Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur'an

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Review Article International Journal of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics Volume 7 Number 3, September – December 2019 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.21088/ijfnd.2322.0775.7319.4

Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III

TP Mall

How to cite this article: TP Mall. Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III. Int J Food Nutr Diet. 2019;7(3):137– 152.

Abstract

Our ancient literatures of Hindus’, Muslims as well as of Cristian’s are full of plants described about their nutrimental and medicinal potential. A significant number of plants described in their texts are still unidentified because of least or no interest in plant taxonomy among neither grate scientists in well-developed different organisations nor respected teachers of Universities or Colleges of repute. We can say with confidence that there are no teachers who can teach Plant Taxonomy in significant numbers of academic institutions. A man of Biotechnology can do nothing if he/she can not identify the plant on which the work has to be worked out. As a result, due to non-identification of plants we can not use our wealth of knowledge which has been provided by our ancestors present in form of scripts. We were presented a book written by Dr. M. I. H. Farooqi entitled “Quruani Poudhe-Vagayanic Dhristi Se” while in Seminar organised by UP Biodiversity Board, Lucknow. We found that there are seventy-one plants being reported in Holy Qur’an and Bible. We have consulted the literatures available as well as the tribal of Bahraich about the uses of the plants available. The perusal of the alphabetical list of plants of Holy Qur’an reveals that there are 71 plant species representing 48 genera of 30 families. Brassicaceae, Cucurbitaceae and Moraceae family were found to be the biggest family represented by 6 plant species each whereas Caesalpiniaceae, Papilionoideae and Poaceae with 5 plant species each; Rosaceae and Rhamnaceae with 4 plant apecies; Mimosaceae, Liliaceae, Pinaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Oleaceae, Lytharaceae, Lamiaceae and Arecaceae with 2 plant species and rest fourteen families viz., Malvaceae, Asclepidiaceae, Lauraceae, Bixaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Juglandaceae, Cuprassaceae, Lecnoraceae, Loranthaceae, Anacardiaceae, Sterculiaceae, Ericaceae, Salvadoraceae, and Vitaceae is being represented by single plant species each. Keywords: Ethnobotanical; Ethnomedicinal; Potential; Plants; Qur’an.

Introduction: early civilizations and still the most widely practiced form of medicine in the world today, Herbal Medicine is the oldest form of medicine Ethnobotany is one of the most interesting known to mankind. It was the mainstay of many themes of economic botany which might have fi rst of all came into the existence probably when earliest man of “stone age” observed the animals mostly Author Affiliation: Ex-Associate Professor & Head, Postgraduate Department of Botany, Kisan PG College, the apes and monkeys eating certain plants or plant Bahraich, Uttar Pradesh 271801, India. parts viz., Fruits, leaves and even infl orescences Corresponding Author: TP Mall, Ex-Associate to satisfy their hunger. Therefore, on the basis of Professor & Head, Postgraduate Department of Botany, plants usage fi rst of all by animals and later on by Kisan PG College, Bahraich, Uttar Pradesh 271801, the human beings the concepts of Ethnobotany and India. Ethnozoology were evolved, which merged into a E-mail: [email protected] common term known as Ethnobiology. However, [email protected] the term Ethnobotany was fi rst of all used in the th Received on 25.05.2019, Accepted on 20.06.2019 last of 19 century by J.W. Harsh Berger (1895)

© Red Flower Publication Pvt. Ltd. 138 TP Mall / Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III to indicate the interrelationship of plants with Ceratonia siliqua, Cinnamomum camphora and aboriginal people or tribal societies [Trivedi and Citrullus colocunthis. Sharma, 2011]. In many parts of the world, wild plants are obtained from forests or wild areas Eneumerations designated for extractive resources and managed Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Flame of the Forest, by local communities [Jadhav et al., 2011]. Wild bastard teak, battle of Plassey tree, Bengal kino, edible plants provide food quantity as well as palas tree, parrot tree medicines [Patale et al., 2015]. • Assamese: bipornok, kingxuk, polax India is one of the twelve mega-biodiversity countries of the World having rich vegetation • Bengali: palash with a wide variety of plants. As per the 2001 • Gujarati: kesudo, khakhro, palash census, the tribal population of India is 8.43 crore, • Hindi: dhak, palash, tesu constituting 8.2% of total population of the country [Annual Report, 2005–2006]. With enormously • Kannada: muttuga, palasha diversifi ed ethnic groups and rich biological • Konkani: palas resources, India represents one of the great emporia • Malayalam: chamata, kinsukam, plaas of ethnobotanical wealth [Pal, 2000]. Even today, tribal's and certain local communities in India still • Manipuri: pangong collecting and preserving locally available wild • Marathi: dhak, palas and cultivated plant species for their day today life • Nepali: palans [Mahishi et al., 2005 and Ayyanar et al., 2010]. • Oriya: palasha We were presented a book written by Dr. M.I.H. Farooqi entitled “Quruani Poudhe-Vagayanic • Sanskrit: kimshuka, palasha Dhristi Se” while in Seminar organised by UP • Tamil: kincukam, palasam Biodiversity Board, Lucknow. We found that there are seventy-one plants being reported • Telugu: kimsukamu, (Fabaceae) in Holy Qur’an and Bible. We have consulted Synonyms the literatures available as well as the tribal of Bahraich about the uses of the plants available. Butea braamania DC.; Butea frondosa Roxb.; The perusal of the alphabetical list of plants of Butea frondosa Willd.; Butea frondosa var. lutea Holy Qur’an reveals that there are 71 plant species (Witt.) Maheshw.; Erythrina monosperma Lam.; representing 48 genera of 30 families. Brassicaceae, Plasomonosperma (Lam.) Kuntze; Plasomonosperma Cucurbitaceae and Moraceae family were found var. fl ava Kuntze; Plasomonosperma var. rubra Kuntze; to be the biggest family represented by 6 plant Rudolphia frondosa (Willd.) Poir. species each whereas Caesalpiniaceae, Papilionoideae Butea monosperma is found throughout the drier and Poaceae with 5 plant species each; Rosaceae parts of India, often gregarious in forests, open and Rhamnaceae with 4 plant apecies; Mimosaceae, grasslands and wastelands. A characteristic tree of Liliaceae, Pinaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Oleaceae, the plains, it often forms pure patches in grazing Lytharaceae, Lamiaceae and Arecaceae with 2 plant grounds and other open places [World Agroforestry species and rest fourteen families viz., Malvaceae, Centre, 1977]. Asclepidiaceae, Lauraceae, Bixaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Juglandaceae, Cuprassaceae, Lecnoraceae, Loranthaceae, Butea monosperma is a species of Butea native Anacardiaceae, Sterculiaceae, Ericaceae, Salvadoraceae, to tropical and sub-tropical parts of the Indian and Vitaceae is being represented by single plant Subcontinent and Southeast Asia, ranging across species each. We have enumerated fi ve plants viz., India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegal, Acacia seyal, Alhgi Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, and maurorum and Allium cepa in detail in fi rst part western Indonesia. and eight plants viz., Allium sativum, Astragaluh It is native to India, fl ame of the Forest, a Sacred adscendens, Bombax ceiba, Brassica arabica, Brassica Tree, is a medium sized tree, growing from 20 to juncea, Brassica nigra, Brassica rapa and Brassica 40 feet high, and the trunk is usually crooked and schimperi in second part of the manuscript. In twisted with irregular branches and rough, grey present third part of the manuscript we are bark. The leaves are pinnate, with an 8–16 cm eneumerating seven plants viz., Butea monosperma, petiole and three leafl ets, each leafl et 10–20 cm long. Calotropis gigantean, Cedrus libani, Cedrus deodara, The hindi phrase “Dhaak ke teen paat” comes from

