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MORPHOSTRUCTURAL and PALEO-SEISMIC ANALYSIS of FAULT INTERACTIONS in the OXFORD–CUST–ASHLEY FAULT SYSTEM, CANTERBURY a Thesi

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MORPHOSTRUCTURAL and PALEO-SEISMIC ANALYSIS of FAULT INTERACTIONS in the OXFORD–CUST–ASHLEY FAULT SYSTEM, CANTERBURY a Thesi MORPHOSTRUCTURAL AND PALEO-SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF FAULT INTERACTIONS IN THE OXFORD–CUST–ASHLEY FAULT SYSTEM, CANTERBURY A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Geology in the University of Canterbury by Luke E. Mahon University of Canterbury July, 2015 Frontispiece View southwest from the highpoint of the western arm of the Cust Anticline showing the subtle geomorphic feature (arrow) that is documented as an active fault in this study. i Abstract This study investigates evidence for linkages and fault interactions centred on the Cust Anticline in Northwest Canterbury between Starvation Hill to the southwest and the Ashley and Loburn faults to the northeast. An integrated programme of geologic, geomorphic, paleo-seismic and geophysical analyses was undertaken owing to a lack of surface exposures and difficulty in distinguishing active tectonic features from fluvial and/or aeolian features across the low-relief Canterbury Plains. LiDAR analysis identified surface expression of several previously unrecognised active fault traces across the low-relief aggradation surfaces of the Canterbury Plains. Their presence is consistent with predictions of a fault relay exploiting the structural mesh across the region. This is characterised by interactions of northeast-striking contractional faults and a series of re- activating inherited Late Cretaceous normal faults, the latter now functioning as E–W-striking dextral transpressive faults. LiDAR also allowed for detailed analysis of the surface expression of individual faults and folds across the Cust Anticline contractional restraining bend, which is evolving as a pop-up structure within the newly established dextral shear system that is exploiting the inherited, now re-activated, basement fault zone. Paleo-seismic trenches were located on the crest of the western arm of the Cust Anticline and across a previously unrecognised E–W-striking fault trace, immediately southwest of the steeply plunging Cust Anticline termination. These studies confirmed the location and structural style of north- northeast-striking faults and an E–W-striking fault associated with the development of this structural culmination. A review of available industry seismic reflection lines emphasised the presence of a series of common structural styles having the same underlying structural drivers but with varying degrees of development and expression, both in the seismic profiles and in surface elevations across the study area. Based on LiDAR surface mapping and preliminary re- analysis of industry seismic reflection data, four fault zones are identified across the restraining bend structural culminations, which together form the proposed Oxford–Cust–Ashley Fault System. The 2010–2012 Canterbury Earthquake Sequence showed many similarities to the structural pattern established across the Oxford–Cust–Ashley Fault System, emphasising the importance of identification and characterization of presently hidden fault sources, and the understanding of fault network linkages, in order to improve constraints on earthquake source potential. Improved understanding of potentially-interactive fault sources in Northwest Canterbury, with the potential for combined initial fault rupture and spatial and temporal rupture propagation across this fault system, can be used in probabilistic seismic hazard analysis for the region, which is essential for the suitability and sustainability of future social and economic development. ii Acknowledgements The following people and organisations provided support for this thesis. Funding was made available from the EQC Capability fund (E 5713) at the Department of Geological Sciences, University of Canterbury, as well as the Mason Trust. I was supported by a University of Canterbury Masters Scholarship, and a Hastie Research Grant from the Geological Society of New Zealand. I acknowledge the Waimakariri District Council and Environment Canterbury (Ecan) for providing the LiDAR to Dr Brendan Duffy. My supervisors, Professor Jarg Pettinga, Dr Brendan Duffy, Professor Andy Nicol, provided great guidance and reviews of the research and support when the project took many different directions during the 12 months. Dr Brendan Duffy gave me expert guidance and training in the field. I was grateful to be able to have discussions with Mrs Jocelyn Campbell at the Elliotts Road paleo-seismic site, as well as at other times during the year. Dr David Nobes provided assistance very early on during the project with the initial GPR setup and training in how to process the data. I am extremely grateful to all the landowners for