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VALUING COASTAL MARINE RESOURCES IN THE

PACIFIC ISLANDS:

CASE STUDIES OF VERATA, FIJI, AND TONGAREVA, COOK ISLANDS.

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of Master of Arts in Marine

Studies, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji.

Kelvin Passfield, September, 1997. DEDICATION

Ipukarea is a Cook Island Maori word meaning inheritance or birthright. This thesis is dedicated to the coastal people of the

Pacific Islands in the hope that in some small way it proves useful to them in their endeavours to wisely utilise and conserve their marine resources, a unique part of their national heritage which is not only their Ipukarea, but also that of their future generations. STATKMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This thesis is based on original material collected by the author. It has not been previously published.

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Date:

Kclvin Passfield

11 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION... i STATEMENT-OF ORIGINALITY ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iii LIST OF FIGURES iv LIST OF TABLES iv ABSTRACT v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION 1 MARINE RESOURCES IN THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 1 SUSTAINABILITY AND MANAGEMENT 2 THREATS TO SUSTAINABILITY 4 STUDY OBJECTIVES 10 MRTHODOLOGY 12 LITERATURE SURVEY 12 FIJI 13 COOK ISLANDS 15 CHAPTER TWO. PREVIOUS RESEARCH 17

FIJI 20 COOK ISLANDS 26 CHAPTER THREE. THE STUDY SITES AND PEOPLE 31 VERATA 31 TONGAREVA (PENRHYN) 38 CHAPTER FOUR. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA FROM VERATA, FIJI 43 HOUSEHOLD ECONOMIC PROFILE 43 THE VILLAGE-LEVEL FISHERY IN UCUNIVANUA VERATA : 44 THE VALUE OF THE VILLAGE LEVEL FISHERY 55 THE "LICENSED" COMMERCIAL FISHERY 59 TOTAL VALUE OF THE VERATA FISHERY 62 CHAPTER FIVE. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA FROM TONGAREVA, COOK ISLANDS 63 HOUSEHOLD SURVEY 65 VALUE OF SEAFOOD CONSUMED 69 VALUE OF EXPORTS 70 CHAPTER SIX. COMPARISON, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 73 CONCLUSION .' 81 BIBLIOGRAPHY 87 APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1. HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE FOR VERATA 93 APPENDIX 2. VILLAGE LEVEL FISHERS QUESTIONNAIRE. VERATA 96 APPENDIX 3. COMMERCIAL FISHERS QUESTIONNAIRE 97 APPENDIX 4. A DAY IN THE ROUTINE OF A COMMERCIAL FISHING VESSEL IN VERATA 99 APPENDIX 5. HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TONGAREVA 102 APPENDIX 6. QUESTIONNAIRE TO DETERMINE AVERAGE FISH PORTION SIZE, TONGAREVA 105 APPENDIX 7. PORT SAMPLING QUESTIONNAIRE. TONGAREVA 106 APPENDIX 8. PARTIAL LIST OF MARINE RESOURCES FOUND IN FIJI WATERS 107 APPENDIX 9. SOME COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH CATCHING AND MARKETING SEAFOOD IN FIJI 120 APPENDIX 10. NOTES ON SELECTED FISHERIES OF TONGAREVA 122 APPENDIX 11. PARTIAL LIST OF TONGAREVAN MARINE RESOURCES 128 APPENDIX 12. COLLECTION OF SPREADSHEET ANALYSES OF QUESTIONNAIRES 131

iii LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1.THE LOCATION OF VERATA T1K1NA WITHIN FIJI 32

FIGURE 2. THE VERATA STUDY AREA 33

FIGURE 3. THE TRADITIONAL FISHING GROUND OR QOLIQOLI OF VERATA 37

FIGURE 4. THE LOCATION OF TONGAREVA ATOLL IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC 39

FIGURE 5. TONGAREVA ATOLL (PENRHYN), COOK ISLANDS 40

FIGURE 6. AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF MEALS AT WHICH EACH OF THE ANIMAL PROTEIN SOURCES ARE CONSUMED IN 3 VILLAGES IN VERATA 48

FIGURE 7. AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF MEALS AT WHICH EACH OF THE ANIMAL PROTEIN SOURCES ARE CONSUMED IN TONGAREVA 67

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1. SOME FISHERIES RESOURCES OF SIGNIFICANCE TO PACIFIC ISLANDERS. 18

TABU; 2. CATCH COMPOSITION BY VALUli. UCUNIVANUA VILLAGE FISHERY 45

TABLE 3. COMPOSITION BY VALUE OF WOMEN'S CATCH. 46

TABLE 4. COMPOSITION BY VALUE OF MEN'S CATCH 47

TABLE 5. AVERAGE ANIMAL PROTEIN CONSUMPTION PATTERNS FOR VERATA. . 49

TABLE 6. VALUE OF SEAFOODS FROM VERATA SOLD IN THE URBAN MARKETS. 52

TABLE 7. AVERAGE ANIMAL PROTEIN CONSUMPTION PATTERNS, TONGAREVA. 67

IV ABSTRACT

This thesis examines the monetary value of inshore marine resources in the Pacific Islands. It cioes this by presenting two case studies in widely geographically separated locations in two diffErEnt countries i.e.;

1. Verata District in Fiji, representing a fishing community from a high island situation with

access to an extensive inshore fishing area, containing a large reef system and mangroves,

situated close to a major urban market, and

2. Tongareva in the Northern Cook Islands, an isolated atoll with an extremely large lagoon,

located more than 1,000 km. from the only significant market within the Cook Islands.

Verata has three distinct categories within its fishery, i.e. subsistence, village level commercial, and larger-scale licensed commercial fishing. The three categories are treated separately, and estimates of their annual value were respectively FJ$257,000 (subsistence),

FJ$285,000 (village level commercial) and FJ$467,000 (licensed commercial), giving a total estimated value for the Verata fishery of FJ$ 1,009,000, or just over one million Fiji Dollars per year. The subsistence fishery and village level coMmercial fishery are equivalent to 30% of the total per capita cash income to Verata coastal villagers, and 70% of the per capita cash income to the village of Ucunivanua, from where most of the more commercial fishers operate.

Tongareva Atoll has no significant commercial food fishery, though pearl shell has been an important export in the past. The food fishery there was broken down into two categories, i.e., subsistence and export. Export refers to seafood shipped on the inter-island ship to friends and relatives in Rarotonga, or carried down on the approximately weekly air service. The subsistence fishery was valued at NZ$475,000, while exports accounted for an additional

NZ$53,000, for a total value of just over NZ$528,000 (FJ$500,000) per year. This is

equivalent to 27% of the per capita cash income of Tongarevans,

Private sector pearl farm development has recently begun in Tongareva lagoon. Black pearl

exports can be expected to increase the value of the marine resources of Tongareva by several

millions of dollars over the next 5 years, if trends follow a similar pattern to those of Manihiki

Atoll (also in the Northern Cook Islands) in recent years. The recent economic crisis in the

Cook Islands has drastically decreased the numbers of Tongarevans employed by the public

service. This can also be expected to significantly increase the value of the marine resources as a percentage of the per capita income.

Vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study has benefited greatly from the assistance of the Fiji Fisheries Division, in particular the former Director, Peniasi Kunatuba, and extension officers Parma Singh and S.P. Sharma. The Fisheries Division has also kindly arranged some funding support from AIDAB (now AusAID), through the Forum Fisheries Agency in Honiara (FFA). RDA International, of California, United States, also provided some financial assistance towards tuition fees. Dr Randy Thaman, Professor of Pacific Islands Biogeography, was my principal supervisor, and coordinator of the John and Catherine Macarthur Foundation (Chicago) funded Community Based Biodiversity Conservation in Melanesia Project. Randy was an enthusiastic supporter of this study, and also provided some financial assistance from the Macarthur Foundation funded project. There have also been areas of collaboration with the thesis work of Aliti Vunisea which has been very beneficial. The G1S unit at the University of the South Pacific assisted in map production for the Verata area. The people of Ucunivanua Village, in particular Ratu Lala and Adi Lala, as well as the host of informants, have provided the basis for much of this research. Luke and Litia Karavake and others have provided similar assistance in Naloto Village. In particular I would like to thank all the fishers of Ucunivanua, constantly harassed by the Kai Vavalagi (European) who was often seen walking towards them across the mud flats on their return from fishing trips, carrying scales, camera, and notebook. These people gave freely of their time and expertise in a refreshingly unsuspicious manner, and always with a smile. Durgesh Lal was also particularly helpful and accommodating on aspects of the commercial licensed fishery, as well as in his hospitality. To you all, Vinaka vakalevu.

In the Cook Islands, all people interviewed in Tongareva freely gave information on income and food consumption patterns, and were happy to give details of the contents of their ice boxes during airport surveys. Nancy Griffith, captain of the MV Avatapu, kindly let me record details of seafood exports from her copies'of bills of lading. RDA International provided me employment opportunity which allowed me to collect data. My supervisor on Tongareva, Dr Maria Haws, also provided support and encouragement for my work. Ben Ponia kindly assisted with data collection.

