Jews) who had the Scriptures. economic, political, ideological and impact through the testimony of the If this is the meaning, then the i‘jāz religious conditions in which they politician, Casely Hayford: (miraculous or wondrous nature) of arise, there are significant similarities You come to him with a heart full of the Qur’an does not refer to its being between them: bitterness, and when he is finished a linguistic , but rather to the ‘prophets’ and charismatic leaders, a with you all the bitterness is gone wonder of the message of monotheism crisis situation, ecstatic tendencies, a out of your soul . . . Why, he calls coming in the language of the Arabs, special revelation and a movement upon the living God. He calms, under akin in significance to Moses’ receiving that suddenly arises and totally ab- God, the troubled soul. He casts out 77 the law for the Jews. sorbs its adherents, giving them a strife . . . He brings joy and lightness whole new life-style, a new ethos, a of soul to the despairing. This thing In essence, a more realistic and ac- new morality, and often leading to must be of God.83 curate understanding of the process of great reforms.80 Qur’anic revelation would be on the We are compelled to acknowledge him But that which is at their heart is order of what Cragg has advocated: as the greatest evangelist in the history their eschatology as proclaimed by a “as proceeding within a full engage- of West Africa and his legacy to the prophet or charismatic leader. ment of mental and spiritual capacity, church was unprecedented. But, his responsive to living situations” and An amazing example of this phe- calling was not as an evangelist, but recognizing in the great original nomenon is William Wadé Harris. In as a prophet. Fellow African, Lamen an experience, not merely of loyal the context of his people having been Sanneh, refers to him and others like spokesmanship that had no other plundered, fined, resettled and the him as “charismatic prophets.”84 Yet

31:4 Winter 2014 178 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? others may be troubled by his having Does not the Bible itself mention Many heretics, whose opinions the even false prophets who were in- Church had to condemn, were men been called to prophethood by an angel 85 spired by God to reveal truth, and of saintly character, actuated only by (reminiscent of Joseph Smith), and ‘pagans,’ whom God used as His in- the sincerest desire to promote the certainly by his self-identity as Elijah struments to instruct, to guide and to true religion of the Lord Jesus. . . . On and judge, and by his erroneous predic- direct His people? 89 the whole the greatest heretics–“the tion about the advent of the Kingdom. heresiarchs”–were honest Christians, A parallel principle is found in An- zealous for the promotion of a true Oosterwal depicts the theological and thony Hoekema. He declared the cults and reverent .92 missiological challenge created by such to be the “unpaid bills of the church,” movements: having observed how they each pick Consequently, our assessment of reli- All this points to a causative factor up important truths neglected by the gious movements and leaders cannot that transcends all human factors and church. Although they have built their be based solely upon whether they are suggests that, ultimately, the prophet- in or out of the fold of Christian or- ic revelations and messianic move- entire movement around these teach- thodoxy (as defined by one particular ments are a problem of theology, ings, the church can and must learn from them.90 Does only that which is creed of the church). How then might not the problem of the social and entirely orthodox manifest the work- we go about this? What then should scientific disciplines. He asks: ings of God? Does the existence of be our assessment criteria? That is our Why do these millions of people, error of any kind render someone de- next subject. Christians and Muslims, Buddhists monically inspired? Hence, a prophetic and “secularists,” people of ethnic III. Criteria for Prophethood religions . . . suddenly expect the soon Reconsidered coming of a messiah, or of a “new heaven and a new earth”? . . . Do they In this section, I will demonstrate the have the same source as the original inadequacy of the most commonly Christian teaching of the coming used criteria for validating or rejecting Kingdom of Christ, or are they per- Does only that which prophets (their moral blamelessness, haps human, even diabolic, distor- is entirely orthodox their absence of hostility with Christi- tions of or reactions against the Chris- anity or their performance of mira- tian expectation of the messiah? . . . manifest the cles). Instead I will propose that the What is the relationship between most important issue is their attitude (the message of) salvation in these workings of God? toward Christ and the Scriptures. messianic movements and the salva- tion in Christ witnessed in the Holy Not Moral Blamelessness Scriptures, and in the extension of the First, let it be said that the basis of 86 Christian churches and missions? our assessing a prophet’s gifting or calling cannot be moral blamelessness In light of abundant anthropological leader under the overall influence of or abstinence from use of force. The evidence throughout all parts of the the could be in error on a Corinthian prophets, like most of the world, Oostewal holds as untenable particular issue91 while the leader of a other gifted believers in the church the view that the messianic move- cult could hold a position on a particu- seemed to have been quite carnal. And ments are strictly due to contact with lar issue that is more biblical. 87 even prophets of the canonical type Christianity. He challenges the Many Christians need to rethink their committed grave sin: David commit- standard missionary assessment: attitude toward those whose doctrines ted adultery and shed innocent blood the prophets are called liars, the mes- differ from their own. We should also in order to cover up his sin. , siahs, false, and the movements an antichristian threat to the Truth. For consider the possibility that many who authored three books in the OT any prophet, any religion that comes non-Chalcedonian Christians (whom canon, makes Muhammad’s weak- after Christ, can only be antichrist.88 the Western church has regarded as ness for women pale in comparison to unorthodox or heretical) may be in his passions; he “loved many foreign Oosterwal asserts that the matter is heaven because of their genuine trust women” and had “seven hundred not so simple, for a good number of in the Lord Jesus Christ; whereas wives, princesses, and three hundred the prophets and charismatic leaders some theologically orthodox (in the concubines.” Moreover, Solomon of these movements were trained in Chalcedonian sense) may not really participated in their idolatry in his Christian schools and served in the know Him (cf. Mat. 7:21-23). Alan old age (1 Kg. 11:1–6), as did Gideon churches. On the other hand he adds, Richardson concludes: ( Jud. 8:27), whereas Muhammad was

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 179 faithful to worship only the Creator. Furthermore, Muhammad’s view and oodberry highlights the OT-like context of use of force and political means for Muhammad, referring to him as a BC-like the sake of religion is not strange to prophet during an AD time frame. the Semitic mentality. Gideon and W David combined military, political Returning to the issue of our assessing As I argued in the section on post- and spiritual leadership. Nehemiah a prophet and his message, Oosterwal canonical and present day revelation, used violence to enforce God’s law also asserts that it cannot in fairness be we need only reject the parts that are and preserve communal purity, beating the excesses or immoral behavior of a in error—not the entire revelation. and pulling out the hair of those who minority of the movements’ adherents, Unfortunately, Western thought pat- had married or given sons in mar- neither can we compare our high moral terns do not naturally facilitate such riage to foreign women (Neh. 13:25). ideals with their low actual behavior; moderation. We think in terms of Are we also to condemn Joshua, who because the same can be done with black and white, or in what Hiebert was divinely directed to undertake a Christianity. Rather we must evaluate calls “bounded sets.”95 Thus we regard campaign of total annihilation of the these movements with a holistic un- a prophetic message or movement Canaanites (including their children)? derstanding of them as well as by valid as either true or false. If it is totally In his lectures, Woodberry highlights theological criteria—which for Ooster- true, we reason, it may be inspired by the predominantly OT-like context of wal is the same as it is for Christian God; but if it contains error, it is false, Muhammad, referring to him as a bc- churches—it is simply “the person, the heretical, and inspired by the devil. life and the mission of Jesus Christ.”93 like prophet during an ad time frame. A more sensitive, balanced approach Examples of similar phenomena may Confirming Christ to prophetic evaluation would incor- be seen in –19 (albeit not exact Granting the possibility of legitimacy porate Hiebert’s thinking in terms parallels). preached powerfully of a post-biblical prophet, the issue of “centered sets,” in contrast to and boldly about Jesus (an evidence of becomes: by what criteria are we to “bounded sets.”96 To use