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Overview of Sampling Procedures F A I R F A X C O U N T Y D E P A R T M E N T O F M A N A G E M E N T A N D B U D G E T October 2017 Informational Brochure Overview of Sampling Procedures The purpose of this brochure is to provide an overview of the sampling Table of Contents procedures available to a researcher. The differences between the various Why Sample 1 sampling procedures are discussed and examples are provided to illustrate the use of these procedures. The emphasis of this manual is placed on Sampling 2 underlying ideas and methods rather than detailed mathematical derivations. Methodologies For the reader who is interested in pursuing a more thorough approach to the Nonprobability 3 topics discussed, a list of technical references is provided in the box below. Probability Samples 4 Summary 6 Why Sample Glossary 7 If a researcher desires to extremely expen- obtain information about a sive, difficult, and Technical References: population through time consuming. A American Statistical Association questioning or testing, properly designed 732 North Washington Street he/she has two basic probability sample, Alexandria, VA 22314-1943 703-684-1221 · 888-231-3473 options: however, provides www.amstat.org a reliable means of 1. Every member of the inferring infor- American Association for Public population can be Opinion Research questioned or tested, mation about a population without examining One Parkview Plaza, Suite 800 a census; or every member or element. Oakbrook Terrace, IL 60015 2. A sample can be 1-847-686-2230 conducted; that is, Often, researchers are working under strict www.aapor.org only selected time constraints which make conducting a cen- members of the sus unwieldy. For instance, national polling Insights Association population are firms frequently must provide information on 170 N. Country Road, Suite 4 questioned or tested. Port Jefferson, NY 11777 the public's perceptions of current events or 202-800-2545 Contacting, questioning, issues. These polling firms tend to limit their www.insightsassociation.org and obtaining information national sample sizes to approximately 1,500 from a large population, respondents. When properly conducted, a Federal Committee on such as all of the Statistical Methodology probability sample of this size provides relia- Statistical Policy Working Papers households residing in ble information with a very small margin of er- fcsm.sites.usa.gov Fairfax County, is ror for the whole population of the United Page 2 Overview of Sampling Procedures States, which is more than 300 data processing and analysis operating. A relatively long million persons. errors. In part, these and difficult questionnaire can nonsampling errors are be administered to a sample A probability sample reduced through pretesting more easily than a brief frequently is more accurate which allows careful testing of questionnaire can be than a census of the entire the survey questionnaire and administered to the entire population. The smaller procedures. Pretesting cannot population. However, not all sampling operation lends itself be done when conducting a samples are accurate or the to the application of more census without causing appropriate vehicle for rigorous controls, thus possible contamination of some gathering information or ensuring better accuracy. of the respondents. The detail testing a hypothesis about a These rigorous controls allow of information that can be population. The following the researcher to reduce asked in a sample is greater sections of this brochure will nonsampling errors such as than that in a census due to the briefly discuss the merits and interviewer bias and mistakes, cost and time constraints under disadvantages of various nonresponse problems, which most researchers are sampling procedures. questionnaire design flaws, and Sampling Methodologies mates ob- Sampling methodologies are classified under tained from two general categories: the sample and to specify the sam- 1. Probability sampling and pling error. 2. Nonprobability sampling. Nonprobability samples, In the former, the researcher knows the exact in contrast, do not allow the study's findings to possibility of selecting each member of the pop- be generalized from the sample to the popula- ulation; in the latter, the chance of being includ- tion. When discussing the results of a nonprob- ed in the sample is not known. A probability ability sample, the researcher must limit his/her sample tends to be more difficult and costly to findings to the persons or elements sampled. conduct. However, probability samples are the This procedure also does not allow the re- only type of samples where the results can be searcher to calculate sampling statistics that generalized from the sample to the population. In provide information about the precision of the addition, probability samples allow the re- results. The advantage of nonprobability sam- searcher to calculate the precision of the esti- pling is the ease in which it can be adminis- Page 3 tered. Nonprobability samples tend to be less complicated and less time consuming than probability samples. If the researcher has no intention of generalizing beyond the sample, one of the nonproba- bility sampling methodologies will provide the desired information. Nonprobability Samples The three common types of collecting information can nonprobability samples are be reduced. convenience sampling, quota B. Quota Sampling sampling, and judgmental sampling. Quota sampling is often confused A. Convenience Sampling with stratified As the name implies, and cluster convenience sampling involves sampling—two choosing respondents at the probability sampling convenience of the researcher. methodologies. All of these Examples of convenience methodologies sample a additional respondents that samples include people-in-the- population that has been would have fallen into these street interviews—the subdivided into classes or classes are rejected or sampling of people to which categories. The primary excluded from the results. the researcher has easy access, differences between the An example of a quota sample such as a class of students; and methodologies is that with would be a survey in which the studies that use people who stratified and cluster sampling researcher desires to obtain a have volunteered to be the classes are mutually certain number of respondents questioned as a result of an exclusive and are isolated from various income advertisement or another type prior to sampling. Thus, the categories. Generally, of promotion. A drawback to probability of being selected is researchers do not know the this methodology is the lack of known, and members of the incomes of the persons they sampling accuracy. Because population selected to be are sampling until they ask the probability of inclusion in sampled are not arbitrarily about income. Therefore, the the sample is unknown for each disqualified from being researcher is unable to respondent, none of the included in the results. In subdivide the population from reliability or sampling quota sampling, the classes which the sample is drawn into precision statistics can be cannot be isolated prior to mutually exclusive income calculated. Convenience sampling and respondents are categories prior to drawing the samples, however, are categorized into the classes as sample. Bias can be employed by researchers the survey proceeds. As each introduced into this type of because the time and cost of class fills or reaches its quota, sample when the respondents Page 4 Overview of Sampling Procedures who are rejected, because the class to which within two miles of the new facility. Expert they belong has reached its quota, differ from judgment, based on past experience, indicates those who are used. that most of the use of this type of facility comes from persons living within two miles. However, C. Judgmental Sampling by limiting the sample to only this group, usage In judgmental or purposive sampling, the projections may not be reliable if the usage researcher employs his or her own "expert” characteristics of the new facility vary from those judgment about who to include in the sample previously experienced. As with all frame. Prior knowledge and research skill are nonprobability sampling methods, the degree used in selecting the respondents or elements to and direction of error introduced by the be sampled. researcher cannot be measured and statistics An example of this type of sample would be a that measure the precision of the estimates study of potential users of a new recreational cannot be calculated. facility that is limited to those persons who live Probability Samples Four basic types of methodolo- round. Samples may be drawn gies are most commonly used with or without replacement. In for conducting probability sam- practice, however, most simple ples; these are simple random, random sampling for survey re- stratified, cluster, and systemat- search is done without replace- ic sampling. Simple random ment; that is, a person or item sampling provides the base selected for sampling is re- be sampled. from which the other more com- moved from the population for An example of a simple random plex sampling methodologies all subsequent selections. At sample would be a survey of are derived. any draw, the process for a sim- County employees. An exhaus- ple random sample without re- A. Simple Random Sampling tive list of all County employees placement must provide an as of a certain date could be ob- To conduct a simple random equal chance of inclusion to any tained from the Department of sample, the researcher must member of the population not Human Resources. If 100 names first prepare an exhaustive list already drawn. To draw a sim- were selected from this list us- (sampling frame) of all mem- ple random sample without in- ing a random number table or a bers of the population of inter- troducing researcher bias, com- computerized sampling pro- est. From this list, the sample is puterized sampling programs gram, then a simple random drawn so that each person or and random numbers tables are sample would be created.
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