Anna Tiraa, Bob Gillett, Randy Thaman, Jon Cook, and Diana Dombroski provided useful comments on the text.

Lastly, to my wife and children, thanks for the time I needed to finish the job. vii Chapter One. INTRODUCTION

This thesis examines the economic importance of inshore marine resources to the coastal people of Pacific Islands. This is achieved mainly through case studies of two widely geographically separated Pacific island communities. A review of available literature is also undertaken for comparative purposes, and to show how this study complements available information.

MARINE RESOURCES IN THE PACIFIC ISLANDS

Marine resources are of enormous value to the coastal people of the Pacific Islands. The total coastal fisheries production from the region is over 100,000 t/yr, worth an estimated

$US2G2,0()0,000, with about 80% of this coming from subsistence fishing (Dalzell et al.,

1995). Many of the smaller islands, with their poor soils which grow little in the way of edible plants, could not have been inhabited at all if it were not for the abundant marine resources with which they were blessed. Many of these subsistence fisheries rely heavily on healthy inshore environments such as mangroves and coral reefs for their productivity.

The primary production of healthy coral reefs has been estimated to be 20 times that of the open ocean (Mcallister, 1988).

It is then not surprising that Pacific peoples have among the highest per capita fish consumption in the world. Many island communities, including all coastal dwellers, traditionally relied on seafood as their principal, and sometimes only, source of animal protein. Although the introduction of new agriculture techniques and imported foodstuffs may have decreased this reliance on the marine environment, seafood is still the primary source of protein available to many coastal rural people. It is also commonly a major source of cash income, and provides one of the few areas of private sector employment.

While it is known that these marine resources are valuable, and necessary for the future well being of island inhabitants, it is difficult to say exactly what they are worth in monetary terms to the economy of a Pacific Island community. Some attempts at valuation have been made, usually by multiplying the estimated total catch by an arbitrary value per ton. In Fiji for example, this has resulted in recent estimates of around FJ$50 million to

FJ$60 million for the subsistence/small-scale commercial sector (Watling and Chape,

1992, Veitayaki, 1993; Cavuilati, 1993).

SUSTAINABILITY AND MANAGEMENT

The marine resources most utilised by Pacific Islanders are those coming from what is defined as the "inshore fishery". This refers to those resources that are reasonably accessible to most fishers, without the need for elaborate fishing gear or large ocean going vessels, and includes a range of reef fish, some pelagic species, and a wide range of marine invertebrates. Subsistence fishers have a long tradition of harvesting a wide selection of these resources. Most of the resources were probably able to support a subsistence fishery, where effort was not concentrated on a single species, with minimal management of the fishing by the community. The traditional fishing technologies available to the people were relatively unsophisticated, and catches were taken only to satisfy the immediate needs of the community. Therefore many of the islands have, in the past, required little in the way of formalised fisheries management strategies. On some of the more highly populated islands of the Pacific, with limited natural resources, the situation was a little different. The ancestors of the present inhabitants learned, no doubt through trial and error, that there was a relationship between fishing pressure and the availability of marine resources. They developed conservation strategies, whether intentionally or otherwise, to protect these resources, and hence ensure their own continued existence. Such management strategies may have taken the form of limited entry, closed seasons, closed areas, and gear restrictions (Johannes, 1984). Other more subtle but equally effective methods included the reservation of some species for the exclusive use of chiefs, closures of certain areas following a death in the village, and religious or cultural taboos being placed on other species or areas (Baines, 1984,

Siwatibau, 1984).

The influence of modern society has in more recent times wrought changes to these traditional management and legal systems. Whereas previously there existed experts on resource management at a local level within Pacific Island indigenous populations, more than 100 years of European contact has largely destroyed this traditional knowledge (Dahl,

1984). In times before European influences had gained a firm hold on Pacific Island societies if an individual of a community engaged, for example, in a fishing activity which was against the wishes of the law makers, they would be ostracised by the community, and perhaps otherwise punished. Examples of some of these forms of punishment still exist in several of the more remote Pacific Islands today. For example, in Pukapuka in the Cook

Islands, if a person persists in breaking local laws, including fishing regulations, they are reduced to the social status of a child, and treated as such. This is reported to be the most humiliating punishment that can be imposed (Munro, 1996). In the outer islands of

Tuvalu, such as Nanumea, offenders are called to the ahinga (meeting house) where they are counselled by the elders. This is a public spectacle, and also considered extremely humiliating for the offender (pers. obs.).

Together with the fact that most of the inshore resources of the Pacific Island countries are small, and the potential to over-exploit them high, this breakdown of the traditional systems has resulted in nearly all small-scale fisheries in developing countries being in urgent need of management. This is particularly so for those fisheries close to major population centres. Contemporary fisheries management initiatives must strive to protect the health of the existing ecosystem while at the same time utilise the resources at a sustainable level for the benefit of the resource owners.

THREATS TO SUSTAINABILFTY

There are numerous threats to the sustainability of the vulnerable marine resources in the

Pacific. Some of these are discussed below.

Cash based economy

Prior to attempts at "development" of the Pacific islands, many of the fisheries required little or no formal management. However, the advent of a cash economy on virtually all islands has led to the development of commercial and semi-commercial fisheries on many of them. Opportunities for other forms of paid employment are usually poor. People now require cash to buy goods that they previously did without. Their concept of the items that constitute the necessities of life have been altered. This has resulted in some people taking more fish than they require for their immediate subsistence needs, and selling it, resulting in an increase in fishing effort. This change from subsistence to commercial fishing often results in over-exploitation of target species (King and Mcllgorm, 1989). Modern technology

The introduction of refrigeration on many islands allows inhabitants to take fish in excess of their immediate needs. When a supply ship calls, surplus catch can be exported to urban population centres where there is an increasing demand for fish. The recent proliferation of air strips on remote islands has also opened up the potential for commercial exploitation of high value marine products such as tridacnid clams, lobsters, crabs, and deep water snappers.

The advent of the cash economy also means that people now have money to buy more efficient fishing gear and boats. The labour intensive and comparatively inefficient coconut frond barriers into which schools of fish were herded in the no so distant past have been replaced by monofilament gill nets. Paddling and sailing canoes and rafts have been replaced by modern boats with motors, and fishermen now need to buy fuel for fishing trips. Scuba and hookah diving gear can now be found in even the most remote locations, and is often used to exploit those resources that are too deep to be exploited efficiently by free diving.

If people have no money to purchase boats, freezers, outboard motors, and other costly fishing equipment, there are often development bank loans available to help them. Aid projects also sometimes assist with the purchase of these items, especially if fishermen form themselves into a cooperative or club. Although it may be argued that this sort of assistance is inappropriate, and often unsustainable in the long term, it still contributes to the increasing pressure on vulnerable fisheries resources. Population pressures

Population growth is also increasing pressure on limited resources of the Pacific. Higher life expectancy and a drop in infant mortality has resulted in rapidly growing populations in many areas (Connell, 1984). The Pacific now has among the fastest growing populations in the world. Average growth rate for the region is 2.3%, with some countries such as the

Northern Marianas experiencing growth rates of up to 9.5%. This means the population in the region can be expected to double in 31 years (Craig, 1995). In previous decades, particularly the 1950s and 60s, large numbers of Pacific Islanders had been encouraged to emigrate to Pacific rim countries, where there was a shortage of labour. Not only has this encouragement ceased, the trend has in some cases been reversed, as the down-turn in the economy of Pacific rim countries such as Australia and New Zealand, has resulted in some cases in Pacific islanders returning to their own countries. This not only adds to the increasing population, but also often brings in new entrepreneurial skills which can increase the commercialisation of fisheries, and a different set of morals often aimed at short term economic gain at the expense of the long term viability of the resource.

However, in the face of expanding commercialisation of economies, even in small island states, and especially the more populated areas, people are increasingly adopting the attitude of doing what is best for them as an individual, even if this is at the expense of the overall community. These are often the same individuals who have returned home from other countries, and have not been brought up with the community-welfare based attitude prevalent in the society from which they originated. Pollution

Additional stress on marine resources is brought about by the increase in pollution now evident on many Pacific islands, particularly near urban areas. Soil erosion caused by

poorly managed agriculture projects and deforestation is causing soil to wash into the

lagoons and sea, smothering coral and freshwater spawning sites, especially on the high

islands of the Pacific (Brodic and Morrison, 1984; Dahl, 1984, Lal, 1984). In the

Philippines widespread coral reef destruction was largely due to the decrease in inland

forest cover from 80% to 20% (Mcallister, 1988). Herbicides, pesticides, and fertiliser also

ofteti find their way through the river system or are leached into the sea (Morrison and

Brodie, 1985). On atolls with limited land area, imported goods such as plastic bags and

other plastics, glass, batteries and petroleum products are increasingly finding their way

into coastal land fill sites, dumps, and eventually into the marine environment (pers. obs.,

Tongareva Atoll, Funafuti Atoll). These pollutants may be adding to the destruction of the

habitat of many inshore species, and may also lead to the poisoning, injury, and death of

marine organisms.