International Journal of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics / Volume 7 Number 3/ Sepetmber – Decemeber 2019 TP Mall / Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III 139 the prominent three leafl ets of this tree. It is seen and diuretic [Allen and Allen, 1981]. in all its ugliness in December and January when The fl owers are useful in the treatment of liver most of the leaves fall: but from January to March it disorders [World Agroforestry Centre Publication, truly becomes a tree of fl ame, a riot of orange and 1977]. vermilion fl owers covering the entire crown. These fl owers, which are scentless, are massed along The fl owers contain butrin and isobutrin. the ends of the stalks–dark velvety green like the These compounds have been shown to have cup-shaped calices and the brilliance of the stiff, antihepatotoxic principles [Plant Resources of bright fl owers is shown off to perfection by this Southeast Asia Publication PROSEA, 2003]. deep, contrasting colour. Each fl ower consists of The seeds act as an anthelmintic [World fi ve petals comprising one standard, two smaller Agroforestry Centre Publication, 1977]. wings and a very curved beak-shaped keel. It is A potential anti-asthmatic agent has been this keel which gives it the name of Parrot Tree. In reported from the bark [Plant Resources of olden days, the fl owers of Tesu were used to make Southeast Asia Publication]. color for the festival of Holi. In Manipur, there is an interesting cultural use of the wood of this tree with Agroforestry Uses beautiful fl owers– when a member of the Meitei community dies and, for some reasons, his body Seedlings and green branches are spread in rice can not be found, the wood of this tree is cremated fi elds as a salt-fi ltering agent and green manure. in place of the body. Leaf-decomposing bacteria produce a slime that is able to aggregate clay particles. In the course of this A postal stamp was issued by the Indian Postal process micro-cavities are formed loosening the Department to commemorate this fl ower. compacted soil and allowing leaching of noxious salts from the soil solution [Digital Compendium Ethnobotanical Potential of Forestry Species of Cambodia, 2008]. Young roots are consumed [Digital Compendium In India, farmers frequently use this tree to of Forestry Species of Cambodia, 2008]. stabilize fi eld bunds [World Agroforestry Centre Butea monosperma (Lam.) is a tree with a purpose: Publication, 1977]. Improving livelihood of disadvantaged rural As per study of Sridhar et al. (29) the lac people of central India [Sridhar et al., 2015]. cultivation on Butea monosperma-based agroforestry is quite helpful for livelihood security in drought- Ethnomedicinal Potential prone regions of Central India and a single tree Butea gum, or Bengal kino, an exudate from the of Butea monosperma can produce 1.5–2.5 kg and tannin-rich vesicles in the bark, is used medicinally gives an annual income of `700/– to `800/–. An [Mansfeld’s Database of Agricultural and apiculture-based agroforestry system is another Horticultural Plants; Brummitt & Powell, 1992]. option which will not only provide additional A powerful astringent, it is used in the treatment income to the farmers, but will also result in other of diarrhoea and wounds [World Agroforestry benefi ts to the agricultural production due to the Centre Publication; Digital Compendium of role of honeybees as pollinators. Forestry Species of Cambodia, 2008]. Other Uses The seeds, ground into a paste with honey, are used for anthelmintic, antifungal, antibacterial and The fl owers are used for the preparation of a yellow purgative properties [World Agroforestry Centre dye for silk especially, also ritually used [Mansfeld’s Publication, 1977; Plant Resources of Southeast Database of Agricultural and Horticultural Plants Asia Publication PROSEA, 2003; Allen and Allen, (Brummitt & Powell, 1992)]. 1981]. A bright yellow to deep orange-red dye, known The seed paste, mixed with lemon juice, are used as butein, can be prepared from the fl owers. It is as a rubefacient [Allen and Allen,1981]. used especially for dyeing silk and sometimes for cotton, and is traditionally used by Hindus to The seeds contain around 18% oil. Called mark the forehead [World Agroforestry Centre ‘moodoga oil’, it is an effective treatment for Publication, 1977]. The colour is, however, fl eeting, hookworms [Watt., 1883; Allen and Allen, 1981]. but it may be made less so by using alum or lime as The fl owers and leaves are aphrodisiac, astringent a mordant, which also deepens the colour [Watt.,

International Journal of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics / Volume 7 Number 3/ Sepetmber – Decemeber 2019 140 TP Mall / Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III