centered sets the Holy Spirit’s anointing in Luke’s evaluate his revelation? Christopher in viewing conversion we would look theology), yet knew (and apparently Little, following Barth, states that at a person’s direction and movement taught) the baptism of John. Unac- information from God must: toward or away from Christ—as op- quainted with the theology of the new (1) conform to and agree with Jesus posed to “bounded set” categories of dispensation, he preached an important, Christ; (2) attest to Jesus Christ without saved and unsaved. The former regards but somewhat incomplete, message subtraction, addition, or alteration; a person as a Christian if he is follow- belonging to the prior era—until (3) confirm that Jesus Christ has in ing Christ; whereas, the latter wants to instructed by Aquila and Priscilla. In some way been encountered by those know whether a person has accepted , Paul encounters a group of dis- who speak and relate to it; (4) agree Christ, by making a decision or pray- with the witness of Scripture; (5) be ciples who were still following John the ing a prayer that will clearly mark his affirmed by the dogmas and confes- Baptist, having not even heard of the transfer into the set of the saved. Holy Spirit. It may be that Muham- sions of the church; and (6) manifest mad was living faithfully according to good fruit….Therefore, any revelation It seems to me that both approaches the theology of a previous dispensation. that is not substantiated and support- have validity and can be found in the ed by either Jesus Christ as presented We need also to remember that OT Scripture. But bounded set thinking in Scripture or by Scripture itself, must tends to look much more at the infor- prophets who addressed non-Jews (like be rejected and renounced. In other , and possibly ) words, the Bible is our complete, final mational dimension—does a person be- did not preach obedience to the Mosaic and ultimate authority when it comes lieve (know and accept) the right facts law, the prophetic message to the Jews. to all matters pertaining to Christian (the message of salvation, the correct Rather, they emphasized fundamental faith and practice.94 doctrines) or not. In contrast, centered theological and ethical truths such as set thinking focuses on the relational we find in the Qur’an. Furthermore, we Unquestionably, Christ and the Scrip- aspect: Is the person seeking Christ and cannot judge the level of Muhammad’s tures must be our ultimate authority for obeying him—regardless of the degree gospel knowledge based simply on what assessment. However, we must be careful of his knowledge of the truth about is present in the Qur’an. The many and clarify the implications of declaring Jesus? A centered set approach would Qur’anic references to biblical narra- any revelation that is not substantiated have little difficulty in accepting that tives indicate that the audience was and supported by either Jesus Christ as the twelve apostles (except Judas) were well acquainted with these stories that presented in Scripture or by Scripture saved even as novice disciples of Jesus. Muhammad alluded to and affirmed. itself, must be rejected and renounced. In contrast, bounded set thinkers may

31:4 Winter 2014 180 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? struggle in determining when these of Qur’anic verses that appear Not Absence of Conflict with apostles understood enough of Jesus’ critical of Christianity. However, Christians nature and identity and the gospel to be as previously mentioned, I am The hostility that emerged much later 97 considered “saved.” persuaded that these verses attack between Islam and Christianity does aberrant, not biblical, Christian- not necessarily preclude a positive I would suggest that we also appropriate 100 ity. Thus, we may be able to Kraft’s thinking on three-dimensional prophetic role for Muhammad, for a more readily support his being a contextualization (1999).98 parallel situation exists with many of the We would prophet of the common kind— then evaluate a prophet or a proph- “cargo-cults” of the Pacific. Mircea Eli- not the canonical kind (like the ade explains the irony of their eventually ecy in terms of the three dimensions prophetic and apostolic writers of allegiance/relationship (attitude becoming hostile to Christianity. If we of the Holy Bible). Muhammad’s substitute the words “Muslims” for “na- toward and distance from Christ), teaching was neither compre- truth/knowledge (accuracy and com- tives” and “Christians” for “missionar- hensive nor complete regard- ies”, he could well have been describing pleteness with regard to the Scriptures), ing Christ, but in his context of and power/freedom (the spiritual fruit Islam’s relationship with Christianity: conflicting Christianities these If the natives came to feel disappoint- of his message in his life and in the lives would have been widely known, of his followers). ed in the missionaries, if the major- and he adamantly proclaimed the ity of the “cargo-cults”103 ultimately Evaluation of a prophet and his message value of those biblical Scriptures turned anti-Christian, it was not on using these criteria would consider the and the necessity of believing in account of anything in Christianity it- direction and distance with regard to self, but because the missionaries and Christ in terms of allegiance, truth, and their converts did not appear to con- power dimensions. Using these criteria, duct themselves as true Christians. we can view Muhammad’s message in a The disillusionments that the natives positive prophetic sense, though not one suffered in their encounter with of- ficial Christianity were many and that is sufficient by itself. We would tragic. For what attracted the natives 1. Regarding allegiance/relation- evaluate a prophet to Christianity the most powerfully ship (with Christ) it was very in terms of was their preaching of the coming positive, though more distant renewal of the World, the imminent than in the NT. Jesus is pre- allegiance, truth and arrival of Christ and the resurrection sented as unique—bearing titles of the dead; it was the prophetic and power. eschatological aspects of the Chris- and ascriptions that exalt him far tian religion that awakened in them above all other prophets and the the most profound echo. But it was Qur’an strongly affirms the bibli- precisely these aspects of Christianity cal Scriptures that bear witness that the missionaries seemed in prac- 101 to him. While we do not find in them. His message brought tice to ignore or not take seriously.104 the Qur’an the detailed accounts nothing significantly new; rather of Jesus’ life and teaching that it was a confirmation of the mes- Similarly, it seems likely, that Mu- the provide, the Qur’an sage of the biblical Scriptures in hammad recognized that Jews had does warn that those who do not an Arabic language. the Word of God, but were guilty of ḥ accept the previous Scriptures 3. Regarding the power dimen- ta rīf (corrupting it) by their living and 105 are unbelievers who have an sion, the Prophet of Islam led the teaching. Christians, were “nearest in 99 appointment with hellfire. Arabs in turning from idolatry, affection” (Surah 5:82) to the Muslim 2. With respect to truth, the Qur’an injustice, and iniquity toward believers, but were divided and vari- was largely accurate regarding OT the worship of the God of their ous heresies were promulgated among themes like God’s unity, idolatry, ancestor Abraham.102 An objec- them. Consequently, Muhammad sin, judgment, the need for righ- tive appraisal of his mission preached the eschatological themes, teous living, and even a high view must consider that Muhammad such as the resurrection, the return of Christ, even if there were some eliminated the infanticide of baby of Christ, and the reward and judg- errors in details. Muhammad’s girls, was an advocate for the ment that were so neglected by the message may be viewed as a con- poor, cleansed Mecca of its many Christians who were embroiled in textually driven presentation of idols, and united the Arab tribes Christological controversies. Although biblical themes. The chief concern around the worship of the God of the portrayal of Christ was not nearly of the Christian is the presence Abraham—all in one generation. as complete as found in the NT, it was