Tourism 1 Tourism has become the biggest income earner for some Pacific Island countries. To meet

the demands of this trade, resorts and hotels have been constructed and are continuing to be

constructed all over the Pacific, including some very remote locations. The construction of

these facilities along coast lines sometimes has dramatic effects on the movements of the

ocean currents, leading to large increases in sediment build up, with associated negative

impacts on the marine ecosystem of the area (Lal, 1984). Tourists expect to eat seafood

when they are on holiday on a Pacific Island, and a large number of tourists can therefore indirectly put significant pressure on the inshore resources of a small island. Tourism is continuing to increase, and Rarotonga, for example, with a population of around 10,000 people, had more than 52,000 tourists in 1994, a rise of more than 78% in only 5 years

(Anon, 1996).

Destructive fishing practices

Other methods now available, although generally illegal, that allow people to catch more fish in the short term include dynamite, powerful insecticides and other poisons. Dynamite is known to have been used in parts of Fiji, Samoa, and other Pacific Islands to kill large numbers of fish. It has been estimated that 38 years is required for dynamited coral to regenerate (Mcallister, 1988). Cyanide in particular has been used extensively in recent times to collect live reef fish for the lucrative Asian market (Johannes and Riepen, 1995).

These methods have devastating effects on an entire range of resources, including the live coral and other organisms making up the coral reef ecosystem (Dahl, 1984). !

Social and other factors

In fisheries, a common pattern is to conduct a resource assessment survey on an unutilised or underutilised resource, determine whether the stocks could support a limited export industry based on catch rates aione, and proceed to exploit the fishery on this basis.

Fishermen getting into the new fishery take out development bank loans, which need to be serviced from the proceeds of the fishery. After considerable money has been spent setting up the infrastructure for the industry, it is found that the venture is not, after all, economically viable. Social pressure on fishermen can make it difficult to service loans, while at the same time the need to service these loans forces the fishermen to heavily exploit available resources, often beyond the level of sustainability. Problems arise such as

8 keeping equipment and machinery operational in remote, harsh environments, transporting the products to the eventual market on schedule, and ensuring that they arrive in a condition suitable for that which they were intended. This is if a particularly vulnerable fishery does not collapse after initial over-fishing. Political interference can also sonetimes hamper the success of a fishery project.

The Pacific is full of examples of ventures, both in the fisheries sector and others, which have failed because the economics have been largely overlooked or ignored in the planning stages. The social context in which the attempted development is to occur is also often overlooked. For example, it has taken 6 years of an outer island fish drying and marketing project in Tuvalu to finally acknowledge that chances of a commercial success in the short term are extremely limited owing to the non-commercial nature of the people (pers. obs.).

A somewhat similar project in Atafu, Tokelau, also failed after 2 years, despite excessive

Government subsidy, largely because the beneficiaries on the atoll itself had riot been fully consulted in the project formulation process (Wichman and Simi, 1994). Some indication of the number of failed small-scale, and sometimes large-scale, fishing ventures in Fiji, can be seen in the classified columns of the Fiji Times newspaper. Every week there are a number of fishing vessels of various sizes being sold by repossessors, usually the Fiji

Development Bank or National Bank of Fiji' (e.g. Fiji Times, classified advertisements,

Aug. 17, 1996, pp 49 and 52; Aug. 14, p.41: Apr. 24, 1996, p.24).

The combined effects of the above factors have resulted in a real concern for the status of many of the inshore fishery stocks of Pacific Island countries.

It is not always economic factors that result in these failed fishing ventures in the Pacific. The problem is often social, where fishermen have a cultural obligation to distribute their catch or the revenue derived from it. As a result they are not able to meet the repayment schedule. This factor has often been overlooked in planning fishery projects in the Pacific. A humorous, though accurate description of this is given by Hau' ofa, 1983. 9 STUDY OBJECTIVES

This thesis examines the subsistence and economic importance of marine resources in a number of Pacific Islands communities. This is achieved primarily through case studies in two principal locations, Ucunivanua Village in the Verata District (Tikina) of Viti Levu,

Fiji', and Omoka and Tetautua Villages of Tongareva2, an atoll in the northern Cook

Islands3, Some comparative information was also collected at two other villages in Verata,

Fiji: Kumi and Naloto.

The principal objectives were to test the following three hypotheses.

1. The subsistence marine resource catch of a coastal village is of significant economic

importance to the village because it replaces other sources of food which would

otherwise have to be purchased.

2. The loss or degradation of this resource due to over-fishing, technological change,

mismanagement, increasing population or poorly planned development projects would

constitute a significant economic loss.

3. Where a small-scale commercial fishery exists in a coastal village, it can provide the

most significant portion of the cash income generated by the village.

There are several reasons why a study such as this was considered important. These are outlined below.

This field work was undertaken in mid 1994. 2 Also known as Penrhyn, and Mangarangaro. Tongareva is used here as the name currently preferred by the local inhabitants. -'Field work undertaken between November 1994 and June 1995. 10 a) Planners and developers usually quote the economic benefits to be derived from

"development" projects. The economic data contained in this study can assist in the

decision making process, especially where the natural habitat of marine life and the

diverse marine biodiversity inheritance of coastal peoples may be in jeopardy due to

proposed developments. It may prove valuable to Government agencies in assessing

their development priorities, especially with regard to developments that may have

detrimental effects on the marine environment, and in particular on the sustainability of

a broad range of marine resources of both subsistence and commercial value. Such

developments include commercial fishing and aquacuiture, coral and sand extraction,

other forms of mining or industrial development, major agriculture development,

deforestation, and the reclamation or clearing of mangroves, among others. b) Knowledge of the value of the diversity of marine subsistence and commercial resources

can provide baseline data for further studies which could monitor changes in

exploitation and consumption patterns. An example could be the shift in villages from

eating seafoods of commercial significance in favour of selling these, and an associated

increase in consumption of tinned fish and meat, and/or previously underutilised

subsistence target species. c) In 1974 a compensation system was introduced into Fiji. This made allowances for

compensation if foreshore developments interfere with fishing rights or productivity.

The compensation figure is determined by an independent arbitrator appointed by the

Fiji Government (Lal, 1992), Information on the value of the marine resources would

be of obvious assistance in determining suitable compensation.

11 d) Most importantly, the information could be of benefit to the coastal village communities

themselves who are often ultimately responsible for how they use their inshore fishery

resources. The village level decision makers may hopefully find that knowing the value

of their marine resources in monetary terms will assist them in fisheries management

matters and resource-use planning. Short term gains can be assessed against long term

losses. For example, some developers may offer a village what appears to be an

enormous sum of money and other benefits in order to pursue developments in a rural

area which may affect the marine resources. A knowledge of the economic value of

these resources would be of benefit in any decision making process.

METHODOLOGY

The methodology included a literature survey on fisheries development in the Pacific

Islands with particular respect to Fiji and the Cook Islands, as well as in-the-field studies of

Verata Tikina in Fiji and Tongareva Atoll in the Cook Islands. Field methods used and

time spent varied slightly between study sites, depending on circumstances, and are therefore discussed under separate locality headings below.

LITERATURE SURVEY

Sources were located in the Pacific Collection of the University of the South Pacific (USP)

Library, Fisheries Division libraries in Fiji and the Cook Islands, the Marine Studies programme library and the former FAO Fisheries library, also housed at the USP Marine

Studies Programme lower campus. Additional information was collected from Fiji and 12 Cook Islands meteorological offices, the statistics offices of these countries, and also daily newspapers. FIJI

Twelve visits of either one to two days and nights were made to Ucunivanua and Naloto

Villages in Verata over a four month period from April to July 1994, with a follow up visit

in December 1994. Eleven household questionnaires were completed in Ucunivanua, and

five in Naloto, representing approximately 20% and 10% of the populations respectively.

These were used to provide socio-economic profiles of the villages, and to determine the

importance of the marine resources in this perspective. A copy of this questionnaire is

found in Appendix 1. A colleague also obtained data from seven Kumi village households

on behalf of the author using selected questions (12 to 16) from the same questionnaire.

A creel census1 of catches of village fishers was also conducted. Fifty eight questionnaires

and inventory sheets were completed when meeting fishers on their return from fishing

expeditions. Although not planned, it eventuated that exactly 29 males and 29 females

were interviewed. A copy of this questionnaire is found in Appendix 2. An interpreter

assisted in the questioning where necessary.

During these visits, observations from the high headland of Ucunivanua during low tide provided an estimate of the number of fishers gleaning the mud flats and reef at a number o' Creef timel census osf isth a eter daym whic. hEstimate refers to countins of otherg and sweighin fishing gth eactivitie catch of Fisherss furthe, andr isafiel derived d werfrome th obtainee older Englisd byh word "creel" meaning a basket for holding the seafood catch. watching fishing boats leave for or return from the fishing ground. Additional informatio1n3 on fishing effort was obtained from the household questionnaire (e.g., Q. 1, no. of hours fished). The next step was to value the catch in monetary terms. This was achieved in either of two

ways.