1883]. Sometimes myrabolans are used for this Propagation purpose, or the dye is combined with anatta (Bixa Seed–sow in situ [World Agroforestry Centre orellana) [Watt, 1883]. Publication, 1977]. Germination, which starts in A red dye is obtained from the roots [Digital about 10–12 days, is completed in 4 weeks [World Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia, Agroforestry Centre Publication, 1977]. Fresh seeds 2008]. have a good germinative capacity (about 63%) at The bark is a source of tannins [World optimum germination temperature of about 30°C Agroforestry Centre Publication, 1977]. [World Agroforestry Centre Publication, 1977]. While germinating in the wild, the seed remains A red exudate is obtained from the tannin- in the pod which opens at the tip and allows the rich vesicles in the bark [World Agroforestry young shoot and root to emerge [Plant Resources Centre Publication, 1977; Mansfeld’s Database of of Southeast Asia Publication PROSEA, 2003]. The Agricultural and Horticultural Plants; Brummitt & cotyledons remain attached to the seedling for a Powell, 1992]. It hardens into a gum, known as Butea considerable time [Plant Resources of Southeast gum, or Bengal kino and can be used medicinally, Asia Publication PROSEA, 2003]. as a dye or for tannin [World Agroforestry Centre Publication, 1977; Mansfeld’s Database of Root suckers and Air layering. Agricultural and Horticultural Plants; Brummitt & Calotropis gigantea (L.) Aiton Madar, Giant Powell, 1992; Watt, 1883]. It occurs in the form of Milkweed (Apocynaceae) round tears, often fragmentary. It may be purifi ed by solution in water. It is of a brilliant ruby-red Common Names colour, translucent and brittle, heat rendering it Bengali Aakanda; English Crown Flower, Giant more so instead of melting it [Watt, 1883]. Milk Weed, Milkweed, Bowstring hemp, Giant A small quantity of a bright, clear oil is Calotrope, Hindi Arka, Mudar, Ak, Safed Aak; obtained from the seeds [World Agroforestry Malayalam Erikku, Chuvannaerikk, Yerikku, Centre Publication, 1977; Mansfeld’s Database of Vellerikk, Erikkalachedi, Vella-erikku, Dinesam; Agricultural and Horticultural Plants; Brummitt & Manipuri Angkot; Marathi Arki, Ruiti, Arka, Rui; Powell, 1992; Watt, 1883]. The seeds contain up to Others Crown Flower, Milkweed, Giant Calotrope, 18% oil [Allen and Allen, 1981]. Swallow-wort, Yerukku, Bowstring Hemp, A course, tough, fi brous material, known as ‘pala Giant Milkweed, Mandar; Sanskrit Hrasvagnih, fi bre’ is obtained from the inner bark. It is used for Sadapushpa, Arka, Alarka, Arki; Tamil Arkkam, cordage, caulking the seams of boats and making Erukku, Malaiyerukku, Yerukku; Telugu paper [World Agroforestry Centre Publication, JillediPuvvu, Jilledu, Uchchinta, Nallajilledu, 1977; Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Uccinta. Cambodia, 2008; Dodge, 1897; Allen and Allen, 1981]. Synanyms A strong fi bre, obtained from the roots, is used in Asclepias gigantea L.; Madorius giganteus (L.) Kuntze; India for making native sandals, ropes etc. [Watt., Periploca chinensis Decne.; Periplocacochin chinensis 1883; Dodge, 1897]. Lour.; Streptocauloncochin chinense (Lour.) G. Don Shrubs, stem rounded. Leaves 10–16 × 8–10 cm, The soft and not durable wood is light, white smaller in branchlets; elliptic-ovate to obovate, or yellowish-brown when fresh, but often turning apex acute or obtuse, base cordate; lateral nerves greyish because of susceptibility to sap stain. It is 5–7 pairs, ad pressed pubescent when young, not of great value but is sometimes used for utensils becoming glabrous on maturity. Flowers pale [World Agroforestry Centre Publication, 1977]. purple or greenish-white, 3 cm across; pedicels to The wood is durable under water and is used to 3 cm long, stout; calyx lobes to 3 mm long; corolla make well curbs, water dippers, sacred utensils etc. campanulate, tube short, lobes ovate to oblong, [Allen and Allen, 1981]. recurved; staminal corona of 5 vertical lobes, 1 cm The wood makes a fuel of moderate quality long. Fruit saccate, to 6 × 3 cm, ovoid; seeds many. [World Agroforestry Centre Publication, 1977]. Flowering and fruiting: throughout the year. The leaves are sometimes used as a fuel [World Flower- In terminal or lateral panicles, purple Agroforestry Centre Publication, 1977]. The wood is or lilac or dull white. Flowering throughout the burnt for gunpowder charcoal [World Agroforestry year. Fruit–A follicle, Oblong, in fl attened; seeds Centre Publication, 1977]. oblong to ovate, ending in a silky coma. Fruiting International Journal of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics / Volume 7 Number 3/ Sepetmber – Decemeber 2019 TP Mall / Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III 141 throughout the year. Field tips– Leaves sessile, Hill, 1952; Dodge, 1897]. It is a Kapok substitute, auriculate at base, densely white powdery. being very water repellent, it can be used as a It is common in East Asia–Southern China, buoyancy aid in Life Jackets or as a stuffi ng material Indian subcontinent, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, [Whiting, 1943]. Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia. The fl oss absorbs oil whilst repelling water and Dry coastal areas, along the sheltered shores of so has also been used to mop up oil spills at sea. lagoons, overgrazed pasture land [Barwick, 2004]. Candlewicks can be made from the seed fl oss Woods of dry areas, stream banks from sea level [Whiting, 1943; Coffey,1993]. The twigs are used as to 1,400 metres in southern China [Flora of China, chew sticks for cleaning the teeth [Protabase, 2004; 1994]. Dodge, 1897]. Succeeds in the drier tropics. Most commonly The juice is used in making a yellow dye and found in areas of the tropics with a specifi c dry in tanning [Flora of China, 1994]. The wood is season, at elevations up to 1,000 metres [Protabase, sometimes used for fuel, but it is of poor quality 2004]. An excellent plant for the seaside garden [Protabase, 2004]. [Barwick, 2004]. However, a good quality charcoal is obtained Prefers a well-drained soil in a sunny position from the wood and can be used for making [Whistler and Arther, 2000]. Succeeds in a variety gunpowder [Manandhar, 2002; Protabase, 2004; of soils, but prefers littoral, sandy soils [Protabase, Dodge, 1897]. 2004]. Plants can thrive in dry sands [Dodge, 1897]. Established plants are very drought tolerant Ethnomedicinal Potential [Barwick, 2004]. Plants are tolerant of salt-laden The milky sap (latex) coagulates when warm and is winds [Barwick, 2004]. said to have similar cardiac properties to digitalis One hectare of ground stocked with plants 30 cm (from various Digitalis spp.) [Dodge, 1897]. apart can yield 24 tonnes of green stems, from which It is also considered to be antiseptic, emetic, 260–350 kilos of fi bre can be obtained [Dodge,1897]. purgative and vermifuge [Protabase, 2004]. It is The plant is of great religious signifi cance in India, used in the treatment of a variety of other conditions where it is sacred to the God Shiva [Dodge, 1897]. including dysentery, leprosy, elephantiasis, Plants can fl ower all year round, but the main epilepsy, asthma and many other complaints fl owering is in the hot season [Protabase, 2004]. [Dodge, 1897]. The sap (latex) is somewhat poisonous [Whistler Mixed with salt, it is taken orally as an emetic and Arther, 2000]. It is used for poisoning arrows for treating severe colds[de Filipps, et al., 2004]. In [Protabase, 2004]. Nepal, the latex is applied to sprains, body pains, All parts of the plant are toxic, due to the presence boils and pimples [Manandhar, 2002]. of several cardiac glycosides [Protabase, 2004]. The milky latex is used externally to stop The plant is also known to cause allergic bleeding, and for treating a wide range of conditions contact dermatitis, and the latex causes kerato- including leprosy, rheumatism, ringworm, boils, conjunctivitis [Protabase, 2004]. scabies, stings, burns, bruises, cuts, sores and wounds, [Protabase, 2004; de Filipps, et al., 2004]. It Ethnobotanical Potential is applied to the gums and teeth to treat caries and toothaches [Protabase, 2004]. The central part of the fl ower is candied and used as a sweetmeat [Uphof,1959]. A fi ne fi bre is The bark is used as a medicine for the treatment obtained from the bark of the stems [Flora of China of neurodermatitis and syphilis [Flora of China, 1994; Whistler and Arther, 2000; Dodge, 1897]. Very 1994]. The powdered bark is used to treat diarrhoea, strong, it is said to possess many of the qualities of dysentery, elephantiasis, and leprosy [Manandhar, fl ax (Linumusitatissimum), though it is somewhat 2002; Protabase, 2004]. fi ner [Uphof, 1959; Dodge, 1897]. The stem bark is diaphoretic and expectorant, It is much used for making textiles, fi shing nets and is used for dysentery, spleen complaints, and bow strings [Dodge, 1897]. The mature seed convulsions, lumbago, scabies, ringworm, pods contain a large quantity of fl oss, which has a pneumonia, and to induce labour. variety of uses. For example, it can be used to stuff An infusion of the leaves is used to treat severe pillows etc or mixed with other fi bres to make cloth chest colds and heart conditions [de Filipps, et al., [Whiting, 1943; McPherson, 1977; Buchanan, 1987; 2004]. The leaf juice is used in the treatment of International Journal of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics / Volume 7 Number 3/ Sepetmber – Decemeber 2019 142 TP Mall / Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III intermittent fever [Manandhar, 2002]. The smoke degraded by factors of decline that include grazing, of dried, burned leaves is inhaled to calm asthma logging, urbanization, winter sports, and insect attacks [Protabase, 2004]. pests [Gardner, 2015]. The crushed leaves are warmed and used Cedruslibani occurs at elevations of 1,300–3,000 m, as a poultice on sores, burns, headaches and usually on N and W aspects on well-drained, mainly rheumaticpains [Uphof, 1959; Flora of China, 1994; calcareous souls. Climate is cool with abundant Manandhar, 2002; Protabase, 2004]. The powdered winter snow at higher elevations. Typically, in fl owers are valued for treating coughs, colds pure stands or with Abiescilicica, Juniperusexcelsa, and asthma [Manandhar, 2002; Protabase, 2004]. J. oxycedrus, Pinus nigra, P. brutia, and hardwood An infusion is taken to treat intestinal worms, species such as Quercus cerris, Sorbus torminalis, and rheumatism and epileptic attacks [Protabase, 2004]. Prunus ursina [Gardner, 2015]. The juice of young buds is dropped into the ear Hardy to Zone 7 (cold hardiness limit between in the treatment of earache [Manandhar, 2002]. The –17.7°C and –12.2°C) [Bannister and Neuner, 2001]. fruit pulp is considered abortive [Protabase, 2004]. This may be the conifer with which humans Roots and fl owers are being used against dog bites have the longest recorded history. “Through fi ve [Murtem and Chaudhry, 2019]. millenniums of recorded history, a parade of civilizations has praised the cedars of Lebanonand Agroforestry Uses then chopped them down. Lebanon has been As it thrives upon soils where nothing else will deforested by Mesopotamians, Phoenicians and grow, needing neither culture nor water, it has ancient Egyptians; by the Greek and Roman empires; been considered a good plant for bringing waste by crusaders, colonizers and modern Middle East land under tillage and for reclaiming drifting sands turmoil” [Barnard and Haner, 2018]. The cedar is [Dodge,1897]. The leaves can be used for mulching, mentioned often in the Old Testament of the Bible. green manuring of rice fi elds and for binding sandy For example, the First Temple of Solomon was built soil[Protabase, 2004]. The plant is sometimes grown of it. In modern times, Cedar of Lebanon is widely as a hedge [ Protabase, 2004]. cultivated as an ornamental species. Cedrus libani A. Rich. 1823 Lebanese cedar, cedar Masri (1995) provides this summary of the species of Lebanon (Vidakovic, 1991)(Pinaceae): historical importance: The Cedar of Lebanon is cited numerous times in religion and mythology. Synanyms In addition to its signifi cant role in the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Cedar of Lebanon is regarded as a C. libanotica Link; C. libanitica (Trew) Pilger; C. world tree in several mythological passages. One libanensisJuss. ex Mirb.; C. cedrus Huth.; C. patula K. Koch (Vidakovic, 1991). Author cited as Loud. in deeply mythological passage sees the imperial (Vidakovic, 1991). nation, the embodiment of history, under the fi gure of something like a world-tree [Ezekiel 31.1–18]. Cedrus libani, commonly known as the cedar The cutting of the cedar is seen as the destruction of Lebanon or Lebanon cedar, is a species of of world-empires-really, as the end of history. Our cedar native to the mountains of the Eastern understanding of ecology, the dependence of human Mediterranean basin. It is an evergreen conifer history on maintenance of the natural environment, that can reach 40 m in height. It is the national simply makes this primitive insight explicit. emblem of Lebanon and is widely used as an ornamental tree in parks and garden. Native to Ethnobotanical Potential mountains near the Mediterranean in Turkey, Syria and Lebanon. In Turkey, occurs from the western The sawdust of the cedar puts snakes to fl ight, and Taurus Mountains, east to the province of Hayat; thus makes sleeping under the shade of a cedar a there are also two occurrences near the Black Sea; relatively safe siesta. Furthermore, based upon the area of occupancy is about 993 km2. In Syria, historical analyses, it is believed that the cedar was occurs at one location on the eastern side of Jabal used in the preservation of the corpses in Egypt. An–Nusayriya, with an area of occupancy of only The Cedar of Lebanon aided society not only 1.5 km2. In Lebanon, occurs along the Mount culturally but was the basis of numerous economies Lebanon chain with an area of occupancy of 22 for ancient civilizations. The cedar had been used for km2. Only some of the Taurus Mountains stands the construction of temples, palaces, and boats. The can be described as healthy, intact forest; through export of cedar wood to Egypt was an important its remaining range, the forests are fragmented and factor in the growth of Phoenician prosperity and International Journal of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics / Volume 7 Number 3/ Sepetmber – Decemeber 2019 TP Mall / Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III 143 provided capital to launch the more ambitious Uses of medicinal tars enterprises in international trading, navigation, The most frequent uses mentioned by herbalist and arts and crafts. and producers were against different hair and skin The Phoenicians and the Egyptians were problems like dandruff, eczema, itchiness and skin not alone in utilizing the cedar. The Assyrians, infections. Nebuchadnezzar, the Romans, King David, King of It is also used to decorate pottery and to give Babylonia, Herod the Great, and the Turks in the water a pleasant odour. In rural areas Gatran is Ottoman Empire all exploited the cedars. During sometimes added to drinking water as a disinfectant the War of 1914–1918, most of the remaining stands to improve the quality. were exploited and destroyed for railroad fuel. As Other important uses are for animals as a a consequence, the extent of the cedars in Lebanon treatment against intestinal parasites and as a has dramatically declined. repellent towards snakes and scorpions. The latest, and perhaps most severe human threat Ferraga, the traditional women healers, use to the cedars is climate change, which “could wipe Gatran when healing small babies [Julin, 2008]. It out most of the country’s remaining cedar forests is used in medicine as ananalgesic, disinfectant and by the end of the century” [Barnard and Haner, towards different skin diseases like psoriasis and 2018]. There are a variety of factors at play here, dandruff [Anon, 2001]. It is also used in cosmetics familiar in climate change effects on forests around like soaps and shampoo, both for its disinfectant the world: increasing temperature, increasing properties and as a perfume [FAO, 1998]. aridity, increasing fi re risk, and proliferation of pest insects are foremost among them. But the principal Literature sources [Bellakhdar, 1998] indicate concern in Lebanon is that the trees have no place to that medicinal tars, like Cade oil, in Morocco are go; they are already growing on the mountaintops. made from different conifer species like J. phoenicea, They cannot migrate upwards to more hospitable J. thurifera, Cedrus atlantica or Tetraclinis articulate. environments. Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don 1830, Deodar cedar, Himalayan cedar, deodar, devdar, The Taurus Mountains are said to have the devadar, devadaru (Pinaceae): best remaining wild stands of this species, but that is largely due to its occurrence in remote and Synanyms inaccessible locations. Gardner (2015) notes that “there are extensive forests occurring from Boz Cedrus indica Chambray; Cedrus libani var. deodara Mountain (Acipayam) in the west and Ahir and Hook. (Vidakovic, 1991). Nur (Amanos) mountains in the east,” but I have Cedrus deodara, is a species of cedar native to no more specifi c location information. Barnard the western Himalayas in Eastern Afghanistan, and Haner (2018) note that signifi cant extant Northern Pakistan and India, Southwestern Tibet stands include the Barouk Cedar Forest (part of the and Western Nepal, occurring at 1,500–3,200 m Shouf Biosphere Reserve, south of Beirut), and the altitude. Deodar forests are forests dominated by Tannourine Cedars Forest Nature Reserve. Cedrusdeodara and are found in Western Himalayas The Horsh Ehden nature preserve in Lebanon from Gandak river in central Nepal to Hindukush looks to be a very worthwhile place to visit and see in Afghanistan. this species [Fareed, 1999]. The Cedars of Bsharre A tree up to 50 m high and up to 3 m in diameter. in Lebanon, now in a World Heritage Site, formerly Crown conical when young, with drooping leader included some remarkably large trees [Gardner, and branches drooping at the end, older trees 2015]. The species is an extremely popular rounded. Branches horizontally arranged, and ornamental in Europe and North America, and is end of the shoots pendulous. One-year shoots almost universal in arboreta and botanical gardens densely pubescent. Needles blue-green, about of the temperate zone. 30 in a cluster, 3–5 cm long, acuminate. Flowers appear in September and October. Cones solitary Ethnomedicinal Potential or in pairs. ovate or barrel-shaped. 7–10 cm long, 5–6 cm wide, rounded at the apex, bluish when Medicinally, the Cedar of Lebanon also made its young, reddish-brown when ripe; maturing from mark. The pitch of the cedar was utilized for easing September to November; the seed is shed from the pain of toothaches. September to December; seed scales 5–6 cm wide,