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 181 uniquely positive, and the injunction incumbent upon him and his fol- primary factor in the strife was the lowers was to ask the People of the repression of divine revelation—both sides Book regarding the absent, unclear or suppressed the truth by their unrighteousness. debatable issues of special revelation A (10:94), thereby affirming the message should point out to them that failure witness that he confirmed the prior of biblical Scripture. Part of Islam’s of the early Muslim apologists to cite revelations in the Tawrat and Injīl. eventual turning anti-Christian, was any miracles of Muhammad in reply We should also clarify for Muslims not necessarily due to anything in the to challenges of the early Christian the biblical position that Jesus did not gospel itself, but because Christians did apologists’ is strong evidence that his actually abrogate the law of Moses, but not appear to conduct themselves as alleged miracles were a later invention. fulfilled it (Mt. 5:17ff).107 Even though true Christians (the Byzantines in their abrogation or supercession was argued veneration of relics, Western Christians Nevertheless, Christians should rec- by some of the early Arab Christian in their Crusades and the resentful ognize that performance of miracles is apologists, this position needs to be Eastern Christians in their withdrawal not a necessary proof of prophethood nuanced. In the case of Moses and from witness). However, as noted earli- per se. Except for Moses, Elijah, and Jesus, miracles served as divine attesta- er by Bavinck, a primary factor involved , most OT prophets were not tion to the authority of their teaching in the subsequent strife with Christian- characterized by performance of mira- (He. 1:2–4) that was essential in mark- ity was due to the repression of divine cles. In the same way, NT prophets did ing a new phase in salvation history, not frequently perform miracles (in revelation—both sides “suppress[ed] 106 but not an abrogation. Jesus did not the truth by their unrighteousness.” contradistinction to the Apostles). abrogate the law, although he did (Rom. 1:18, NET Bible) Nevertheless, we can affirm that the introduce a major change in salvation performance of numerous miracles is Not Miracles and Signs history by inaugurating the prophesied an indication of the elevated rank of kingdom of God. His miracles, done Early Christian refutations of Mu- those prophets of God who perform in such incomparable abundance and hammad’s claim to prophethood were them. We can support this by not- power, demonstrated that the power based on his not having performed ing the higher regard given to Moses, and signs of the eschatological king- any miracles. Most orthodox Muslim Elijah and Elisha by the Jews. Moses dom reign of God were inaugurated scholars reject the miracles attributed is revered above the latter two, because by his earthly ministry. His authority to Muhammad in later traditions, but of his role as mediator of the divine is mediated in the present through His appeal to the Qur’an as Muhammad’s revelation. Elijah was more esteemed followers, and will culminate when he miracle (i‘jāz). However, if Cragg’s than Elisha, due to his role as the establishes the kingdom in its fullness view above is correct, then the i‘jāz of eschatological forerunner of the com- at his second coming.108 the Qur’an does not refer to a miracle, ing kingdom (Mal. 4:5). However, but rather to the marvel that God’s Jesus declared one who performed To summarize, a more biblically sound message was now in Arabic. no miracles, , to be position would not assert the necessity the greatest of all the prophets and of performance of miracles to establish We are led to ask what was the more than a prophet. This was due to prophethood. But bountiful perfor- motivation behind the invention of his role in preparing the way for and mance of miracles is a major evidence Muhammad’s miracles? Perhaps some pointing people to the Messiah (Mt. of increased rank among prophets (as were the result of devoted Muslims 11:9–11). Recall that this is the same well as apostles). Regular and direct who would go to any measure to theological gauge for measuring the (unmediated by angels) revelation and preserve the honor of their religion contribution of any prophet that we communication with God is another as a consequence of the debates with presented earlier in this discussion: the mark of distinction. But, as I will argue their opponents (Christians). Based on prophets’ ultimate significance is in in the next section, ultimate great- the presupposition of pious Muslims their pointing to Christ. ness in a prophet is a function of his that Muhammad was the last and pointing people to Christ. Therefore, greatest prophet, he by definition must Muhammad’s unique role was as bear- we could allow the possibility that have done miracles that were at least er of God’s message in Arabic. How- Muhammad is a prophet in the bibli- equal to those of Jesus. When speak- ever, this contradicts the traditional cal sense explained in the preceding ing to the many Muslims who believe Islamic view that Muhammad insti- section, and in the Qur’anic mode of in the miracles of Muhammad, we tuted a new religion that abrogated the being a warner to his people, without can remind them that the Qur’anic previous revelation. We must chal- requiring his performance of miracles. testimony denies this; moreover, we lenge this by appealing to the Qur’an’s However, while we appreciate, respect

31:4 Winter 2014 182 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? and affirm Muhammad’s greatness, witness to Christ. Similarly, during but Isa will be at the Last Judgment Day. Muhammad is dead, but Isa is and the possibility of prophethood, we certain periods medieval Christian- alive. Only four times does the Qur’an ity in the West degenerated into a cannot honor him with a greater status speak of Muhammad, and yet 97 times than Jesus (or even Moses). religious shell devoid of the gospel it talks about Isa. Muhammad is not a of Christ; yet, we do not impugn the It may help (non-fanatical) Muslims savior, according to the Qur’an, but Bible for this tragedy. to see that there is Qur’anic support Isa’s very name means ‘Savior.’ Mu- hammad is only a messenger, but Isa for this status. Research into gospel movements is called Ruhallah, the Spirit of Allah.109 Of those messengers, We have among Muslims reveals the potential caused some to excel others, some to efficacy of Muhammad’s testimony to Amid concluded that either the Qur’an whom God spoke, and some of them Christ. David Garrison was surprised is correct and Isa is the savior, or else He exalted in degree (above others); to learn that it was the witness of the mawlanas are right and Muslims and We gave Jesus, son of Mary, the Qur’an which had brought many should follow Muhammad. He chal- clear proofs (miraculous signs) and Muslims in South Asia to “initial” lenged the Islamic teachers to obey the supported him with the Holy Spirit. faith in Christ who then led them to (Surah 2:253) Qur’an and follow Jesus. Some scorned the Bible for a clearer understanding. him, but others admitted he was right For instance, someone named Amid Here the Qur’an notes that prophets and counseled him to find out more had been challenged to stop reciting hold different ranks. To whom did about Jesus from the Christian com- the Qur’an in Arabic (which he did God speak? It implies that Moses is munity. Amid obtained a Bible, learned not understand) and to begin reading the one who was greater than oth- more of Christ, and was eventually ers, because he spoke directly with baptized. Those in his movement God (apart from angelic mediation). demonstrate to other Muslims from Who are those whom God exalted the Qur’an that Jesus is the savior and in degree? The arch-example is Jesus, baptize them. Afterwards, they 110 who alone is named in context im- It entails them from the Bible. Though Islam- mediately afterwards. We can logically interpreting the ic dogma has misled untold millions of infer that he was exalted in degree, Muslims, when the Quranic testimony because he not only spoke directly Qur’an exeget­ically to Christ is allowed to speak for itself, with God like Moses, but also per- with regard to its many Muslims have come to trust him formed the most miraculous signs as savior. Furthermore, the Qur’an and wonders. Muhammad, despite his biblical subtext. repeatedly directs them to follow the noble accomplishments and greatness, guidance of the previous Scriptures. did neither, and thus by implication, holds a lesser rank than those who did. IV. Muhammadan Muhammad did no miracles, so he is a translation in his mother tongue. He Prophethood Reconsidered not to be regarded as equal to those was astonished: Like a number of Christian scholars like Moses, and certainly not to Jesus. The first thing I noticed was that of Islam, I believe there is biblical Muhammad presented a powerful and there [were] many stories in the warrant for considering the possibil- positive witness to Christ among the Qur’an that were at variance with ity of some kind of positive prophetic Arabs, and other peoples of the world. what I had heard from the maw- status for Muhammad. I have shown In this sense we can regard him as the lanas, the Islamic teachers in the that biblical and mission theology can greatest prophet to the Arabs, because . I searched the Qur’an to allow for this. However, it does entail for most Arabs, it is his noble witness understand more about Muhammad, seeking to interpret the Qur’an exeget- to Christ that they have heard. but instead, I found Isa, and this dis- turbed me. . . . ically and with regard to its biblical Admittedly, most Christians would subtext, rather than primarily through In the Qur’an . . . I found no titles of view this perspective with skepticism honor for Muhammad, but 23 hon- the lens of later Islamic tradition. or disfavor, given the fact that the orable titles that Allah gave to Isa. I While contemplation of this possibil- Islamic teaching about Christ is but saw that Muhammad is not with Allah ity of prophethood runs counter to the a faint shadow of what is offered in now, but Isa is in heaven with Allah position embraced by most contempo- the Bible. But that does not invalidate now. Muhammad is not coming again, rary Christians, it is not a new mis- Muhammad’s testimony to Christ. but Isa is coming again. Muhammad siological invention—such voices were In a similar manner, Jewish religious will not be at the Last Judgment Day, heard among Christians at the outset teachers and systems missed Moses’ and continue to the present.