• Small-scale commercial fisherman were asked to value the catch on the basis of what

they expected to sell it for. Surveys of the main fish market in Suva provided

verification of this information.

• Subsistence catches were valued either on the basis of their commercial value if

applicable, or on the basis of import substitution, i.e., the value of the food that the

people would consume, which was usually store bought animal protein such as tinned

fish or corned beef, if they did not have access to the marine resources1.

An estimate of return per unit of fishing effort was obtained by dividing the value of the

catch by the number of hours fished. As it was not always possible to determine the

amount of time spent travelling to the fishing ground, this travelling time was included as

fishing time for the calculations.

In an effort to value the full-time commercial fishery, licensing information was obtained

from the Fiji Fisheries Division, and licensed fishermen were interviewed. Owing to

incomplete contact addresses available from the licensing division, it was difficult to

contact fishermen licensed for the Verata area. Only two interviews were conducted with

fishermen licensed for this area, three interviews with licensed fishermen from Sawakasa

(an adjacent fishing ground), and two from other parts of Fiji. A copy of this questionnaire

'is attached as Appendix 3.

1 The replacement for seafood in the diet would most commonly be store bought meat products. Locally produced meat such as pork is usually only eaten on special occasions. Vegetables are usually consumed as an accompaniment to cither the seafood or the other meal products, and thus are not valued in this study as an imported substitute for seafood. 14 One commercial fisherman kindly allowed me to join a fishing trip in Verata waters as an observer. This provided an opportunity to verify questionnaire data, and gather important information on the total value of their catch, as well as on the interaction between the subsistence and village-level commercial fishery and the licensed commercial fishery. A. diary of on board events for this expedition is attached as Appendix 4.

COOK ISLANDS

Ten household questionnaires were completed for Omoka Village, and five for Tetautua

Village, both on Tongareva Atoll, for an overall coverage of around 17%. The data was collected over the period from November 1994 to June 1995. The questionnaire was a slightly modified version of that used in Fiji. These changes were made to make allowances for the recent initiative to develop family-operated pearl farms, and to take into consideration the reliance of households on income generated from handicrafts and other sources. Food consumption patterns were derived from the analysis of these questionnaires, as well as from information on the household economy. This questionnaire is attached as Appendix 5. Seafood portion size for Tongareva was obtained by using another questionnaire, and analysing the data obtained (21 separate meals for 4 families).

This questionnaire is attached as Appendix 6. Questionnaire to deteRmine average fish portion size, Tongareva.

Other priorities and logistical problems made it difficult to conduct creel surveys of fishers.

In any case, commercial fishing for seafood is virtually non existent on Tongareva with relevant data on the subsistence fishery being obtained through the household questionnaires. Substantial amounts of seafood are, however, sent to family and friends in

Rarotonga. In addition, large groups of islanders, usually from other islands in the Cook's

( 15 group, occasionally visit Tongareva and stay for several weeks. When they depart, they invariably take large quantities of seafood with them. Therefore, in order to value these exports, port surveys were undertaken of seafood carried on the weekly plane to Rarotonga and on the irregular inter-island ship. The questionnaire used is attached as Appendix 7.

The value of both the exports and subsistence seafood was estimated based on equivalent

Rarotongan market prices less freight charges where applicable. Subsistence consumption was also valued on the basis of import substitution, for comparison. Data was analysed using Microsoft Excel spreadsheet.

The balance of this thesis will give a brief summary of other relevant material on Pacific

Island fisheries, concentrating on research concerning the study areas and other research that has a component dealing with the value of marine resources. This is followed by a more detailed description of the two principal study sites, giving information on the population and social organisation, culture, geography and climate. The results of the two case studies are then presented separately. They include information on household structure, size, and economy, and food consumption patterns. This is followed by detailed information on catch composition by men and women, returns per unit of fishing effort, and estimates of the values of the different sectors of the overall fishery. Finally, a comparison of the two very different fisheries is presented, along with the conclusion.

16 Chapter Two. PREVIOUS RESEARCH

A great deal of research has been undertaken on inshore subsistence and small-scale commercial fisheries in the Asia Pacific region. Most of this has occurred in recent years, as a result of the realisation of the importance of these fisheries in rural development. This chapter will briefly cover some of this literature relevant to the present study, and in particular that relating to Fiji and the Cook Islands.

Most of the marine resources of significance to the fisheries sector at a village level in the

Pacific Islands have been described in a publication by the Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA)

(Wright and Hill, 1993). This publication looks at 17 different fisheries covering a large range of target species, both finfish and non-finfish1. It has provided a much needed reference on a diversity of species of particular commercial and subsistence importance to the livelihood of many coastal dwellers in the Pacific. However, it was of course impossible to cover all fisheries of the Pacific Islands in a single general volume, and the present study includes useful information on a number of resources not covered in this publication.

There have been two major workshops in the last decade concentrating on inshore marine resources in the Pacific Islands. Both were held in Noumea, New Caledonia. The first was in 1988, and the second, concentrating more on management issues, was in 1995. More than 100 individual papers on aspects of inshore fisheries utilisation and management were presented at each workshop. Table 1 gives those fishery resources that were identified at the 1988 workshop of being of particular importance to Pacific Islanders.

'Finfish refers to the bony fishes, sharks etc. while non finfish refers to invertebrates such as shellfish, crustaceans, and other marine invertebrates. 17 Table 1. Some fisheries resources of significance to Pacific Islanders. FISH

tunas coastal pelagic species shallow water snappers, emperors, etc deep water snappers, groupers, etc sharks baitfish CRUSTACEANS

lobsters penaeid prawns or shrimps deepwater prawns or shrimps crabs

Gastropods- trochus and green snails Bivalves- giant clams and pearl shell

beche de mer

commercial algae precious corals turtles Source: King and Mcllgorm, 1988

Another paper of particular interest from the 1995 workshop (Dalzell et ah, 1995) gave an overview of coastal fisheries in the region, including a brief look at socio-economic aspects. Their figures, compiled from a variety of sources throughout the Pacific, provide an estimate of around 22% of all marine resource catch by weight as commercial catch (31% by value), and 78 % as subsistence (69% by value). For Fiji the figures were 29 % commercial and 71 % subsistence, both by weight and value, and for the Cook Islands 13% by weight (9% by value) commercial, and 87% by weight (91% by value) subsistence

(Dalzell et al., 1995).

The Forum Fisheries Agency has assisted several countries in the region to compile a collection of national Marine Resource Profiles. Both Fiji and the Cook Islands have been

included in this series, as well as Tonga, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Federated

States of Micronesia, and Palau. These profiles cover most of the marine resources on a

fishery by fishery basis. Restructuring at FFA has meant this programme has ceased, and it

is unclear whether the series of profiles for other South Pacific countries will now be

completed.

Mcallister (1988) puts the issue of coral reef destruction in the Philippines into perspective by looking at the losses from various viewpoints. He estimated that coral reef destruction over the past 20 years, mainly caused by deforestation, pollution, and destructive fishing practices resulted in the direct loss of $80 million US per year and 127,000 small scale fishing jobs. Multiplier effects suggested that over 1,000,000 people were affected every year. He reported that destruction of coral reefs is a major contributor to poverty in coastal communities.

Of the two countries investigated in the present study, most of the available literature refers to Fiji. The location of several regional organisations as well as the University of the South

Pacific in Suva has no doubt helped contribute to this bias. The Cook Islands, being much smaller and more remote, having more limited commercial and export fisheries potential,

19 and less biological diversity, has less published material available. Some of this material is dealt with under separate country headings below.

FIJI

A brief overview of the state of Fiji's fisheries sector is given by Cavuilati (1993). He looks at the role of fisheries in the Fijian economy, provides information on fish production in the various sectors (industrial, subsistence, and artisanal), as well as on constraints and alternatives within fisheries development. Much of his data is extracted from the Fiji

Fisheries Division Annual Reports.

These Annual Reports contain information from what is probably the best data collection system in the Pacific Islands for monitoring sales of marine resources. Their figures are based on surveys of the major outlets, (Sharma 1988). They include mean price and volume of finfish covering 95 species, and non-finfish sales covering 57 species or categories, which are sold through markets, shops, butcher shops, restaurants, and other outlets in each of the major population centres of Fiji. These species and price lists proved valuable as cross reference material for data collected during this study.

These annual reports value the subsistence fishery for Fiji based on catch estimates from

1980, with an estimated annual increment added to arrive at current figures. These estimates are reported to be in urgent need of updating, as many subsistence fishermen may have now graduated to the commercial sector (Watling and Chape 1992).

Veitayaki (1993) briefly discussed the importance of fisheries to the economy of Fiji, including the fact that subsistence fisheries make up the larger proportion of fish caught.