International Journal of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics / Volume 7 Number 3/ Sepetmber – Decemeber 2019 144 TP Mall / Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III usually glabrous on the upper side. Seed about bruises, skin diseases and injuries to joints. 17 mm long, about 6 mm wide; wing large, light The leaves are used in the treatment of brown [Vidakovic, 1991]. tuberculosis. The best trees are found on deep, well-drained Oil obtained from the seed is applied externally soils. High atmospheric moisture is favourable. It to treat skin diseases. The essential oil is used as is tolerant to shade, but young trees are prone to insect repellent on the feet of horses, cattle and injury from frosts and cold wind [Vidakovic, 1991]. camels. It is a component of the temperate forest, usually on north-facing valley slopes, where rainfall ranges It also has anti-fungal properties and has some from less than 1000 mm per year up to 2500 mm per potential for control of fungal deterioration of year, mostly in the form of winter snow. In these spices during storage. forests C. deodara is associated with a wide array of Due to its anti-fungal and insect repellent conifers and some broadleaf trees. Species present properties, rooms made of Cedrus deodara wood are may include Pinus wallichiana, Taxus baccata, Picea used to store meat and food grains like oats and smithiana, Abies spectabilis, and Abies pindrow, as well wheat in Himachal Pradesh. as species of Quercus, Rhododendron, Acer, Corylus, In Himachal people suffering from asthma or Aesculus and Betula. At somewhat lower and drier other respiratory problems are advised to sit under (precipitation less than 1000 mm/year, mostly as a Deodar tree early in the morning. snow) elevations it commonly occurs with Pinus gerardiana, Quercus ilex and Juniperus excelsa subsp. Cedar oil is often used for its aromatic properties, polycarpos [Bhattacharyya et al., 1988]. Hardy to especially in aromatherapy. Its applications cover Zone 8 (cold hardiness limit between –12.1°C and soap perfumes, household sprays, fl oor polishes –6.7°C) [Bannister and Neuner, 2001]. and insecticides. It is also used in microscope work as a clearing oil [Trees in KKL-JNF Forests]. Ethnobotanical Potential Services It is an important timber tree in India. In the West, is widely planted as an ornamental in Europe Erosion control: It’s a soil conservation and erosion [Vidakovic, 1991] and the Western United States. It control species in the Himalayas. provides an excellent fuelwood. Timber: The wood is white to light yellowish brown, with a characteristic Shade or shelter: Its shelter woods increases dry land odour and oily feel. It is straight-grained, medium pasture productivity as in New Zealand. fi ne and somewhat uneven-textured. Its average Reclamation: It’s a good re-vegetation species [Orwa 3 weight is 560 kg/m . The heartwood is very durable et al., 2009]. but insects and fungi attack sapwood. Deodar is an important structural timber tree. Its wood is highly Ornamental: This species is grown as an ornamental valuable and extensively used for building, railway and in amenity plantations in its native range and sleepers, carriage and railway wagon work and many countries into which it was introduced. other purposes for which durabilityis required. Ceratoniasiliqua Linn. Carob, carobtree, locust It is used in house building, beams, fl oorboards, bean, St John’s bread (Fabaceae): door and window frames, furniture and general carpentry. Italso produces quality plywood [Orwa The carob tree, Ceratonia siliqua L., is an evergreen et al., 2009]. shrub or tree cultivated in the Mediterranean area for its sugar-rich pods and gum-containing seeds. It Other products reaches a height of 8–17 m in the wild but cultivated trees are smaller. It has a broad hemispherical It is a possible substitute of pines as a Christmas crown, a thick trunk and sturdy branches [Ecocrop, tree. 2011; Battle and Tous, 1997]. The carob tree has an extensive root system with a deep taproot and lateral Ethnomedicinal Potential roots. Its leaves are alternate, pinnate, with or without The use of Cedrus deodara in Ayurvedic medicines is terminal leafl ets, and 10–20 cm long. The dark green well known. The plant yields a medicinal essential leafl ets have a very thick epidermis containing large oil by distillation of the wood which is used for amounts of tannins [Shepperd, 2008]. Each tree bears treatment of a wide range of ailments from fevers both female and male, or hermaphroditic, fl owers and dysentery, bronchitis, and snake bites. A resin (some cultivars may be completely hermaphroditic): obtained from the wood is used externally to treat plantations should comprise about 12% of pollinators International Journal of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics / Volume 7 Number 3/ Sepetmber – Decemeber 2019 TP Mall / Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III 145