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The most famous is the patriarch Timothy I who declared, he label­ “directive prophecy” was for those Muhammad is worthy of all praise, by instances­ where God sovereignly enlists persons all reasonable people. He walked in the path of the prophets and trod in T outside the covenant to ac­complish his purposes. the track of the lovers of God If “truth” as conveyed by the Bible is Timothy Tennent, Asbury Seminary primarily about relationship between president and professor of world and that “all believers rejoice in the God and humanity, rather than a Christianity, is another prominent good that he did,” teaching the unity collection of propositions to be ac- of God, driving people away from knowledged, then surely all state- evangelical who accedes a positive pro- idolatry, polytheism, and bad works ments from Muhammad that reflect phetic role to Muhammad. Tennent and toward good works. the reality of God’s self-revelation are embraces Charles Ledit’s designation Muhammad taught about God, His prophetic. I do not want to under- of two kinds of prophecy: “theological” Word and His Spirit, and since all mine the importance of propositional and “directive.” The former pointed to, prophets had prophesied about God, statements derived from biblical text. and ceased at, the coming of Christ. His Word and His Spirit, Muhammad But I do want to suggest that those Taking a cue from Aquinas, Ledit la- walked, therefore, in the path of all are secondary. After all . . . the Bible is beled as “directive prophecy” those in- the prophets.111 not an end in itself; it bears witness stances where God sovereignly enlists to Another. Nor did God simply bel- persons outside the covenant to ac- Timothy even praised Muhammad for low into humans’ ears a handful of complish his purposes, such as giving his zeal for God with the sword and propositions. “Truth”, in its Christian guidance to people or even correcting his preaching monotheism to other sense, is more subtle, more nuanced, the covenant people. In this vein, Mu- than that. It finds its essence in a Per- peoples; and that this is why God hammad united the Arabs and turned exalted him and gave him sover- son. Where the Prophet Muhammad gained insight into who that Person them from paganism and idolatry to eignty over the kingdoms of Persia and monotheism and an ordered society, Rome. It can be argued that Timothy is–for example in his conviction, against a polytheistic background, of also preparing a potential bridge to the cautiously affirmed Muhammad as a gospel of Christ.115 Despite the hos- prophet—if the Qur’an is interpreted the oneness of God–his utterances to that effect are truly in the lineage of tilities that later transpired with Jews as not contravening a trinitarian un- the biblical prophets. Whether and and Christians, Tennent avers, derstanding of God (Block: 129-132). to what extent Muhammad himself we should not let the whole history The spirit of Timothy can be seen lived by such insights will be evalu- of Islam cloud our assessment of Mu- again in a contemporary Arab evan- ated by the One who will evaluate all hammad. If it can be said that God gelical scholar of Islam. Martin Accad of us.113 spoke ‘directive prophecy’ through advocates authentic engagement with Cyrus, who announced the end of Islam that mediates between tradi- An opinion which cannot be easily exile (2 Chron. 36:22; Ezra 1:8), then tional apologetic/polemic and liberal dismissed is that of the renowned Re- why could God not have spoken a di- rective word through Muhammad?116 syncretistic/existential positions. He formed theologian, Herman Bavinck: In the past the study of religions was calls for a kerygmatic approach to A very recent and extensively argued Islam that emphasizes the proclama- pursued in the interest of dogmat- ics and apologetics. The founders case for Muhammad as a prophet is tion of God’s full and final revelation made by Anton Wessels, Presbyterian in Christ apart from institutional of (non-Christian) religions, like Mo- hammed, were simply considered minister and professor emeritus at religion. Accad also states: imposters, enemies of God, and ac- Amsterdam’s Free University. Defining But this needs not prevent us from complices of the devil. But ever since the term, he says: admitting the greatness of Muham- those religions have become more A prophet is not someone who pre- mad, and perceiving him, if not as a precisely known, this interpretation dicts the future, who looks into a crys- prophet, nonetheless as a messenger, has proved untenable; it clashed both tal ball. Rather, a prophet is a seer, a ras l, who carried an important ū with history and psychology. Also divine message to his people, lead- someone who points out what an among pagans, says Scripture, there ing them away from polytheism and event means, someone who provides is a revelation of God, an illumination drawing them to the worship of the insight into what is going on both of the Logos, a working of God’s Spir- one God.112 spiritually and politically. A prophet it (Gen. 6:17; 7:15; Ps. 33:6; 104:30; is an agitator, someone who walks Another evangelical scholar of Islam, Job 32:8; Eccles. 3:19; Prov. 8:22ff.; around temple and palace stating his Bill Musk, likewise seeks to affirm a Mal. 1:11, 14; John 1:9; Rom. 2:14; criticism, who rages against the injus- 114 prophetic role for Muhammad: Gal. 4:1-3; :16, 17; 17:22-30). tices political leaders are committing.

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A true prophet does not adopt the Many Christians maintain that However, in contrast to the imperi- drab and colorless language of his Muhammad shifted from a positive alistic arrogance and cult of the cross society, does not speak the jargon of diplomats, the language of theo- attitude toward Christians in Mecca of the Byzantines, the Qur’an viewed logians or a priestly caste, or the rigid (when it was expedient) to a hostile, Christians in Arabia (primarily Mono- prose of the business world. He is militant one in (where after physite, Syrian Orthodox, Nestorian, and remains faithful to the language acquiring political power he showed and Assyrian) as those “closest in of the parable. He does not predict his true colors). However, recent re- affection” to Muslims, for their priests history but studies and analyzes it, search points to a different scenario. and monks were not proud (Surah uncovers and unmasks it.117 5:82). Thus, the Qur’an does not view Muhammad was supportive of Chris- Christians with hostility as a matter of tians, including the Byzantines. While Wessels presents various lines of principle, but only when they practice preaching in Mecca, he predicted that evidence for Muhammad as prophet. polytheism.124 And even when violence First, he points out significant parallels the Byzantines would lose the nearest part of the land (Palestine/Jerusalem) is justified in the cause of God, the between biblical prophets (especially Qur’an infers a measure of culpability Moses and Elijah) and Muhammad in to the Persians, but in a few years 125 and the need to seek forgiveness. their commission. Isaiah is instructed would have victory over them. And 121 to “Cry out.” He asks, “What shall I cry when they did, the Muslims would The above examples are sufficient to out” (Isa. 40:6); Muhammad is called rejoice with them (Surah 30:1–5). show that some prominent Christians by God to “Recite” (Surah 96:1). Like However, some 15 years later, after the scholars have recognized or affirmed Isaiah, he asks, “What shall I recite?” Byzantine victory over the Persians Muhammad as a prophet, albeit with (Surah 96:1-5). Commanded to warn various meanings of the term. The others, he dons a cloak, and covers scholars cited above have no dog in his face with it, like Elijah (1 Kgs. the fight over contextualization and 19:11–13). As with (20:7), insider movements. Many complex Muhammad cannot resist God who issues are causing them to reassess is stronger than he; he is compelled to Archeological­ their stance on Muhammad. Cer- 118 speak (Surah 53:5). evidence does not tainly widespread belief in an inherent Wessels also notes Muhammad’s claim to incompatibility between the Bible and be a prophet to the “unlettered” (an-nabi support the traditional the Qur’an has centuries of support in al-ummi) meant his bringing to those Islamic narrative. Muslim-Christian encounter, in reli- who were without the Scriptures a mes- gious polemics and apologetics, and in sage that confirmed the previous biblical political, military and cultural conflict. revelation. In the sense of a “confirmer” But as was discussed above, this was he is the “seal of the prophets.” Thus, not the case at the outset. Muhammad “brings the same ‘Book,’ not (629/630), Muslim sympathy with the Many factors are calling for a reas- the same text but the same message from Byzantine cause suddenly turned into sessment of Muhammad, such as God, the same guidance for human- 122 119 sharp hostility. What accounts for the critical scrutiny of Islamic his- ity.” The umma (community) relates this change? torical sources. Study of non-Muslim to all three communities who claim historical documents and archeo- Pursuing political objectives, Emperor descent from Abraham and are “People logical evidence do not support