He has also recently produced a book on fisheries development in Fiji, updating his earlier

20 works, and adding some new material (Veitayaki, 1995). He describes fishing methods commonly used in Fiji, both artisanal and industrial, and looks at the importance of fisheries in the Fijian context, with respect to industrial, artisanal, as well as subsistence fishing. He prbvides useful insight into the village level commercial fishery of Fiji, pointing out that the social context in which this fishing takes place in many instances restricts a greater development of this sector.

Veitayaki (1995) also presents a case study of village-level fishing from Qoma Island in

Tailevu, looking at their marine resources, fishing methods, social beliefs in relation to fishing, post harvest distribution, recent changes, and conservation and management. The work provides useful background information on village fishing life, which is much the same as that found in the Verata study area. Qoma village fishers also utilise fishing grounds adjacent to that of Verata. No indication of values of the catch, catch rates, consumption patterns, or seasonality of resources in the village was given in Veitayaki's book, but he indicates that fishing income per household ranged from $10 to $100 per week. He also stated that spearfishermen are the greater income earners, averaging $15 per day per man. Larger catches are sold to the nearby Queen Victoria School for $1.70 per kg.

The Marine Resource Profiles for Fiji (Richards, 1994), include most of the resources harvested at coastal village levels, as well as the industrial fishery for tuna, and inland

(freshwater) fisheries. Information on the distribution, biology and ecology, utilisation, production, marketing, stock status, current legislation and management regulations is given. Sales figures are presented for many of the resources, again based on information from the Fiji Fisheries Division Annual Reports. Where available information allowed, management policies were recommended. Being a country specific report, more detail is

21 possible than in, for example, the regional publication of Wright and Hill (1993), and again it contains useful corroborative data for this thesis.

Simon Jennings and Nick Polunin have to date produced four reports on their work on fishing in Fijian villages. These are based on field work carried out in 1992 and 1993. The first study, covering six traditionally owned fishing grounds or qoliqoli (1), looks at the effects of fishing effort and catch rate on targeted reef fish communities (Jennings and

Polunin, in press, a). Its relevance to the present study lies mainly in their analysis of the effects of continued exploitation of commercially valuable resources close to a Fijian village. They found the most abundant of the target reef fish were Scarids (parrot fish),

Lethrinids (emperors) and Acanthurids (tangs or surgeon fish). Their study concluded that commercial fishing and poaching should be closely monitored, especially in marine reserves, in order to preserve existing biological structure of the communities.

A second paper (Jennings and Polunin 1995a), based on the same field work, looks at the relationship between catch, value of catch, and effort in multi-species fin-fish fisheries subjected to different levels of exploitation. They comment that decreases in the numbers of carnivorous fishes such as groupers and emperors are among the most readily detectable effects of fishing pressure in multi-species reef fisheries (similar to that which exists in

Verata). They found for the six qoliqoli examined that the main targeted species were from the Seranidae (grouper family) and Lethrinidae (emperor family). This paper concluded that fishing appeared to be conducted at a sustainable level for all six qoliqoli when treated as a multi-species fishery, but could not identify whether individual species may be over- exploited.

1 Qoliqoli is a Fijian word for a traditionally owned fishing ground. Fijian words used in the body of the text are italicised, while local names for marine resources are in bold. 22 In their third paper (Jennings and Polunin 1995b) they looked at the comparative size and composition of the catches, based on the same data set as that used in their other papers.

They concluded that each of the six qoliqoli could sustain a yield of 3.4 tonnes per sq. km. per year, though in some cases yields were lower, suggesting increased exploitation may be possible at these locations. Lower yields may, however, indicate that these areas are in fact already over-fished. In general, a greater proportion of the emperors and groupers were sold than the other species, and a relatively greater percentage of the fish was sold from those qoliqoli within reasonable proximity to an urban market, eg Suva.

A fourth paper (Jennings and Polunin in press, b) looks more closely at the socioeconomics of the fisheries in three of the six qoliqoli of the previous studies. This study contains information of more relevance to the subject of this thesis. For example, household interviews were conducted to determine daily fish consumption, which varied from 284g per person for Moala to 467g per person in Totoya. Logbooks were issued to fishers to gather details of their catch. Mean annual expected income per fisher per year from fishing ranged from $89 to $603. They quote Cooke (1994) as stating that the average licenced commercial vessel in Fiji lands around 10 tons of finfish per year. The authors also compare their results to those of Rawlinson et all (1995), and their findings provide useful comparative information for this thesis.

There have been some attempts at valuing components of the marine resources in Fiji. As a component of his ethnobotanical study, South (1993) values seaweeds sold in Fijian markets based on Fisheries Division surveys. He found that seaweeds constituted around 1 percent of the value of non-fish sales of seafood products, for a total value of almost

23 FJ$50,000 in 1991. He also indicated seaweed sales provide a significant source of income for women from coastal areas of Fiji.

Rawlinson et al. (1995) have attempted to value the subsistence and artisanal fisheries of coastal Viti Levu as a component of their study. Their study is the most comprehensive done so far for Fiji, covering 13,320 people from 2,252 households and 123 villages. The study was not confined to coastal areas, though these locations were accorded a higher coverage than the inland areas. Their survey utilised similar methods to those of this thesis, ie interviewing people about their fishing activities, and creel survey of fishers catches in four of the villages they surveyed. Ucunivanua was one of these villages. Their information on household consumption is particularly relevant, and was based on a sub sample of the population recording the amount offish they consumed daily, over periods of up to one week. Their estimate of per capita consumption of seafood was used for some of the calculations in this thesis. One of their conclusions was that the total artisanal1 catch given in Fisheries Division estimates is too low based on the results of their survey. They suggested that this was because there are in fact more outlets for these catches than was previously realised.

Vuki (1991) carried out a fish consumption survey of islanders living on Dravuni Island in

Fiji. The population was 148 at the time, and her survey covered 17 households. It is likely that this was in excess of 50% coverage. Her study provides interesting comparative data for this thesis. She found an average household consumed fish on 6 days per week,

' Rawlinson et al define artisinal catch as that which which is predominantly sold, though a portion is retained for home consumption. They define subsistence catch as being predominantly consumed at home or given away, but not sold. Similarly, commercial catch is defined as that which is sold, 24 and sometimes twice per day. The average income was $77 per week "mainly from the sale of finfish".

A description of the Fijian social structure, and its relationship to fishing rights, is given by

Fong (1994) in her case study of the traditional marine management system of Macuata

Province, She also describes the current legislation controlling commercial fishing within traditional marine tenure or fishing areas {qoliqoli) to which individual kin, descent groups, or districts claim fishing rights. She interviewed several fisherman, and found the gross weekly income of one village-level commercial fisherman to be in the vicinity of FJ$200 for the village of Sasa.

There is an earlier paper which specifically deals with the subsistence and commercial fisheries in Verata waters (Kunatuba, 1982). He estimated the value of the catch by interviewing fishers, vendors at the market, carrier drivers, and through personal observations. Although his study was very brief, covering only a two week period, it does provide useful comparative data for the present study, particularly for the non fmfish commercial portion of the catch. He also provides a crude estimate of a suitable compensation amount for loss of income from the fishery in the event of damage caused by, for example, an oil spill, of $4000 per week. 1

Vunisea (1996) in her study on modernisation and women's role in Fiji fisheries, provides useful social background data for this study. This will be mentioned in more detail in

Chapter 3.

25 COOK ISLANDS

Being a small island country of less than 20,000 people, the Cook Islands does not have the quantity of published literature that is available for the much larger Fiji, with its population of 750,000 people. Tongareva, with only 600 people, has an understandably limited amount of information available for comparative purposes with the present study.

There are several consultants' reports which summarise the state of the marine resource sector in the Cook Islands. The Asian Development Bank economic sector review was undertaken in 1993 (ADB 1995). This report highlighted the marine resources as one of the country's major exploitable natural resources. Exports in the form of black pearls are now the country's second highest income earner after tourism. The only other significant marine exports mentioned were aquarium fish and trochus shells. Foreign fishing vessel licensing also provides significant revenue to Government. The subsistence fisheries sector is not covered.

A collection of Marine Resource Profiles was compiled by FFA (1993) similar to those already mentioned for Fiji. This publication drew largely on individual resource profiles produced over the years by the Ministry of Marine Resources (e.g., Lewis 1987, Sims

1988a, 1988b, 1988c, Passfield 1988, Zoutendyk 1989, Passfield and Evans, 1991). These profiles provide information on species present, stock status, utilisation, and management, as well as limited information on production and marketing.

The Palmerston report (Preston el ah, 1995) provides an excellent study of the marine resources commonly found and exploited in an atoll of the Cook islands, in this case

Palmerston. It is perhaps notable, in the context of the present study, that Palmerston is

26 exclusively occupied by the descendants of three women from Tongareva, and one

Englishman. One of the major aims of the survey was to establish baseline data, particularly on parrot-fish stocks, as well as on other exploited marine resources, because of the perception by the islanders themselves that they may be over-exploiting some of these resources. The major differences between Palmerston and Tongareva is the former has not been blessed with an abundant pearl oyster resource which is a major source of income for Tongarevans, and the proximity of Palmerston to the urban centre of Rarotonga.