(male or hermaphroditic trees) [Battle and Tous, Environmental impact 1997; Göhl, 1982]. The small and numerous fl owers It is nitrogen fi xing legume. Carob was long are borne in clusters that grow directly along the believed to be unable to fi x nitrogen, but bacteria branches [Battle and Tous, 1997]. The fruit is an thought to belong to the Rhizobium genus have been indehiscent straight or curved pod, 10–30 cm long, isolated from carob root nodules [El Idrissi et al., 1.5–3.5 cm broad and 6–20 mm thick. The pods 1996]. It is being used in agricultural diversifi cation, have a wrinkled surface that turns dark brown and afforestation and soil erosion control. Carob trees leathery at maturation. They contain 5 to 18 hard may also be helpful in degraded areas threatened brown seeds (10% of the pod weight) embedded by soil erosion and desertifi cation [Battle and Tous, in a sweet thick pulpy substance [Shepperd, 2008; 1997]. Battle and Tous, 1997]. The seeds, all being the same size, are used as weights in eastern Mediterranean Other environmental services countries: the word “carat” comes from qīrān, the Arabic name of the seeds [Göhl, 1982]. Carob trees are used as windbreaks around orchards. Because of their dense foliage, they are The carob tree is native to the Mediterranean also helpful buffers against noise from factories, region, including Southern Europe, Northern roads and railways [Battle and Tous, 1997]. is Africa, the larger Mediterranean islands, the Levant widely cultivated for its edible pods, and as and Middle-East of Western Asia into Iran, and the an ornamental tree in gardens and landscapes. Canary Islands and Macaronesia in the Atlantic The carat, a unit of mass for gemstones, and a Ocean. measurement of purity for gold, takes its name from the Greek word for a carob seed, keration, Ethnobotanical Potential via the Arabic word, qīrān. The carob tree is a very useful resource. Traditionally, carob pulp has been used for food: Products roasted and eaten as a snack, roasted and ground Food: Carob pulp is high in total sugar content (48– to make a cocoa substitute, fermented to make 56%). In addition, it contains about 18% cellulose alcohol, or diluted to make carob syrup [Battle and and hemicellulose. Mineral composition consists Tous, 1997]. The pods themselves are used as a of potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron, famine food, as the tree survives and keeps fruiting copper, iron, manganeseand zinc. during periods of scarcity [Freedman, 2009]. In some countries, Egypt for example, carob The most important industrial carob product syrup is a popular drink, obtained from carob today is the carob gum, a galactomannan extracted kibbles with water. Unicellular organisms convert from the seeds, which is a common food thickener carob pulp into a high-protein feed; sugar solutions and stabilizer. Feed products derived from the extracted from carob pods are an excellentsubstrate carob trees are the whole ground pods which can for culturing fungi such as Aspergillus niger and be fed to ruminants and non-ruminants, the dried, Fusarium monoliforme, and the dried mycelium is deseeded sugar-rich pulp, and the carob germ a palatableand nutritious feed, containing up to meal (the by-product of gum extraction). Carob 38% crude protein by weight. The carob product leaves are relished by browsing livestock [Battle most widely used, especially inthe food industry, is and Tous, 1997]. The ripe, dried, and sometimes carob bean gum (CBG), or locust bean gum (LBG). toasted pod is often ground into carob powder, This gum comes from the seed endosperm and which is sometimes used to replace cocoa powder. chemically is a polysaccharide, a galactomnnan. 100 Carob bars, an alternative to chocolate bars, as well kg of seeds yield 20 kg on average of pure dry gum. as carob treats, are often available in health food stores. Carob pods are naturally sweet, not bitter, The mucilaginous gum, known as ‘tragasol’, and contain no theobromine or caffeine. is used in a wide range of commercial products as a thickener, stabilizer, binder and gelling or Carob trees also provide a wood used for making dispersal agent. The food industry uses CBG utensils and slow-burning charcoal (Shepperd, for the production of a large number of different 2008) and extracted to yield algarrobin, a textile commodities: ice cream, soups, sauces, cheese, fruit dyeing agent [Morton, 1987]. pies, canned meats, confectionery, bakery products Carob trees are used as an ornamental evergreen and petfoods. Technical applications of CBG include species and are helpful in afforestation [Battle and cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, fi lm emulsions, paints, Taus, 1997]. polishes, ceramicsand adhesives. International Journal of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics / Volume 7 Number 3/ Sepetmber – Decemeber 2019 146 TP Mall / Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III