the Heraclius had appealed to religious of the Book,” each having its unique traditional Islamic narrative. Theories sentiments to rally his army—to rite, religion or way of living. Some Jews about the origins of the Qur’an and wrest the true cross from the Persians and Christians accepted Muhammad’s Islam, as well as the Islamic doctrine and bring it back to Jerusalem. After message (Surah 28:53–53; 2:121; 29:47; of abrogation, are being challenged. defeating the Persians, he ceremoni- 3:199; 6:114); but now as then, most do Textual criticism of the Qur’an, long a not. Wessels maintains that Christians ously brought the true cross up the Via taboo—even in academia—is opening who accept Muhammad as a prophet are Dolorosa. Interpreting this act of the possibilities for harmonizing verses not obliged to become “Muslim” in the Byzantines as idolatry, the Muslims that had previously been considered narrow sense; they are to be “muslim” like immediately responded by attacking irreconcilable within the Qur’an and Abraham (Surah 3:67), the exemplar for them at Mu’ta. This veneration of the with the Bible. This comprehensive all three communities. cross provoked the well-documented Muslim antagonism over the sym- project is still in its infancy, and it will Wessels also seeks to remove some bol of the cross in Syria/Palestine.123 likely take many years before these stones of stumbling for Christians.120 questions are adequately answered. The

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 185 results of this scholarly activity will eventually substantiate or weaken the esus claimed that he himself was the Way. All of case for consideration of Muhammad God’s prophets (before and after Christ) pointed as prophet in some capacity. to him. If Christians were to accept Muham- J or sūras of the Qur’ān are named af- that is tantamount to holding that mad as a prophet in one of the ways ter references to Jesus (3, 5 and 19); he is in some sense a prophet. Such a posited above, then could we affirm this he is mentioned in fifteen ūs ras and view does not contradict any central to Muslims without obliging ourselves ninety-three verses. Jesus is always Christian belief. It has, however, to be (in their thinking) to become Muslims? spoken of in the Qur’ān with rever- made clear to Muslims that Christians I think that Christ followers could do ence; there is no breath of criticism, do not believe that all Muhammad’s so and be faithful to biblical authority. for he is the Christ of God.126 revelations from God were infallible, even though they allow that much of First of all, we acknowledge that Christ’s being “near stationed to God” divine truth was revealed to him.128 prophets were sent both before and (Surah 3:45) has been understood by after Jesus Christ (as supported by some Muslims scholars to refer to Conclusion NT passages such as 1 Cor. 14 and 1 his supremacy in intercession. Also, Th. 5:19–21). We also establish that Muhammad did in fact testify to the Is Muhammad also among the every prophet of God, pointed his birth (Surahs 3, 19, and 66), prophets? This paper has provided followers to the way toward God. but the emphasis of his eschatological theological, missiological, and histori- That being agreed, we would point proclamation was Christ’s Second Ad- cal sanction for expanding constricted out that Jesus Christ not only directed vent. And as mentioned before, since categories of prophethood to allow people to the way, but claimed that Muhammad himself was instructed Christians to entertain the possibil- he himself was the way ( Jn. 14:6). All to ask the People of the Book (Surah ity of Muhammad being other than of God’s prophets (before and after 10:94), then so should his follow- a false prophet. He may be seen as Christ) pointed to him. We can quote ers (Surah 5:68).127 Those who obey fulfilling a prophetic role, whether in response to general revelation or spe- :43: by searching these Scriptures will be cial, whether as a preacher or religious All the prophets testify about him pointed to Christ ( Jn. 5:39), and this leader, whether as an ecstatic or char- that everyone who believes in him is the primary purpose of prophethood ismatic prophet, or something more. receives forgiveness of sins through (Ac. 10:43). his name, Nevertheless, for those who cannot Although such consultation may accept this, perhaps this study will at as well as Jn. 5:39 and Lk. 24:44–47. surface theological differences, we least reduce their level of indignation Although exegetically this reference should appeal to what the Bible says as toward those who differ with them. is to those prophets who preceded our final arbiter, based on the Qur’an’s I do not expect a Christian consensus Christ, theologically it is true of those injunction to “let the People of the to be reached on this issue—not until who came after him (from NT era Gospel judge by that which He has he who sits on the throne returns and prophets until the Elijah of 4 revealed therein” (Surah 5:47). Admit- announces his ultimate and unerring precedes the Second Advent). We can tedly, this position conflicts with the judgment. Sincere and faithful Chris- affirm that Muhammad testified to mistaken Islamic belief in the infal- tians through the centuries have held Christ’s uniqueness and greatness, as libility of their prophet, but we can vastly disparate viewpoints regarding Parrinder observes: show how the Injīl commands us to the prophet of Islam—that may not The Qur’ n gives a greater number apply this same standard to Christian ā change greatly. A major obstacle is our of honourable titles to Jesus than to prophets as well (1 Co. 14:29). We uncertainty about the actual details of any other figure of the past. He is a need not denigrate Muhammad’s Muhammad’s life due to the great lack ‘sign’, a ‘mercy’, a ‘witness’ and an character (for even biblical prophets of personal information about him in ‘example’. He is called by his proper had serious faults). At the same time, name Jesus, by the titles Messiah the Qur’an and the complexities of allowing for Muhammadan prophet- (Christ) and Son of Mary, and by the the historical sources. Future historical hood does not oblige us to embrace names Messenger, Prophet, Servant, studies may strengthen or weaken the Islamic views on it. In this vein, Word and Spirit of God. The Qur’ān case for Muhammad being regarded as gives two accounts of the annuncia- Montgomery Watt advises Christians a prophet. The outcome of critical schol- tion and birth of Jesus, and refers to to acknowledge arship as to the Qur’an’s relationship to his teachings and healings, and his Muhammad as a religious leader the Bible (positive or negative) will also death and exaltation. Three chapters through whom God has worked, and affect thinking. We must also recognize

31:4 Winter 2014 186 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? that our attitudes, opinions, and convic- Religious Communities, ed. Harley Talman 13 Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians tions are influenced by our personal and John Jay Travis (Pasadena, CA: William Face to Face (Oxford, UK: One World), 188. Carey Library, forthcoming 2015). 14 David Garrison, A Wind in the experiences with Muslims, the prejudice 4 of our church, community and culture, The first biographer, Ibn Ishaq (d. 767), House of Islam (Monument, CO: WIGTake wrote over a century after Muhammad’s as well as the impact of geo-political Resources, 2014), 112–118. death and comes to us only in an abbreviated 15 events on our lives. Differing theologi- For examples, see Fouad Elias Ac- form edited by Ibn Hisham (d. 833) more cad, Building Bridges: Christianity and Islam cal assumptions and understandings will than a century after that. Despite his many (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1997), also shape our perspectives. defenders, some classical Muslim authorities 27, and David Garrison, 118. disputed his reliability. Cf. Robert Spencer, 16 Personal conversation in Pasadena, If nothing else has been achieved, my Did Muhammad Exist? An Inquiry into Islam’s CA, 2004. hope is that this study will engender a Obscure Origins (Wilmington, DE: Intercol- 17 degree of humility that recognizes the legiate Studies Institute, 2012), 87–100; Fred Byzantines were Greek Christians whose name came from Byzantium, a limits of our knowledge on this issue. M. Donner, Muhammad and the Believ- ers: the Origins of Islam (Cambridge, MA: Greek city on the European side of the I would hope that my presenting posi- Bosporus Strait. It became the capital of the tive prophetic possibilities might en- Belnap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010), 50–56; and , Eastern part of the Roman empire under able Christians to show Muslims more The Emergence of Islam: Classical Traditions in Constantine I who renamed it Constanti- respect in regard to Muhammad. I also Contemporary Perspective (Minneapolis, MN: nople. The Greek Christian Empire eventu- desire to see a lowering of the level of Fortress Press, 2012), chapter 6. ally lost much of its territorial control to the 5 Arab Believers movement (which eventually consternation against disciples of Jesus Gabriel Said Reynolds, The Qur’an morphed into Islamic rule). who think positively about Muham- and Its Biblical Subtext (New York: Rout- 18 mad. Their opinions or convictions ledge, 2010); cf. also Part 2 (esp. chapter reacted scath- 6) in his Emergence of Islam; also Guilio ingly to the Islamization of the civil service should not greatly concern us as long in Syria. After the Byzantines lost political as they render ultimate allegiance and Basetti-Sani, The Koran in the Light of Christ (Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press, 1977). dominion to Muslim armies, the polemicist obedience to Jesus Christ and biblical 6 Nicetas of Byzantium (c. 842–912) vented Andrew Rippin, Muslims: Their Reli- the most vitriolic slurs against them and authority. May we do the same. gious Beliefs and Practices, Vol. 1 (New York: Routledge, 1990), 34. their prophet that he could concoct. In essentials unity, in non-essentials liberty, 19 7 Likely in reaction to the persecution in all things charity. IJFM These accounts evidence an attempt at legitimizing Muslim rule of their day by of Muslims during the Reconquest of Spain, presenting Muhammad’s movement as the Ibn Hazm charged Christians with corrupt- Endnotes “Islam” of their time, a religion distinct from ing the text of Scripture, not just corruption of its meaning. 