The location of Palmerston, together with the entrepreneurial nature of Palmerstonians, has resulted in Palmerston possessing what would be the most commercialised fishery outside of Rarotonga. Frozen whole fish and fillets are sent from Palmerston to Rarotonga for sale on virtually every trip of an inter-island vessel, which call approximately once in every three weeks. !

The Cook Islands Ministry of Marine Resources and the South Pacific Commission recently completed a comprehensive fisheries study in Aitutaki, in the southern Cook

Islands (Adams et al, 1996). Aitutaki has a relatively large population of around 2500 people, and a significant tourist industry. This report covered a range of fisheries related issues. A household survey covered 101 households, for a coverage of approximately 20% of the population, and included useful information on fish consumption for the island.

They noted that approximately 18% of the total fish catch, presumably by weight, was sold, while the rest was used for subsistence purposes or given away to friends and family.

Information specifically relating to Tongareva includes historical information from the time of the first European contact, found in Latnont (1867). Lamont was shipwrecked on

Tongareva, and lived there for 12 months before he was rescued. His description of life on

27 the atoll before the time of the missionaries and slave traders provides a rare insight into the local customs as they were. Included in his observations of the way of life are some rare insights into fishing at that time, and the extent to which the inhabitants relied on marine resources.

Further information on Tongareva from the era around 1929 was compiled by Te Rangi

Hiroa (P.H. Buck) in his Ethnology of Tongareva (1932). He noted the importance of seafood in the diet, as "the main flesh food supply" (p. 107). The most popular eating fish was ruhi (black trevally, Caranx lugubris). The shellfish of importance were mainly

Tridacnid clams (pasua). Pearl oysters were mentioned as existing in the lagoon, but not 1 of the same food importance as pasua.

The South Pacific Commission (SPC) Deep Sea Fisheries Development Project visited the

Cook Islands in 1981/82, and produced a report of their findings (Taumaia and Preston,

1985). The project conducted feasibility fishing trials in Rarotonga and Tongareva, and concluded that commercial quantities of deep-water fish were present in Tongareva, while fishermen in Rarotonga were encouraged to target offshore species such as tunas.

In mid-1982, a cold store and fish handling facility was commissioned on Tongareva. A consultant was recruited by the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) to determine whether significant market opportunities for the marketing offish products from Tongareva still existed in Rarotonga. Fish production in Rarotonga had recently increased owing to the success of a fish aggregation device (FAD) programme there. He provided estimates for seafood consumption in Rarotonga, and concluded that there would be a seasonal over

28 supply in Rarotonga, and suggested that there was a potential export market in New

Zealand which should be further investigated (Carleton, 1982)'.

The Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) has recently sponsored a case study of a traditional marine resource management system in the Cook

Islands (Munro, 1996). This report was similar to the case study previously mentioned which was undertaken in Fiji (Fong 1994), and sponsored under the same programme. The selected study site was Pukapuka Atoll, also in the northern Cook Islands, an island community considered to be among the most traditional of all the Cook Islands in the way in which it manages its resources. This study describes the traditional and present status of the marine tenure system, describes traditional and more recently introduced fishing methods and materials, as well as past and present approaches to fisheries management in

Pukapuka.

A five year USAID funded pear! farming support project was completed in Tongareva in

1995. Several reports of a technical nature were produced, and these were combined into a summarised technical report (RDA 1995a). Perhaps of more relevance to the present study was the economic assessment of an expansion of pearl farming in the Cook Islands also prepared under the USAID contract (Rowntree, 1993). He comments that pearl production is a high risk business, due to the possible detrimental effects of pollution, environmental change, hurricanes and storms, and oyster disease. Returns to farmers must remain high to attract the investment capital required in such a risky environment. Along with this risk, other constraints identified to an expansion of the industry include lack of technology and

In fact, irregular shipping and poor maintenance of (the facility has resulted in it ceasing to operate. There is still a shortage of fresh/frozen fish in Rarotonga, with significant quantities being imported from New Zealand. 29 experience, lack of investment capital, lack of marketing outlets, and a scarcity of entrepreneurs.

Useful as most of these studies are, none has treated the whole range of marine resources exploited in a coastal fishing community. The licensed commercial fishing sector, a major contributor to the overall fin fish catch, has also been largely ignored in these studies.

30 Chapter Three. THE STUDY SITES AND PEOPLE

This section gives a brief description of the geography, economy, and culture of the major study sites of Verata Tikina (district), Fiji, and Tongareva Atoll, Cook Islands.

VERATA

Ucunivanua and Naloto Villages, in Verata Tikina (Tailevu Province) were selected as the

Fiji study sites because they have a mixture of both subsistence and commercial fisheries which target as complete a range of the locally available marine resources as is likely to be found within reasonable travelling distance from the capital city and major urban market of

Suva. The main focus is on Ucunivanua, which has a very active fishing population compared to the other villages, with Naloto providing information on a less intensive village fishery. Additional information on food consumption patterns was obtained from

Kumivillage, also in Verata. Figure 1 shows the location of Verata Tikina within Fiji, while Figure 2 shows the three villages in Verata that were included in the study.

There are also full-scale commercial fishermen operating in the Verata qoliqoli, under licensing agreements with the traditional resource owners. Information from these fishermen also provided details on both the potential value of the total marine resource base, and some indication of the interaction between the commercial and village level fishery.

31 P A C 1 F

AUSTRALIA

>. <

iCALI KADAVU MILES

Figure 1. The location of Verata Tikina within Fiji.

32 WO

3 OX) Geography and climate

Verata Tikina is situated at 17° 51' South and 178° 34' East, in Tailevu Province on the east coast of Viti Levu, the largest of the Fiji islands. The total land area is around 40 sq. km

Access to the area is by an unpaved feeder road which branches off from the Kings Road

section of the main circuminsular road around Viti Levu, about 20 km. north of Nausori.

This feeder road passes through lowland plains covered with minor shrubs and patches of

light forest, as well as pasture and, closer to the villages, agricultural land. There are six coaslal villages and one inland village in the District. The major study site in the area for this thesis, Ucunivanua Village, is situated on a headland which rises to around 20m above sea level (Vunisea, 1996). The road ends at the western end of the village, and concrete

footpaths provide access to the village itself, and also down to the sea at the eastern end of the village. Access to the sea is also possible from the shore line adjacent to the road

before it rises to the village on its western approach.

The number of rainy days is high, with an average of 175 days annually with rainfall in excess of 0.1 mm. from 1984 to 1993 recorded at Levuka, the closest weather station (Fiji

Meteorological Service, 1994: pers com.). The total annual rainfall is in the vicinity of

5000 mm per year, with a distinct wet season from November to April (Vunisea, 1996).

Wind speed and direction data from Nausori Airport (approximately 25 km. from

Ucunivanua) indicate that the wind is generally slight, with wind speeds rarely exceeding

17 knots. Stronger winds generally occur in November, when speeds exceed 17 knots

2.5% of the time. Winds are below 11 knots on average 88.4 % of the time1.

1Based on 20,304 observations taken at Nausori airport between 1978 and 1985. 34 In brief, the weather is generally fine, and even in strong winds, the Verata waters are well protected from the prevailing wind direction, resulting in few fishing days being lost because of bad weather.

Population and Social Organisation

General. Both Ucunivanua and Naloto Villages are of about the same size, with between

250 and 300 people in each. As in other Fijian villages, the inhabitants belong to separate descent groups called matoqali, under the leadership of a chief. The main chiefly position of Verata is called the Turaga na Ratu, currently held by Ratu Ilisoni Qio.

Despite its proximity to Suva, Verata Tikina remains relatively undeveloped in terms of services and infrastructure. There is no power supply, and water is piped from a nearby reservoir to a number of communal taps in the villages. There are also a number of wells which are still utilised. Religion plays a major role in the villagers lives, and the dominant building in each village is the Methodist Church. The economy is based on fisheries and agriculture, and few formal opportunities for employment exist.

The villages exist as communities, and there is strong emphasis on communal activities.

One day per week is set aside for communal village work such as keeping the village environs clean and weed free and maintaining community buildings (Vunisea, 1996).

35 Ucunivanua. In Ucunivanua, the focus for the study in Fiji, there are six mataqali

(Vunisea, 1996). These are:

• MATAQALI TURAGA, the chiefly clan.

• MATAQALI KAIVERATA, the traditional spokes-people.

• MATAQALI TOTOKAU, the traditional warriors.

• MATAQALI VOSARATU, the traditional carpenters.

• MATAQALI KAINAVASA, who provide yaqona to traditional ceremonies.

• MATAQALI KAIWAI,the master fishers.