Pulp extracted and purifi ed produces sugar planting could be limited by its large size when and molasses. Powdered pulp is used as a food mature and its strong, invasive roots. ingredient and cacaosubstitute and for preparing Intercropping dietary products. Carob powder consists of 46% sugar, 7% protein and small amounts of numerous Frequently planted with species such as olive, minerals and vitamins and is thus quite nutritious. grapevines or almond. Young C. siliqua orchards Carob ‘cocoa’ has an advantage over chocolate in are intercropped with early-bearing species such that ithas fewer calories and neither caffeine nor as peach, almond or even vegetables; an annual theobromine. Ground seed embryo and endosperm perennial crop between the rows may give early can be used for human consumption; the latter, returns to the investment. containing CBG and E-410, is a food additive and Pollution a dietary fi bre. Ceratonia siliqua could help buffer noise from Fodder: C. siliqua pods provide fodder for ruminants factories, roads and railways because of its dense and non-ruminants. Endosperm and embryo of foliage. the seed can beground and used for pet food. The fodder is now being used in zero-grazing in Ethnomedicinal Potential Mediterranean countries. Carob (Ceratonia siliqua) is one of the important crops Fuel: The wood produces a slow-burning charcoal over Western Asia and North Africa. Its nutritional and can also be used for firewood. value has been acknowledged for millennia but its medicinal properties were practically studied Timber: C. siliqua timber is hard and close-grained only in the last four decades, despite the fact that and has been used to make utensils. someof them were used in traditional medicines Gum or resin: Currently, the main use of the seed is for centuries. Modern food industry is just starting gum extraction. to discover the great potential of this plant. Carob has outstanding antioxidant capacity along with Tannin or dyestuff: Ripe carob pods contain large other important medicinal activities. Some of these amounts of condensed tannins (16–20% of dry have been extensively studied and reported in the weight). last decades, but very few review articles were published about this plant, that summarize and Alcohol: A high sugar content and its relatively discuss the fi ndings [Azab, 2017]. low cost have made carob pulp among the earliest horticultural cropsused for the producton Medicine: Tannins extracted from the pulp act as an of industrial alcohol by fermentation in several anti-diarrhoeic. Ground pulp and seed endosperm Mediterranean countries. are used in thepreparation of pharmaceutical products. Services The medicinal uses of this plant are diversifi ed in Shade or shelter different regions viz., in Cyprus it is used as laxative [Ozkum et al., 2013]; in Egypt it is used in diarrhoea Widely planted as a shade tree, also recommended through infusion [Abouzid and Mohamed, 2011]; as a windbreak around orchards. in Greco-Arab it is used in diabetes, herpes and lip Reclamation sore through leaf decoction [Saad and Said, 2011]; in India it is used as an ant obesity [Fatima et al., Since it requires little if any cultivation, tolerates 2017]; in Iran it is being used in menorrhagia where poor soils and is long lived, C. siliqua is often the patient has to sit in a container of a decoction of recommended for reforestation of degraded coastal several plants including Carob [Tansaz et al., 2016]; zones threatened by soil erosion and desertifi cation. in Iraq abdominal pain and diarrhoea is being cured by eating ripe fruits [Ahmed, 2016]; in Israel it is Ornamental being used as antidiabetic by leaf decoction [Said et A popular ornamental in California, Australia and al., 2002] and against viral and bacterial infections elsewhere; male trees are preferred as they do not and fevers are cured by fruit syrup mixed with provide litter from pod fall. However, the value sesame paste [Landau et al., 2014]; in Italy dry fruits of C. siliqua as a drought-tolerant, air-pollution are given as an animal food [Guarrera et al., 2016] tolerant, low maintenance tree for street landscape and as an cure for emollient through fruits decoction

