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Living in Sodom's Shadow:Essays on Attitudes Towards Gay Men And Living in Sodom’s Shadow: Essays on attitudes towards gay men and lesbians in the Commonwealth Caribbean A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of PhD in Applied Social Research in the Faculty of Humanities 2016 MAHALIA JACKMAN Cathie Marsh Institute for Social Research School of Social Sciences ~This page was intentionally left blank 2 Table of Contents List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. 8 Figures for Appendix B ................................................................................................ 8 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 9 Tables for Appendix B ............................................................................................... 10 Tables for Appendix C ............................................................................................... 10 Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ 11 Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 12 Declaration ................................................................................................................................. 13 Copyright ................................................................................................................................... 14 Dedication .................................................................................................................................. 15 Acknowledgements................................................................................................................... 16 Published Work ......................................................................................................................... 17 Chapter 1 : Introductory remarks ........................................................................................... 18 1.1 Significance of the study ........................................................................................ 25 1.2 Objectives and research questions ....................................................................... 26 1.2.1 Public opinions about gay rights ............................................................... 26 1.2.2 Analysis of anti-gay rhetoric ....................................................................... 29 1.3 Thesis structure ....................................................................................................... 31 Chapter 2 : Review of the related literature .......................................................................... 32 2.1 Negative attitudes towards lesbians and gay men .............................................. 33 2.1.1 Functionalist approach...................................................................................... 33 2.1.2 The perceived threat of homosexuality .......................................................... 35 2.2 Individual-level correlates of anti-gay prejudice ................................................. 36 2.2.1 Demographic variables ..................................................................................... 37 2.2.2 Religion ............................................................................................................... 40 2.2.3 Interpersonal contact ........................................................................................ 42 3 2.2.3 Beliefs about the origins of homosexuality .................................................... 44 2.2.4 Attitudes towards other groups ....................................................................... 45 2.3 Beyond the individual – Contextual effects ........................................................ 46 2.3.1 Socioeconomic development ........................................................................... 47 2.3.2 Religious culture ................................................................................................. 48 2.3.3 Laws ..................................................................................................................... 50 2.4 Attitudes towards homosexuality in the Commonwealth Caribbean ............. 53 2.5 Summary .................................................................................................................. 59 Chapter 3 : The socio-legal situation of sexual minorities living in the Commonwealth Caribbean: Some stylised facts ................................................................................................ 61 3.1 State-sponsored discrimination ............................................................................ 61 3.2 Levels of socioeconomic development ............................................................... 68 3.3 The religious climate .............................................................................................. 70 3.4 The policing of sexual minorities in the media and popular culture ............... 77 3.5 Support services for sexual minorities ................................................................. 82 3.6 Summary .................................................................................................................. 83 Chapter 4 : Views on the ‘abominable’ crime: Heterosexual support for and perceived usefulness of the anti-gay laws in Barbados, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago ............ 85 4.1 Heterosexual attitudes towards the criminalisation of same-sex intimacy in Barbados, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago .............................................................. 86 4.1.1 General support for bans on same-sex intimacy........................................... 88 4.1.2 Perceived usefulness of the anti-gay laws....................................................... 93 4.2 Who is likely to support the anti-gay laws? ......................................................... 95 4.2.1 Description of dependent variables ................................................................ 95 4.2.2 Description of independent variables ............................................................. 96 4.2.2.1 Demographics (gender, age, education and country of residence) ..... 98 4.2.2.2 Religion ........................................................................................................ 98 4.2.2.3 Beliefs about the origins of homosexuality ............................................ 99 4 4.2.2.4 Interpersonal contact ................................................................................. 99 4.2.2.5 Discrimination against other groups ..................................................... 100 4.2.3 Statistical method ............................................................................................. 101 4.3 Results .................................................................................................................... 107 4.3.1 Factors influencing heterosexual support for the criminalisation of same- sex intimacy ................................................................................................................ 107 4.3.1.1 Consistent and mixed support for the criminalisation of same-sex intimacy .................................................................................................................. 113 4.3.1.2 The unsure/prefer not to say responses to questions about banning same-sex intimacy ................................................................................................. 116 4.3.2 Subscriptions to the notions that the current laws protect the fabric of society ......................................................................................................................... 121 4.3.2.1 Laws achieve all objectives ..................................................................... 125 4.3.2.2 The ‘unsure/won’t say’ response when asked about the usefulness of the laws ................................................................................................................... 127 4.4 Discussion .............................................................................................................. 131 Chapter 5 : The Commonwealth Caribbean in context: Comparing attitudes towards same-sex marriage across the Americas ............................................................................... 138 5.1 Attitudes towards same-sex marriage in the Americas: Is the Commonwealth Caribbean less tolerant? ................................................................................................. 138 5.2 Exploring the differences in attitudes towards same-sex marriage in the Americas .......................................................................................................................... 143 5.2.1 Socioeconomic development ......................................................................... 143 5.2.2 Religious Climate ............................................................................................. 146 5.2.3 Laws ................................................................................................................... 148 5.3 A multi-level analysis of attitudes ....................................................................... 149 5.3.1 Statistical method ............................................................................................
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