1 1 Samuel 10:11–12 and 19:24. “Is Judaism and Christianity, and the earlier 20 Norman Daniel, Islam and the West, Saul also among the [ecstatic] prophets?” is expansions as a series of divinely aided revised edition (Oxford, UK: Oneworld the meaning according to Ron Youngblood, religious “Muslim” conquests over “non- Publications, 1983). “1–2 Samuel,” in Deuteronomy–2 Samuel. Muslims” (Donner, 119–120). 8 21 Expositor’s Bible Commentary, vol. 3, Reynolds and Donner are examples. Kimball, 40. 22 ed. Frank Gaebelein (Grand Rapids, MI: 9 C. Jonn Block, Expanding the Qur’anic For example, Surah 92:12-16 Zondervan, 1984), 627. Bridge: Historical and Modern Interpretations strongly warns polytheists. 23 2 Youngblood, 618. of the Qur’an in Christian-Muslim Dialogue Abdiyah Akbar Abdul-Haqq, Shar- 3 Christians have observed varied practices with Special Attention Paid to Ecumenical ing Your Faith with a Muslim (Minneapolis, among Muslim followers of Christ, including: Trends (Minneapolis: Routledge, 2013) MN: Bethany House, 1980), 15. 24 a. They do not say the shahadah. seems to be a representative of this. Cf. Jonathan Culver, “The Ish- 10 b. They say “there is no god but Spencer summarizes the findings of maelite Promise and Contextualization God,” but stop without saying the revisionists. Their theories and find- among Muslims.” International Journal of “Muhammad is God’s messenger.” ings are worthy of careful consideration, Frontier Missiology 17(1):62-69, 2000, “The c. They say the full shahadah, but add but carte blanche dismissal of all Islamic Ishmaelite Promises in the Light of God’s “and Jesus the Messiah is the Word sources that lack outside corroboration is an Mission: Christian and Muslim Reflec- of God and the Spirit of God.” excessively radical approach. Spencer will tions.” Ph.D. dissertation, Fuller Theological d. They say the shahadah and mean only grant that Muhammad “as a prophet Seminary, 2001; chapter 12 in Mark Harlan, only that Muhammad was a of the Arabs who taught a vaguely defined A Model for Theologizing in Arab Muslim simple messenger and warner. monotheism... may have existed,” 214. Contexts, Evangelical Missiological Society e. They say the shahadah and assert 11 Dan Gibson, Qur’anic Geography Dissertation Series (Pasadena, CA: WCIU that Muhammad was a messenger (Surrey, BC: Canada, Independent Scholars Press, 2012); and Tony Maalouf, Arabs in the and a prophet for he points to Jesus. Press, 2011). See the summary by Jeremy Shadow of Israel: the Unfolding of God’s Pro- I address this question in detail in “Muslim Smyth, “The Mecca Question” at http:// phetic Plan for Ishmael’s Line (Grand Rapids, Followers of Jesus and the Muslim Confes- searchformecca.com/. MI: Kregel, 2003). sion of Faith,” in Understanding Insider 12 Cf. also Charles Kimball, Striving To- 25 Robert William Thomson, James Movements: Disciples of Jesus in Diverse gether (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991). Howard-Johnson & Tim Greenwood,

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The Armenian History Attributed To Sebeos, erroneous and anachronistic to suppose an Matthew, others one of several non-canon- Translated Texts For Historians, Vol. 31 Arab nationalistic political identity existed. ical Jewish-Christian gospels. Ebionites (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, Donner states, “There is almost no evidence seem to have denied Christ’s pre-existence, 1999), 95–96. for the existence of a collective ‘Arab’ po- but some still accepted the Virgin Birth. By 26 Donner cautions us regarding the litical identity before the Believers created the 4th century, Constantine’s persecution complete historicity of the account since their empire” (218). drove them to Arabia and beyond. Christian polemicists of the time loved to 37 Abdul-Masih Saadi, “Nascent Islam 46 The Priest and the Prophet: The Chris- discredit opponents with guilt by association in the seventh century Syriac sources,” in The tian Priest, Waraqa Ibn Nawfal’s Profound with the Jews, 114. Spencer rejects the his- Qur’an in Its Historical Context, ed. Gabriel Said Influence Upon Muhammad, The Prophet of torical accuracy due to outside corroboration, Reynolds (NY: Routledge, 2008), 217–218. Islam (Los Angeles: Pen Publishers, 2005). but notes the lack of hostility to Jews, 33. 38 Donner, 114. Azzi’s demonstration of Waraqa’s ties to 27 Donner, chapter 2. Donner argues 39 Donner, 190. Jewish Christianity is quite strong. That he that Muhammad started a reform move- 40 All believers were “muslims.” Those was an Ebionite is much less certain, in my ment of monotheism that focused on the who were Jews or Christians could still be so opinion. Robert Hoyland is likewise skepti- practice of morality. Much later it became identified, but polytheists who forsook idola- cal (Seeing Islam as Others Saw it: A Survey what we recognize today as “Islam.” See also try to follow Qur’anic law could only then and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Donner’s “The Qur’an in Recent Scholar- be called “muslims.” Over time, the term Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam, Studies ship,” in The Qur’an in Its Historical Context, “Muslims” began to be applied exclusively to in Late Antiquity and Early Islam, vol. 13 ed. Gabriel Said Reynolds (New York: the “new monotheists” (Donner, 72). [Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1997], 28, as Routledge, 2008), 33. 41 cited in Block, 51). 28 Block provides historical evidence 47 Donner, 69–70, cites Qur’anic that for a century, Christians viewed Mu- Wilfred Cantwell Smith, “Muslim- support from Surah 46:9, 48:29, 3:199, hammad’s doctrines in similar terms as they Christian Relations: Questions of a Com- 3:113–116 and the like. parative Religionist” Journal of the Institute 29 did other branches of Christianity (such Donner thinks the Christians who as Monophysites and Nestorians) that had of Muslim Minority Affairs 8, 1987, cited in joined this “Believers Movement” were alternative Christological views (126). Of Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face non-Trinitarian Christians, seemingly based course each group regarded all other views to Face (Oxford: One World, 1997), 191. on his anti-Trinitarian understanding of as heretical. Reynolds rejects the traditional Such scholars look to a recovery of Hebrew certain Qur’anic verses. However, Block view of Islam’s origins and its sacred text, as Christian views as a promising contextual gives evidence that these verses were aimed does Spencer. Many scholars view “ortho- Christology for Islam today. 48 at tri-theism and other heretical Christian dox” Islam as likely representing something Similarly, John Esposito, Islam: The views. (See footnote above.) that came into existence two or three centu- Straight Path (Oxford: Oxford University 30 Spencer, xiv. ries after Muhammad. Press, 1988), 15. 31 49 Reynolds, Emergence of Islam, 160. 42 Cf. Martin Accad, “Corruption and/ Smith, 20, cited in Zebiri, 190. Cf. also Spencer, xiv, and chapter 2. or Misinterpretation of the Bible: The Story Although zealous evangelical Christians com- 32 Donner, 112. Sometimes the anti- of the Islamic Usage of Tāhrīf,” The Near pletely reject any movement deemed heretical, polytheism denunciation “who has no East School of Theology Theological Review 24 we should realize that devout non-Chalcedo- associate” also appeared, but this was not an (2003): 67–97; also Abdullah Saeed, “The nian Christians were similarly classed—not obstacle for true monotheists. Charge of Distortion of Jewish and Chris- to mention Nestorius, who it seems did not 33 Donner, 114. tian Scriptures,” The Muslim World, Vol.92, merit that branding. I do not believe that such 34 “heretics” are necessarily infidels (unbeliev- Reference to the work of Petra Jijpes- No.3/4 (Fall 2002): 419–436. 