International Journal of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics / Volume 7 Number 3/ Sepetmber – Decemeber 2019 TP Mall / Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III 147 with Ficus carica and Malva sylvestris [Montesano et cones. The berries fi rst turn reddish, then ripen to al., 2012]; in Jordan it is being used as an antidiabetic black. Camphor tree can be readily identifi ed by through consumption of leaves decocition [Afi fi - the distinctive odour of a crushed leaf. Camphor Yazar et al., 2011] and cough is cured through hot/ Tree is native to China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and cold infusion of fruits [Oran and Al-Eisawi, 2015]; in adjacent parts of East Asia. It is now cultivated Lebanon molasses of ripe fruits is used as sweetener in many parts of the world. The plant is grown [Baydounet al., 2015] and also used as medicinal commercially in China and Japan as a medicinal [Baydoun et al., 2017]; in Morocco fruit, bark, and tree and also for its essential oil, though most leaves are used in diarrhoea, to kill fi sh during fi shing camphor oil on the market nowadays is produced [Ennabili et al., 2000] to kill intestinal parasites through synthetically [Uphof, 1959; Australian Tropical use of fruits/leaves decoction [El-Hilaly et al., 2003] Rainforest Plants Publication]. It has also been and for relief of skin, digestive system and nervous widely planted in other areas of the tropics, system there is infusion/decoction of fruit powder or subtropics and warm temperate zones [World oral [Ouhaddou et al., 2014] or fruit powder [Orch et Agroforestry Centre Publication]. At one time it al., 2017]; in Palestine for food, fruits are eaten raw, was heavily exploited as a source of camphor, but cooked or ripe [Ali-Shtayeh et al., 2008]; in Sicily for the availability of cheap, synthetic camphor has food, fruits are eaten raw, cooked or ripe [Lentini and meant that there is now only modest international Venza, 2007]; in Spain for chocolate, coffee substitute demand for the natural form [World Agroforestry and olive preservative the ripe fruits and leaves are Centre Publication]. Camphor produced from used [Tardio et al., 2006]; in Tunisia for food the Cinnamon species is often considered superior to ripe pods are consumed [Kaderi et al., 2015] and in synthetic because the molecules are dextorotatory, Turkey fresh podsare used as diuretic and purgative whereas synthetic camphor (produced from [Fakir et al., 2009]. pinene) contains both dextro– and laevorotatory Cinnamomumcamphora (Linn.) Presl. Camphor forms and is considered by many Pharmacopoeia’s Tree, Camphorwood, Camphor laurel • Bengali: it is to be more toxic [Duong, 1993]. Cinnamomum karpur • Hindi: Kapur • Kannada: chandara, camphora is invasive in parts of Kenya (CABI CPC, davala, dhavala, kappara, kapura • Malayalam: 2007) and Tanzania chutakkarpuram, ghanarasam, himamsu, Ethnobotanical Potential himavaluka • Manipuri: Karpura • Marathi: kapoora • Oriya: ramokorpuro • Sanskrit: Young shoots and leaves are cooked and consumed candraprabha, chandrahba, gandhadravya • [Tanaka and Nakao, 1976; Kunkel, 1984]. Some Tamil: chukantamaram • Telugu: candramu, caution is suggested because there is a report that candrasanguyamu • Urdu: kafoor (Lauraceae): the plant is poisonous in large quantities. The old leaves are dried and used as a spice Synonyms [Tanaka and Nakao, 1976; Kunkel, 1984]. An Camphoraofficinarum, Laurus camphora essential oil obtained from the plant is used as a food fl avouring in baked goods, candy etc [Facciola, Camphor tree is a large evergreen tree that grows 1998]. The essential oil obtained from camphor can up to 20–30 m tall. The leaves have a glossy, waxy vary quite considerably. On distillation, the wood appearance and smell of camphor when crushed. from different groups of trees may yield camphor, Alternately arranged 1–4 in long oval leaves linalool, safrole or cineole as the major chemical dangle from long stalks. Each leaf has three distinct [World Agroforestry Centre Publication]. The yellowish veins. The outer margins of the leaves essential oil ‘camphor’ is obtained from the leaves tend to be somewhat wavy and turn upward. The and twigs [Chittendon, 1951; Grieve. 1984; Uphof, new foliage starts out a rusty burgundy colour, 1959; Sherry; Usher, 1974]. but the leaves soon turn dark green on the upper sides and paler green underneath. New branches It is extracted commercially by passing a current emerging from the shallowly fi ssured greyish of steam through the wood chips, 30 kilos of wood brown trunk are smooth and green. Twigs are yields about 1 kilo of camphor [Vines, 1987]. usually green, but may be tinged with red when Camphor is used medicinally, in perfumes, as an young. The inconspicuous tiny cream coloured insecticide and also to make celluloid and as a fl owers are borne in the spring on branching 3 in wood preservative [Hill, 1952]. It can also be put in fl ower stalks. They are followed by large crops shoes to cure perspiring feet [Stuart, 1911] probably of fruit, comprised of round pea sized berries by acting as a deodorant rather than preventing attached to the branchlets by cuplike little green perspiration [Fern, 2014]. International Journal of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics / Volume 7 Number 3/ Sepetmber – Decemeber 2019 148 TP Mall / Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III