allowing me access to their land for all aspects of the work, in particular to: Togs Ensor, Noel and Audrey Miles, Dallas Grant, Graham and Lorraine Robinson, and Alan Hawker. Ross Mitchelmore Contracting and their staff were excellent, and very helpful at the paleo-seismic trench sites. I am grateful to Dr Mike Finnemore and staff at Southern Geophysical Ltd during the HRR survey at Chapmans Boundary Road, both for their time and equipment. Also for the use of the GPR unit from Southern Geophysical Ltd. The technical staff at the Department of Geological Sciences, University of Canterbury, was great. Matt Cockcroft provided fantastic support during the collection of GPR data and HRR data and for all geophysical requirements. I also would like to thank Cathy Higgins and Sacha Baldwin-Cunningham for logistical support, Dr Kerry Swanson for guidance using the scanning electron microscope, and Dr Anekant Wandres. Finally, this whole venture would not have been possible without the support and understanding of my family, and particularly my son, Arthur. iii Table of contents Frontispiece i Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Table of contents iv Table of figures vii Table of tables viii Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Objectives of this thesis 3 1.3. Thesis format 4 1.4. The South Island tectonic setting 5 1.5. Relative plate motion slip-rates 6 1.6. Canterbury regional tectonics 7 1.6.1. Thrust wedge model 7 1.6.2. Structural style of faulting and folding in Canterbury 9 1.6.3. Canterbury regional stress regime 10 1.6.4. Regional fault kinematics and geometry 11 1.7. Offshore versus onshore faulting in Canterbury 12 1.8. Gravity anomalies 13 1.9. Summary of North Canterbury active tectonics 14 1.10. Active tectonic hazards within the Canterbury region 15 Chapter 2. Study area and methodology 18 2.1. Study area overview 18 2.2. Rivers in the study area 19 2.2.1. The Ashley River 19 2.2.2. The Cust River 19 2.2.3. The Eyre River 20 2.2.4. The Waimakariri River 20 2.3. Geology within the study area 20 2.3.1. Geological units 21 2.3.2. Basement rocks (Permian to lower Cretaceous) 22 2.3.3. Cover sequence (Late Cretaceous to Pliocene) 22 2.3.4. Quaternary deposits 22 2.4. Tectonic structural culminations within the study area 24 2.4.1. The Cust Anticline 24 2.4.2. Starvation Hill 25 2.4.3. Springbank Monocline and Cust Downlands 25 iv 2.5. Active faults located within the study area and surrounds 25 2.5.1. The Porters Pass–Amberley Fault Zone 26 2.5.2. Cust Anticline faults (north-northeast-trending arm) 27 2.5.3. Ashley and Loburn faults 27 2.5.4. Starvation Hill Fault 28 2.5.5. Springbank Fault 28 2.6. Study methods used in this thesis 29 2.6.1. LiDAR analysis 29 2.6.2. Paleo-seismic investigations 30 2.6.3. Optically Stimulated Luminescence dating method 31 2.6.4. Radiocarbon dating method 31 2.6.5. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) 32 2.6.6. High resolution reflection (HRR) seismic surveys 33 2.6.7. Re-analysis of industry seismic lines 34 Chapter 3. Tectonic geomorphology from LiDAR interpretation 35 3.1. Introduction to the LiDAR dataset 35 3.2. Fault and fold geomorphic interpretation 35 3.2.1. Area 1: Oxford to Starvation Hill 36 3.2.2. Area 2: Starvation Hill to Cust Anticline 37 3.2.3. Area 3: Glews Road paleo-seismic site 39 3.2.4. Area 4: The western arm of the Cust Anticline 41 E–W-striking fault trace 44 North-northeast-striking western scarp 46 North-northeast-striking eastern scarp 48 Flexural-slip faults 49 Summary of structures of western arm of Cust Anticline 51 3.2.5. Area 5: E–W-trending Cust Anticline - Mairaki Downs 52 3.2.6. Area 6: Northeast of the Cust Anticline 53 3.3. Summary of LiDAR interpretation 54 Chapter 4. Paleo-seismic studies 58 4.1. Elliotts Road trench 58 4.1.1. Trench location 58 4.1.2. Stratigraphy interpretation 60 4.1.3. Auger interpretation 66 4.1.4. Tectonic context of trench site and interpretation 66 4.1.5. Radiocarbon and OSL dating 69 4.1.6. Scanning electron microscope analysis 72 4.1.7. Elliotts Road trench summary 72 v 4.2. Glews Road trench 75 4.2.1. Trench location 75 4.2.2. Stratigraphic interpretation 76 4.2.3. Tectonic context of trench site and interpretation 80 4.2.4. Radiocarbon dating 81 4.2.5. Auger interpretation 82 4.2.6. Ground penetrating radar 84 4.2.7. Glews Road trench summary 86 Chapter 5. Indo-Pacific seismic reflection line interpretation 87 5.1. Introduction 87 5.2. Previous interpretation of North Canterbury seismic reflection lines 89 5.3. The top of Oligocene contact surface interpretations for this study 90 5.4. Structural interpretation of top of Oligocene surface 91 5.5. Summary of seismic reflection lines that cross the LiDAR interpretation study areas 96 5.5.1. Area 1: Oxford to Starvation Hill 96 5.5.2. Area 2: Starvation Hill to Cust Anticline 97 5.5.3. Area 3: Glews Road paleo-seismic site 98 5.5.4. Area 4: The western arm of the Cust Anticline 99 5.5.5.
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