43 teijn of Leiden University is made by Anton As a result of this more negative ers)—they may be trusting in Christ but have Wessels, The Torah, the Gospel and the Qur’an: stance toward Christianity, many Christians a different “grasp” of a theological mystery. Three Books, Two Cities, One Tale (Grand lay the blame of the bad fruit of the Islamic The same may be true of many evangelical Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2013), 106. Their self- system upon the root, Muhammad. However, Christians today, who if asked to explain identity as “emigrants” indicates a mentality following this logic, the responsibility and the Trinity would likely give an answer that of hijra with its notions of entering a devout blame for the religious system that developed the ancient church declared heretical. Even community, striving (even militantly) in the under the (that shut the door to theologically sophisticated, Bible believing path of God, and adopting a non-nomadic Jews who sought to enter kingdom of heaven, Christians do not all agree in their under- lifestyle (Donner, chapter 2 and p. 134). Mt. 23:13) should be placed upon the shoul- standing of the nature of the Trinity. (Some see social Trinitarians as in conflict with a 35 Abdul Massih Saadi, “Nascent Islam ders of Moses. This is certainly not justifiable. Similarly, we would have to blame Peter and proper understanding of Nicene orthodoxy). in the Seventh Century Syriac Sources”, 50 in The Qur’an in its Historical Context, ed. Paul (and even Jesus) for what Christianity William Montgomery Watt, “The Gabriel Said Reynolds (NY: Routledge, became in medieval Roman Catholicism. Christianity Criticized in the Qur’an,” 2008), 217–219. Syriac Christian sources 44 Reynolds, Emergence of Islam, chapter 7. Muslim World 57:3 (1967):197-201. 51 are judged to be more objective than those 45 During the 1st century, Jewish Block,126. 52 of the Byzantines who were more polemical Christians were Torah-observant, distinct Block examines historical and exeget- due to their direct political and territorial from other Jews only by their belief in Jesus ical contexts of Qur’anic criticisms of various losses to the Arabs. as the Messiah. Later, they included groups Christian identities, 290; cf. also Basetti-Sani. 36 “Arab” was a linguistic or cultural like the Ebionites and Nazarenes. Some 53 Block, 281. Block traces the change to a identity, not a political one. It would be followed a Hebrew or Aramaic version of polemical attitude toward Muhammad to John

31:4 Winter 2014 188 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? of Damascus in the 8th century and details the and Visions: Muslims’ Miraculous Journey to the Ghassanids had bishops since the 4th history of deliberate malice in scholarship. Jesus (San Giovanni Teatino, Italy: Destiny century, the Nicene creed was in Arabic, and 54 Watt, William Montgomery, Islam Image, 2010); Tom Doyle, Dreams and Vi- there are Christian Arabic inscriptions from and Christianity Today: A Contribution to sions: Is Jesus Awakening the Muslim World? at least the 5th century. The text may have Dialogue (: Routledge, 1983), 60–61. (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2012), 223; been in Syriac, but the debates were in Ara- I would agree with Watt in this regard, as Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Called from Islam to bic” (personal conversation, March 2013). well with his conclusion that Muhammad is Christ: Why Muslims Become Christians (East 77 Cragg, 86–87. not an exemplar for humanity when judged Sussex, UK: Monarch, 1999). 78 Cragg, 97. 64 by modern standards—only the incompa- Though my seminary and church 79 Gottfried Oosterwal, Modern Mes- rable Christ sets a moral standard that chal- background denied this possibility, my views sianic Movements (Elkhart, IN: Institute lenges all humans in all times and places. later changed through my experiences with 55 of Mennonite Studies, 1973), 37. Some F. Buhl, “Muhammad” in Concise individuals who are so gifted, and through key characteristics of modern messianic Encyclopedia of Islam, ed. H. A. R. Gibb and the writings of Carson, Grudem and Deere. movements are reminiscent of Islam: their J. H. Kramers, eds. (Leiden, Netherlands: Cf. D. A. Carson, Showing the Spirit (Grand seeking to present a holistic view of life with E. J. Brill, 2001), 393–394. Rapids, MI: Baker, 1987), Wayne Grudem, religion at its center, strength of community, 56 Christopher Little, The Revelation Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: simplicity of message, and establishing a of God among the Unevangelized (Pasadena, Zondervan Publishing, 1994), and Jack new fellowship that provides security and a CA: William Carey, 2000), 47. Deere, Surprised by the Voice of God: How new identity with meaning. 57 Charles C. Ryrie, The Ryrie Study Bible God Speaks Today through Prophecies, Dreams, 80 Oosterwal, 9. and Visions (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan (Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1986), 63–65. 81 David Shank, “William Wadé 58 Little, 115. This faith response to Publishing, 1996). 65 Harris,” in Mission Legacies, ed. Gerald H. special revelation always has some christo- Carson 1987, 94–98. 66 Anderson, Robert T. Coote, Norman A. logical element to it, is always true (though Don Richardson, Eternity in Their Horner, and James M. Phillips (Maryknoll, not always fully grasped), and its content Hearts, revised ed. (Ventura, CA: Venture NY: Orbis Books, 1994), 158. David Shank regarding what is necessary for salvation is Books, 1984), 9–25; cf. Craig S. Keener, The further describes Harris’ prophetic ministry: progressively developed. IVP Bible Background Commentary: New “Accompanied by two women disciples— 59 These included Basil, Gregory of Testament (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity excellent singers playing calabash rattles— Nyssa, John Chrystostom, and Gregory of Press, 1993), 373, comments on Acts 17:23. he visited village after village, calling the 67 Nazianzus in the Eastern church, and Am- Reformed Dogmatics, ed. John Bolt, coastal people to abandon and destroy their brose, , and Gregory the Great in the Vol. 1 (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, ‘fetishes,’ to turn to the one true and living West. Even Augustine changed in his views 2003), 318. God, to be baptized and forgiven by the when he saw such phenomena occurring 68 Johan H. Bavinck, The Church Savior; he then taught them to follow the around him (Morton Kelsey, The Christian between Temple and Mosque (Grand Rapids, commandments of God, to live in peace, and the Supernatural (Minneapolis, MN: MI: Eerdmans, 1981), 123. and organized them for prayer and wor- Augsburg, 1976), 97–98. 69 Some scholars believe the “night of ship of God in their own languages, music, 60 Little, 82. While the Bible was pres- power” (Surah 97:1–5) is actually a reference and dance, to await the ‘white man with ent in Arabia in some non-Arabic languag- to Christmas night, based on the similar vo- the Book’ and the new times that were to es, such as Syriac, it was the coming of a cabulary used in the Qur’an and the nativity come” (155). Harris declared himself God’s divine revelation in a “clear, Arabic tongue” narratives (Spencer, 183–185). prophet and was mightily used of God like (26:195) that gave such great significance 70 J. H. Bavinck, 124-126. no other person in West Africa in the con- to the mission of Muhammad. Stories 71 J. H. Bavinck, 126. version of thousands to Christ. Neverthe- from Bible translators record the immense less, we see error in some of his prophetic 72 Kenneth Cragg, Muhammad and the difference it makes to tribal peoples when views (155–165). Christian (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, the Scriptures are translated into their heart 82 Shank, 155. language, even though they are available to 1984), 84. 83 73 Casely Hayford, in William Waddy them in another language. Fazlur Rahman, Islam (Garden City, Harris, 16-17, n.d. Quoted in David Shank, 61 Little, 117. NY: Anchor Books, 1968), 4–5. 74 “William Wadé Harris,” in Mission Legacies, 62 I see this prophecy as having had an Rahman, 5. 75 ed. Gerald H. Anderson, Robert T. Coote, initial and partial fulfillment at Pentecost Cragg, 95. Norman A. Horner, and James M. Phillips 76 (Ac. 2:16–21) and will be fully fulfilled in the Block takes a different view, thinking (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994), 159. last days. The Pentecostal-charismatic move- “unscriptured” may simply refer to the fact 84 Lamen Sanneh, Disciples of All Na- ment whose explosive growth claims upward that Muhammad was not a known scholar tions: Pillars of World Christianity (Oxford: to ½ billion in just one century would lay like his uncle Waraqa, as the context gives Oxford University, 2008), 59. claim to be a further aspect of fulfillment. the impression of one who is an “amateur” 85 Founder of the Church of Jesus 63 or “under-educated.” This is influenced by This is special revelation, even if Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormonism). not viewed as normative authority for all his belief that “much of the Scripture already 86 Oosterwal, 13–15. believers, times and places. Daniel Jones, existed at least orally in Arabic, and textu- 87 “Dreams of Christ Awakening Muslims ally in Karshuni in Muhammad’s time. The Oosterwal, 21. 88 to Newfound Faith,” World Pulse 30, no. 5 Theopaschite [affirming that God can suf- Oosterwal, 28. (March 1995):4–5; Rick Kronk, Dreams fer] formula was debated by Arab Bishops, 89 Oosterwal, 34–35.