Fractionation of the camphor-free oil obtained The wood has been burnt as a fumigant during from the tree provides an oil rich in safrole (80% or epidemics [Genders, 1994]. Its aroma helps to more), usually called Chinese sassafras oil [World repel insects [Australian Tropical Rainforest Plants Agroforestry Centre Publication]. Publication]. The use of the tree as a source of leaf oil The heartwood is brownish-yellow with a green has expanded in recent years, and it is now an cast, or olive to light olive-brown to blackish-brown; important source of natural linalool (which is the sapwood is whitish or brownish. The texture is still preferred over the synthetic form for some medium to coarse; the grain straight to roey; there fragrant applications) [World Agroforestry is a satiny or silky lustre; the odour is spicy and acts Centre Publication]. The wood has been burnt as to repel insects. The wood has excellent working a fumigant during epidemics [Genders, 1994]. Its qualities and takes a good polish. It is thought aroma helps to repel insects [Australian Tropical by many to be beautifully grained, though some Rainforest Plants Publication]. people fi nd it a bit garish. It is used for making furniture, cabinets, the interior fi nish of buildings The heartwood is brownish-yellow with a green etc[Grieve, 1984; Uphof, 1959; Flora of China, 1994; cast, or olive to light olive-brown to blackish-brown; World Agroforestry Centre Publication; Australian the sapwood is whitish or brownish. The texture is Tropical Rainforest Plants Publication]. medium to coarse; the grain straight to roes; there is a satiny or silky lustre; the odour is spicy and acts Ethnomedicinal Potential to repel insects. The wood has excellent working qualities and takes a good polish. It is thought Camphor has a long history of herbal use in the by many to be beautifully grained, though some Orient with a wide range of uses. It has occasionally people fi nd it a bit garish. It is used for making been used internally in the treatment of hysteria, furniture, cabinets, the interior fi nish of buildings but in modern day herbalism it is mainly used as etc. [Grieve. 1984; Uphof,1959; Flora of China, the essential oil and internal use is not advised 1994; World Agroforestry Centre Publication; [Chevallier, 1996]. Australian Tropical Rainforest Plants Publication]. The wood and leaves are analgesic, The essential oil obtained from camphor can vary antispasmodic, odontalgic, rubefacient, stimulant. quite considerably. On distillation, the wood from An infusion is used as an inhalant in the treatment different groups of trees may yield camphor, of colds and diseases of the lungs [Uphof, 1959; linalool, safrole or cineole as the major chemical Sherry.; Yeung, 1985; Stuart, 1911; Bown, 1995]. [World Agroforestry Centre Publication]. The plant is more commonly used in the form of The essential oil ‘camphor’ is obtained from the the essential oil which can be obtained by distillation leaves and twigs [Chittendon, 1951; Grieve. 1984; of the chipped branches, trunk and wood of the tree, Uphof,1959; Schery; Uscher, 1974]. It is extracted or from the leaves and twigs. Wood 24–40 years commercially by passing a current of steam old is normally used [Stuart, 1979]. The essential through the wood chips, 30 kilos of wood yielding oil is anthelmintic, antirheumatic, antispasmodic, 1 kilo of camphor [Vines, 1987]. Camphor is used cardiotonic, carminative, diaphoretic, sedative and medicinally, in perfumes, as an insecticide and tonic [Grieve, 1984; Duke and Ayensu, 1985; Bown, also to make celluloid and as a wood preservative 1995; Chopra et al., 1986]. It is used externally in [Hill, 1952]. It can also be put in shoes to cure liniments for treating joint and muscle pains, balms perspiring feet [Stuart, 2011] (probably by acting for chilblains, chapped lips, cold sores, skin diseases as a deodorant rather than preventing perspiration etc and as an inhalant for bronchial congestion [Fern, 2014]). [Bown, 1995]. Some caution is advised, excessive Fractionation of the camphor-free oil obtained use causes vomiting, palpitations, convulsions and from the tree provides an oil rich in safrole (80% or death[Bown,1995]. It is possible that the oil can more), usually called Chinese sassafras oil [World be absorbed through the skin, causing systemic Agroforestry Centre Publication]. poisoning [Bown, 1995]. The use of the tree as a source of leaf oil The essential oil is used in aromatherapy. Its has expanded in recent years, and it is now an keyword is ‘Piercing’ [Westwood, 1993]. It is important source of natural linalool (which is used in the treatment of digestive complaints and still preferred over the synthetic form for some depression [Bown, 1995]. fragrant applications) [World Agroforestry Centre Citrullus colocunthis (L.) SchradIndrayan, Publication]. colocynth, bitter apple, bitter cucumber, desert International Journal of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics / Volume 7 Number 3/ Sepetmber – Decemeber 2019 TP Mall / Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III 149 gourd, egusi, vine of Sodom, or wild gourd vomiting, hypothermia, cardiac disorders, cerebral (Cucurbitaceae) congestion and necrosis of liver and renal cells [Mohamed et al., 2006]. Synonyms Ethnomedicinal Potential Cucumis colocynthis, Colocynthis vulgaris Parts used are roots, fruits and dried pulp. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad with many common names is a desert vinyl plant native to the Roots are purgative. Fruits are bitter, acrid, Mediterranean Basin and Asia, especially Turkey, cooling, carminative, purgative, antipyretic and Nubia. Citrullus colocynthis is a valuable and anthelmintic. Roots are useful in treatment cucurbit plant, widely distributed in the desert areas of enteralgia, mammalities, rheumatologic, of the world. Citrullus colocynthis fruits are usually visceromegaly in children, ophthalmia, ascites, recognized for its wide range of medicinal uses as jaundice and uropathy. well as pharmaceutical and nutraceutical potential. Fruits are used for tumours, ascites, leukoderma, Bitter Apple is an annual plant resembling the ulcers, asthma, bronchitis, urethrorrhagia, jaundice, common watermelon. The stems are herbaceous dyspepsia, constipation, elephantiasis, tubercular and beset with rough hairs. Leaves, on long stalks, glands of the neck and splenomegaly. Fruit-juice are alternately arranged. They are triangular, many contain alpha-elaterin, citrulline, citrullines and times cut, variously undulating, blunt, hairy, a citrulluic acid. Dried pulp & unripe fruit: dihydric fi ne green on upper surface, rough and pale on alcohol, citrullol, p-hydroxybenzyl and methyl the underside. Flowers are yellow, appearing ether. The peel-free fl esh of ripe fruits contains a singly at axils of leaves. Fruit is round, size of an yellow, bitter oil, citbittol [DOMAP, 2016]. orange, yellow and smooth, when ripe contains It is a powerful drastic hydragog cathartic within a hard-leathery rind, a white spongy pulp producing, when given in large doses, violent enclosing numerous ovate compressed white or brownish seeds. This species is globally distributed griping with, sometimes, bloody discharges and from Africa, Mediterranean, except Spain, to Indo- dangerous infl ammation of the bowels. Death Malesia. Within India, it is found wild in the warm, has resulted from a dose of 1 1/2 teaspoon fuls arid and sandy parts throughout, up to an altitude of the powder. It is seldom prescribed alone. It is of 1500 m. of such irritant nature that severe pain is caused if the powdered drug be applied to the nostrils; it Ethnobotanical Potential has a nauseous, bitter taste and is usually given in mixture form with the tinctures of podophyllum The plant was also shown to be rich in nutritional and belladonna. Colocynth fruits broken small are value with high protein contents and important useful for keeping moth away from furs, woollens, minerals as well as edible quality of seed oil etc. [ Hussain et al., 2014]. The plant has been reported to possess a wide Fruit are consumed cooked [Facciola, 1998]. range of traditional medicinal uses including in Fruits are fi rst boiled in several changes of water diabetes, leprosy, common cold, cough, asthma, to remove a bitter principle, and then made into bronchitis, jaundice, joint pain, cancer, toothache, pickles and preserved [Facciola, 1998]. wound, mastitis, and in gastrointestinal disorders The fruit is 5–8 cm in diameter [Cucurbitaceae such as indigestion, constipation, dysentery, Publication]. Seeds are consumed cooked [Facciola, gastroenteritis, colic pain and different microbial 1998]. Eaten roasted or ground into a meal and infections [Hussain et al., 2014]. used to make chapattis [Facciola, 1998]. An edible Several bioactive chemical constituents oil is obtained from the seed [Facciola, 1998]. The from fruits were recorded, such as, glycosides, seeds contain 30–34% of a pale-yellow oil, which fl avonoids, alkaloids, fatty acids and essential oils. contains an alkaloid, a glucoside and a saponin The isolation and identifi cation of curcurbitacins A, [Cucurbitaceae Publication]. B, C, D, E, I, J, K, and L and Colocynthosides A, and B The plant contains a number of potentially were also reported. The fruit of Citrullus colocynthis toxic compounds and can be harmful if used in has been studied extensively for its wide range of quantity. These compounds include elatermidine, biological activities, which include antioxidant, glycosides, resin, dihydric alcohol, heltiacontane, cytotoxic, antidiabetic, antilipidemic, insecticide, citrullin and citrullinic acid. Taken in excess antimicrobial and anti-infl ammatory [Hussain et they can cause gastrointestinal pain, diarrhoea, al., 2014]. The dried, unripe fruit pulp constitutes International Journal of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics / Volume 7 Number 3/ Sepetmber – Decemeber 2019 150 TP Mall / Nutrimental and Ethnomedicinal Potential Plants of the Qur’an: An Overview – III the drug ‘colocynth’, which is a very strong laxative plants used in traditional medicine by the [Huxley, 1992; Cucurbitaceae Publication]. communities of Mount Hermon, Lebanon. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015 Sep 15;173:139-56. It is also used as an antirheumatic, anthelmintic, hydrogogue, and as a remedy for skin infections 14. Baydoun SA, Kanj D, Raafat K. et al. [Uphof,1959; Plant Resources of Southeast Asia]. Ethnobotanical and Economic Importance of Wild Plant Species of JabalMoussa Bioreserve, The fruits and seeds are used in the treatment of Lebanon. J. Ecosys. Ecogr. 2017;S7:1-10. diabetes[Mohamed et al., 2006]. The roots have purgative properties and are used in the treatment 15. Bellakhdar J. La pharma copéetraditionnelle Marocaine. 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