Ucunivanua village consists of 65 households (Vunisea, 1996), and a total population

around 292 (Turaga ni koro, pers com.). Few people are formally employed. Four school

teachers for the village, and another teacher who works in Tailevu, comprise the

Government employees. The Turaga ni koro, an elected town officer and the main

Government representative of a Fijian village, also draws a small allowance. The church

minister is the only other formally employed inhabitant of the village. Several other people, mainly males, live and work in Nausori or Suva, but often return to the village on

week ends.

There are five small shops operating in Ucunivanua, selling mainly items such as tinned fish and meat, instant noodles, cigarettes, flour, sugar, and confectionary items. As there is no community power generation facility, inhabitants do not have access to freezers.

Several people do have ice boxes, and carry ice from Nausori several times per week, A much more comprehensive coverage of village social structure and organisation can be found in Vunisea (1996).

36 Marine tenure. The Turaga na Ratu of Verata has control over an extensive and productive fishing ground (qoliqoli). Locals refer to the area as "God's garden" because of the rich resource base that exists there (Vunisea, 1996). According to the maps available at the Native Fisheries Commission, this qoliqoli is divided into three distinct areas. The first, immediately adjacent to the Verata Tikina, is around 285 sq. km. in size. The second area, of approximately 500 sq. km. is shared with the owners of Namena Island. The third extremely large area encompasses Naigani Island and stretches off to the north east to west of Makogai Island, and is approximately 1440 sq. km. The total area of the qoliqoli is therefore about 2,200 sq. km., making it one of the more extensive qoliqoli in Fiji. At the time of this study, there was some dispute over the boundaries. Figure 3 shows the extent of the Verata qoliqoli.

VERATA FISHING AREA

NAMENA

COASTLINE

FISHING AREAS

SCALE 1:420 000

Figure 3. The traditional fishing ground or qoliqoli of Verata.

37 TONGAREVA (PENRHYN)

In mid-1994, the author took up a 12 months position as biologist at the Tongareva Marine

Research Station. This opportunity was taken to expand the scope of the study to include

information from Tongareva.

Geography and climate.

Tongareva is an extremely large atoll in the Northern Cook Islands, situated 1365 km north

of Rarotonga, and 9 degrees south of the equator. It is the largest of the Northern Cook

Islands, with a total land area of 973 hectares, and a lagoon area of 276 sq. km (Campbell,

1985). It consists of two villages, situated on opposite sides of the lagoon. Omoka, the

main village, is on the western side of the lagoon, and the smaller settlement of Tetautua is

on the north east.

Strong winds are rare, and average 11 to 12 knots over oceanic regions, and up. to 40% less

over land areas protected by vegetation (Thompson, 1986). The atoll is fortunate in being

out of the cyclone belt, although gale force winds and squalls are sometimes experienced.

Tropical cyclones do sometimes originate in the region around Tongareva, especially

during the negative phase of the Southern Oscillation, before strengthening and moving

south (Thompson, 1986), Rainfall is high, with an average of over 3300 mm per year for

the ten years to 1995 (Cook Islands Meteorological Office, raw data). In general, few

fishing days are lost due to bad weather.

Figure 4 shows the location of Tongareva within the South Pacific, while Figure 5 shows the atoll itself.

38 COOK ISLANDS

Tongareva

ds ,'..•' Northern Cook Islands

ASIA •• .Hawaii

SOUTH ~PACIFIC OCEAN

PACIFIC OCEAN SOUTH- OCEAN

Aitutaki

;..`~!

Figure 3. The location of Tongareva Atoll in the South Pacific.

39 Omoka Village

eon Lagoon

PENRHYN ISLAND

Figure 5. Tongareva Atoll (Pcnrhyn), Cook Islands.

40 Population and Social Organisation

The two villages of Omoka and Tetautua have present day populations of around 400 and

200 people respectively. Tongareva has been inhabited by Polynesians for at least the past

800 years (Campbell, 1984). The first recorded visit by Europeans was in 1788, from the ship Lady Penrhyn, and Christianity was introduced in 1854.

An excellent account of Tongareva before missionary influence is given by Lamont (1867) who was shipwrecked on the island and remained there throughout 1853. The population at that time was around 2,000. These people were situated in a number of settlements around the islets of the atoll. Census figures available for 1906, only 53 years later, put the population at 420. This large drop in population is largely attributed to Peruvian slave traders who took around 1,000 people in 1864, leaving less than 100 inhabitants, mainly the elderly and very young (Buck, 1932, Maude, 1981). Buck (1932) surmises, by tracing back through the genealogies related by Tongarevans, that the present population is descended from settlers who arrived around the middle of the 15th century. There are also the descendants of some of the 111 Micronesian slaves taken from the Kiribati group by the Peruvian slavers and later "repatriated" to Tongareva rather than to their more distant southern Kiribati home islands (Maude, 1981). This would tend to suggest that the present day Tongarevans possess a mixture of Polynesian and Micronesian ancestry.

Today the administrative centre, consisting of the Post Office and Government offices, is situated at Omoka. Houses are predominantly concrete block and iron roof construction, though many houses in Tetautua, which gets less of the cooling breeze than Omoka, still retain a cooler coconut frond thatched sleeping house. Both villages are serviced by

41 electricity 12 hours per day. Water is available from communal tanks, though many houses now have their own water tanks as well. Tongareva is the site of a USAID-funded Marine

Research Centre, consisting of a water quality laboratory, pearl oyster hatchery, offices and three residential houses. This facility has its own hybrid diesel generator/solar power generating ability.

The people have strict views on religion, and more than 90% of the population belongs to the Cook Island Christian Church, originally established by the London Missionary

Society. Absolutely no work or play is permitted on Sundays, and even travellers on visiting yachts are expected to comply (pers. obs). Apart from the cohesion brought about by church activities, there appears to be less of the community spirit in Tongareva that is so prevalent in many of the other smaller Pacific Islands.

The major employer is the Public Service, with around 146 people employed at the time of this study (Island Council Clerk records). This number was somewhat inflated by around twenty to thirty labourers employed during construction of the Marine Research Centre.

The other major source of income is handicrafts. Most of the women over 15 years of age are actively engaged in handicraft production, mainly the weaving of hats and fans. Some of the men are also involved in the manufacture of polished and carved pearl shell jewellery. These handicraft items have a ready market in the tourist outlets of Rarotonga, and contribute significantly to the income of the Tongarevans (see p.70). The sale of raw

(unworked) pearl shell, once a major income earner for the island, has decreased dramatically as people now retain live shells for use on their pearl farms. Pearl shell exports can be expected to start again as pearl oysters are killed during pearl harvests.

42 Chapter Four. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA FROM VERATA, FIJI

HOUSEHOLD ECONOMIC PROFILE

Data from the 16 questionnaires was analysed using Excel 5.0 spreadsheet. Food consumption data from one questionnaire from Naloto Village was disregarded as it was obviously erroneous. The following results are, for ease of reading, presented without statistical data such as standard deviations and confidence limits. A full spreadsheet analysis including confidence limits of relevant questionnaire data can be found in

Appendix 12.

Family Structure and Household Size.

The average household size was 5.3 persons. An average family consisted of just less than

2 children (under 15 years), while only one in five families had a family member over the age of 60 years living with them. The families were in many cases larger than figures recorded during the survey, as a number of children, particularly of high school age, were

absent at boarding schools during the time of the survey.

Just less than two people in every household were self employed. This usually meant they were either farmers or fishers. One or two people fished regularly from most households, with an average of 22 person hours per household per week spent on fishing, ranging from zero for the rare non-fishing family to 88 hours per week for a large household with 6 active fishing members.

Income

By far the greatest income for people from Verata is obtained by selling marine and agricultural produce at the Suva, and to a much lesser extent the Nausori and Korovou,

43 markets. Only one household interviewed received a Government income (school teacher), while one other household received income from the head of the household who was working as a timber cutter, and returned home on weekends.

The average household income was FJ$121.38 per week. Fishing income comprised 54% of all income, or an average of FJ$65.25 per week. The other major source of income was from selling crops such as various seasonal fruits, coconuts, and taro.

THE VILLAGE-LEVEL FISHERY IN UCUNIVANUA, VERATA

Catch composition

The Ucunivanua village fishery is a combination of intensive subsistence and commercial fishing, involving both men and women. An analysis of the creel survey revealed the overall catch composition by value of each exploited resource. This is given in Table 2 as a per cent of the total value of harvested seafood recorded on the creel survey questionnaires ($2247). It should be noted that composition may vary throughout the year due to seasonality of specific fisheries. This composition only reflects the catch from April to July, 1994.