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90 Anthony Hoekema, The Four Major speaking, Paul becomes the greatest and fi- Saucy, The Case for Progressive Dispensa- Cults (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1963), 1. nal messenger, like Muhammad is in Islam, tionalism (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, We should note that Hoekema classified due to Islam’s overemphasizing his writings. 1999). This approach has considerable the Seventh-Day Adventists as a cult, along (Of course, the latter is incomparably more commonality with George Eldon Ladd’s with Mormonism, Jehovah’s Witnesses adverse due to Muslim neglect or rejection “already, not yet” view of the kingdom of and Christian Science; whereas, many of the Gospels.) Regardless of the degree God (The Gospel of the Kingdom, Grand like myself, count the Adventists as fellow to which one agrees with his assessment of Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1959). Moreover, evangelical believers (although I seriously Gentile Christianity’s overemphasis on Paul, even some amillennial covenant theologians differ regarding their theology of hell). This his incompleteness analogy of the Qur’an might not disagree greatly with much of should serve to illustrate the need for spiri- and the is helpful. this basic interpretative framework. tual sophistication that does not just apply 102 Although essential elements of 109 Garrison, 117–118. rigid categories and labels to an individual, gospel teaching are absent from the Qur’an, 110 Garrison, 118. group, or prophet. some listeners may have been acquainted 111 91 Timothy I, “Timothy’s Apology I mean apart from the writings in with it from the varied Christian groups for Christianity,” trans. A. Mingana, in En- the canon of Scripture. Some mistakes that formed the original context (as some counters and Clashes: Islam and Christianity in Agabus’ prophetic understanding (Ac. recent scholars assert). In any case, I under- in History. Vol. 2, ed. Jean-Marie Gaudeul, 21:10–11) are noted by Carson (1987:97– stand the Qur’an to demand that Muslims pp. 234–245 (Rome: Pontifical Institute for 99). Recall how even an apostle, Peter, erred believe in and follow the Injil. Arabic and Islamic Studies, 1984), 242. in his practical theology at (Gal. 2). 103 The term “cargo-cults” refers to 112 92 Martin Accad, “Christian Attitudes Alan Richardson, Creeds in the groups in Oceania that splintered off from toward Islam and Muslims: a Kerygmatic Making: A Short Introduction to the History the fruit of European missionary efforts Approach,” in Toward Respectful Under- of Christian Doctrine (London: SCM Press, because the missionaries hid the secrets for standing & Witness among Muslims, Evelyne 1935, reprint 1986), 31. obtaining the “cargo” of European material 93 A. Reisacher ed. (Pasadena, CA: William Oosterwal, 30. wealth (Mircea Eliade, “‘Cargo-cults’ and Carey Library, 2012), 39. 94 Little, 119. Cosmic Regeneration,” in Millennial Dreams 113 Bill A. Musk, Kissing Cousins 95 Paul G. Hiebert, “The Category in Action: Studies in Revolutionary Religious (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel, 2005), 82. Movements, ed. Sylvia Thrupp (The Hague, ‘Christian’ in the Mission Task,” Internation- 114 Reformed Dogmatics, 318. Others in Netherlands: Mouton, 1970), 122–125. al Review of Mission 72(3): 1983: 421–427. line with Bavinck cite biblical support for 96 104 Ibid. Eliade, 143. Spirit induced prophecy outside the biblical 105 97 This is an illustrative example, not Muhammad’s accusation against the canon but which is not necessarily infallible. ḥ necessarily expressing my view on when Jews (and Christians?) of ta rīf (“corruption” The NT gift of prophecy ( unlike NT apostle- they were saved. Admittedly, some would of the Word of God) did not charge them ship) was not necessarily infallible; for 1 Cor. see differences from our present age due to with changing the written text of Scripture, 14:29–31 and I Thes. 5:19–21 require that the transitional and dispensational distinctions. but with concealing the truth (Surah 3:71; pronouncements of prophets be sifted, not 98 Charles Kraft, “Contextualization 6:92), distorting its meaning as they read it necessarily accepted or rejected in toto. Cf. in Three Dimensions,” inaugural lecture aloud (3:78), composing their own texts and Donald A Carson, Showing the Spirit (Grand given at his installation as Sun Hee Kwak passing them off as Scripture (2:79), and Rapids, MI: Baker, 1987), 94–98; also Wayne Professor of Anthopology and Intercultural forgetting the covenant (5:14, 15). On the Grudem, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, Communication Chair, School of World contrary, he insists that no one can “change MI: Zondervan, 1994), chapter 53). Parallels Mission, Fuller Theological Seminary, Octo- the words of God” (10:64, 6:34). can be seen in church and mission history. In ber 20, 1999. 106 I would side with those who hold West Africa the charismatic prophet William 99 Cf. Surahs 2:285, 4:136, 163, that the NT distinguishes between these Harris claimed to have been called by God 5:44–48, 11:17, 40:69–72, and 42:15. original Apostles who authored infallible to be a prophet through a vision. Western 100 See C. Jonn Block’s work for likely authoritative revelation and those who are missionaries testified to the spectacular impact explanations, and Basetti-Sani (1977) for apostles merely as a spiritual gift, empow- of his ministry and considered it to be of God, possible ones. ered to be sent as missionaries or pioneers but some of his prophetic pronouncements 101 of new ministries. missed the mark. Cf. Mark Harlan, A Model Although the Qur’an’s portrayal of 107 Christ is incomplete and inadequate apart For an analysis of the various views for Theologizing in Arab Muslim Contexts (Pasa- from the Injīl, the same could also be said of on how Christ fulfilled the Law see Donald dena, CA: WCIU Press, 2012), chapter 11. 115 the apostle Paul. A religiously observant Jew A. Carson, “Matthew” in Matthew, Mark, Timothy C. Tennent, Theology in the who follows Jesus as Messiah pointed out to Luke. Expositor’s Bible Commentary, vol. 8, Context of World Christianity: How the Global me that an abridged volume ed. Frank Gaebelein, (Grand Rapids, MI: Church Is Influencing the Way We Think about called simply “The Epistles” that contained Zondervan Publishing, 1984), 141–145. and Discuss Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: only Paul’s writings would seem to be some- 108 I am here presupposing an initial, Zondervan, 2009), 43–44. what scattered and incomplete, just like the partial, and progressive view of kingdom 116 Ibid., 44. Tennent insists that such Qu’ran does to us. From his viewpoint, the fulfillment at Christ’s first coming, as an affirmation does not require Christians to Christian overemphasis on Paul’s writings advocated by progressive dispensationalists accept Islamic ideas of Muhammad’s infal- to the Greeks and Romans results in our writers like Craig A. Blaising and Darrell L. libility or his being the final prophet. More- giving greater authority to Paul’s teachings Bock, Progressive Dispensationalism (Whea- over, it does not obviate the need of Muslims about Jesus than to Jesus himself. Practically ton: IL: BridgePoint, 1993) and Robert for the gospel of Christ for salvation.

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117 Anton Wessels, The Torah, The Gospel the Quranic References to Isa in Light of and the Qur’an: Three Books, Two Cities, One the Tafsir and Hadith.” Ph.D. dissertation, Tale (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2013), 32. Hartford Seminary Foundation, 1969. 127 118 Wessels, 42–43. “People of the Book” in this instance 119 Wessels, 53. refers to Muslims since “what was revealed 120 Regarding some alleged errors in to you by your Lord” refers to the Qur’an. the Qur’an, such as its reference to They are obliged to uphold the Tawrah and as a minister of Pharoah (29:29), Wessels Injil as well. 128 explains that this is not a historical asser- Watt, William Montgomery, tion, but rather a spiritual one. Just as the Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions Bible often links motifs to powers of differ- and Misperceptions (London: Routledge, ent eras that are opposed to God, so Haman 1991), 148, cited in Block, 241. is connected to Pharoah, the enemy of God’s people. In the Qur’an these two, like , are arrogant (Wessels, 156). Also, he believes Jesus is the Mahdi (197). 121 These “Muslims” or “Believers” likely included Christians and Jews, though many scholars would disagree. 122 Wessels, 226–227. 123 David Cook, “Why Did Muhammad Attack the Byzantines?” in Political Islam from Muhammad to Ahmadinejad: Defenders, Detrac- tors, Definitions, ed. Joseph Morrison Skelly (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger Security, 2010), 28. Given debates over chronology, Cook says that it is possible that the attack at Tabuk in 631 could have been the Muslim reaction to this veneration of the True Cross (31). 124 Wessels, 227–228. He cites other indications of positive attitudes toward other “People of the Book.” In 632 Muham- mad received a Christian delegation from southern Arabic to Medina and allowed them to pray in his mosque. His treaty with them and with Jews of the Hijaz was later ignored by his later successor, Umar. Yet even under Mu’awiya, the first Umayyid ruler, the police force in Medina was com- prised of 200 Christians and for many years there was a cemetery for Christians and Jews in Mecca (255–256). 125 Wessels contrasts the Qur’an’s at- titude toward conquest to the later Islamic view: “It is incorrect to understand the use of the word fath [success] in Muhammad’s time in its later sense of ‘conquest.’ . . . it is obvious, according to the Qur’an, that the attainment of the conquest and victory and the use of violence, however minor, entail dirty hands. That is why forgiveness must be continually sought: ‘When God’s help () comes, and success (fath), and you [Muhammad] see the people entering the religion of God in droves, then praise the of your Lord and ask him forgiveness.’ (Q. 110:1-3; cf. Q. 40:55; 71:10),” 252. 126 Geoffrey Parrinder, Jesus in the Qur’an (London: Sheldon Press, 1965), 16; cf. also Donald R. Rickards, “A Study of

International Journal of Frontier Missiology