44 Table 2. Catch composition by value, Ucunivanua Village Fishery1

Composition of combined catch

lobsters (Panulirus spp.) (urau) 35.3

octopus {Octopus sp.)(kuita) 21.9

sea cucumbers (various species) (dri) 11.9

reef fish (various species) (ika) 10.3

giant clams (Tridacna spp.) (vasua) 5.6

green turtle {Chelonia mydas) (vonudina) 4.4

maidenhair seaweed {Hypnea pannosa)2 (lumi cevata) 2.8

ark shell {Anadara antiquata) kaikoso 1.9

others 5.9

Total 100

1 A more complete list of species found in Fiji waters is contained in Appendix 1 2Lumicevata is incorrectly identified as //. nidifica on the Fijian Seafood Poster. It has recently been reclassified Hypnea pcmnasa J. Agardh (N'Yeurt et al. (1996). There is a distinct difference in the species exploited by men and women. Women in general do not travel far from the village on fishing expeditions, and the composition of their catch gives-an indication of those resources that are to be found within a kilometre or two of the village. Table 3 provides information on the relative value of the main marine resources collected by women over the study period. The total value of seafood in the sample was $307.20

Table 3. Composition by value of women's catch.

Composition of women's catch

maidenhair seaweed (Hypnea pannosa) (lumi cevata) 20.5

sea cucumbers {Metriatyla scabra) (dairo) 19.0

reef fish (various species) (ika) 14.7

ark shell (Anadara antiquata) (kaikoso) 14.2

egg mass of veata? (se-ni kavere) 9.3

mud crabs (Scylla serata) (qari) 7.5

sea hare (Dolabella auricularia) (veata) 5.2

pen shell (Atrina sp.) (isivi) 5.0

others 4.6

Total 100

46 Men often travel more extensively than women within the qoliqoli, in search of the more valuable resources. Table 4 provides information on the relative value of the resources collected by men over the study period. The total value of the sample was $1940.

Table 4. Composition by value of men's catch

lobsters (Panulirus spp.) (urau) 40.9

octopus (Octopus sp.)(kuita) 25.2

sea cucumbers (various species) (dri) 10.8

reef fish (various species) (ika) 9.5

giant clams (Tridacna spp.) (vasua) 6.4

green turtle (Chelonia mydas) (vonudina) 5.1

other 2.1

Total 100

Subsistence Fishing and Food Consumption Patterns.

Seafood makes up a substantial proportion of the Verata villagers' diet. The main seafoods consumed are small reef fish such as kabatia (Lethrinus harak) and kake (Lutjanus fulviflamma), shellfish, especially kaikoso (Anadara antiquata), qaqa {Gafarium spp.) and golea (Strombus gibberlus), and seaweeds, particularly lumi cevata (Hypnea pannosa).

Larger fish such as donu {Plectropomus spp.) and drekeni (Plectorhinchus

47 chaetodonoides), speared as a by-catch during commercial fishing trips for lobsters and octopus, are also frequently consumed.

The average coastal Verata family eats fresh seafood 6.3 times per week1. There was no significant difference between the seafood consumption of Ucunivanua (6.2 times/wk) when compared to the other 2 villages combined (6.5 times per week). Only two informants indicated that they do, on very rare occasions, purchase fresh seafood.

Although petrol is sometimes used for the boat engine when catching subsistence seafood, this is almost always as a bycatch of a commercial fishing trip. It can therefore be assumed that the fresh seafood costs nothing in monetary terms. Figure 6 shows the percentage of each of the sources of animal protein consumed, and Table 5 gives the breakdown of food consumption patterns with costs from the data collected from the 3 villages in Verata.

Fresh meat Tinned Meat 11% 11%

Tinned Fish Fresh seafood 19% 59%

Figure 6. Average percentage of meals at which each of the animal protein sources are consumed in 3 villages in Verata.

'These figures all fall within reasonable confidence limits. The reader interested in the statistics is referred to the appendices. 48 Table 5. Average animal protein consumption patterns for Verata.

Type of food No of meals per week

Cost per week $FJ

Fresh seafood 6.25 0

Tinned Fish 2.02 2.98'

Tinned Meat 1.17 3.532

Fresh meat 1.17 5.39

Total 10.61 11.90

From Table 5 it can be seen that an average household spends $11.90 per week for 4.36 meals that do not comprise fresh seafood, for an average of $2.73 per meal. Although the

6.25 meals of fresh seafood do not cost them anything in monetary terms, these meals have an opportunity cost of $2.73 multiplied by 6.25, or $17.06 per week per household, based on the cost of those commodities that would otherwise have been purchased for the meal

(import substitution).

The other meals consumed in the week consist of mainly root crops and leafy green vegetables.

1 Prices for tinned fish vary depending on where they are purchased, ic in town or at the village shop. An average price of $1.30 per tin is used here. 2 Similarly, a price of $2.50 is used per tin. 49 Village Level Commercial Fishing.

Both men and women engage in commercial fishing. The men generally fish further from the village, either in punts with or without engines, or from more substantial boats powered by outboard engines. An analysis of questionnaire data for 28 men and 28 women, combined with data collected during informal interviews, reveals the following information.

The main commercial species for the men are urau (lobsters, e.g. Panulirus ornatus,

Panulirus versicolour), kuita (Octopus sp), giant clam species such as vasua (T. derasa), vasua cega (Jridacna squamosa), katavatu (T. maxima) and various sea cucumber species, e.g. sucu walu or white teatfish (Holothuria fucogilva), loaloa or black teatfish

(Holothuria nobilis), and lokoloko ni qio or curryfish (Stichopus variegatus). Some of these fisheries are seasonal. For example, night diving for sea cucumber species ceases in the winter months, as the water becomes too cold for the fishermen. Villagers also report that octopi are mainly caught in the drier, cooler months. Species caught by men are generally high-value species, and the average return per man per trip is around $69, 89% of which is sold, and 11% retained for domestic consumption.

The women generally fish in the near-shore areas, either by walking the sand flats and exposed reef flat at low tide or fishing from punts, usually without engines. They mainly fish for shellfish such as kaikoso {Anadara antiquaia) and qaqa (Gafarium spp.), dairo

(Metriatyla scabra) and other sea cucumbers, the sea hare or veata (Dolabella auricularia), seni kavere1, lumi (seaweeds, e.g. lumi cevata (Hyprtea pannosa.) and

1.Seni kavere is a green} spaghetti like substance found in sandy mud hollows at low tide. Ucunivanua fishers believe it to be possibly the reproductive organs or egg mass of the veata, as it is usually found in close proximity to veata. 50 nama (Cau/erpa racemosa), crabs, including the high priced mud crab or qari (Scylla serata), and small reef fish (e.g., kabatia Lethrinus harak, kake Lutjanits fulviflamma).

Some of these fisheries are also seasonal, e.g. veata (June to August), while other species

such as kaikoso are available throughout the year. These resources exploited by the

women are mostly lower value species, compared to those harvested by men, and an average trip returns around $12 per woman, 64% of which is sold, and the remainder

retained for domestic consumption.

Although the commercial value of the women's catch is comparatively low, these resources

provide the bulk of the animal protein eaten by the families of these women. This reflects

the tendency for a household to sell high-value species and retain lower-value, but equally

nutritious, species for home consumption.

The overall average return for a fishing trip of either men or women was around $41 per

trip per person.

Main Commercial Species

There is a wide range of commercial species harvested from the village fishery. Table 6

lists those that were recorded from the creel survey. Fin-fish are absent from this

commercial list as they are normally consumed at home rather than sold.

51 Table 6. Value of seafoods from Verata sold in the urban markets1.

1S1V1 Atrina sp pen shell 7.00 dry 4.00 10 pieces, smoked & dry, for $2.00 fresh kabatia. kake, sabutu, Lethrinidae, mixed reef fish Some very small e.g. 27 fish donu, kurakura Cheilinidae weighed around 2 kg dairo Metriatyla scabra sandfish 5.00 (cooked) Dried, 7 pieces for $10 kuita Octopus sp. octopus $4 fresh $6 Often between $10 and $ 15 each smoked urau dina P. versicolor painted 11.00 urau bola appears more common in urau bola P. ornatus crayfish ornate catches. crayfish dri loli Actinopyga miliaris black fish 10.00 less if not dried properly sucu walu Microthele fuscogilva white teat fish Est $40.00 for 10. lokoloko ni qio Stichopus variegalus curry fish 10.00 less if not dried properly civa Pinctada maigaritifera pearl oyster 6.00 shell only, meat eaten vasua Tridacna sp giant clam 3.50 (meat) large one for $5 katavatu Tridacna maxima giant clam 5.00 (meat) 8 to 11 pcs per kg yaga Lanibis sp. spider conch 1.90 $4 for 30 pieces sici Trochus niloticus trochus 12.00 meat 6.00 23 meat, minus gonad weighed shell 150g, for $2.00 kaikoso Anadara sp sand mussel 0.50 4 kg in shell for $2. 2 kg fresh provides 150g cooked meat kukaloa Metapograpsus messor black crab? 2.50 to 3.00 1.3 kg string, 15 crabs qari Scylla serata mud crab 10.00 1 crab can be 1 kg veata Dolabella sp. green sea hare 2.00 For mix of internal organs and seni kavere. 1 kg represents organs of about 25 veata. lumi cevala Hypnea pannosa maiden hair Weights and associated cost vary greatly with moisture seni kavere 4.00 Egg mass or gonads of veata? vonudina Chelonia mydas green turtle 5.00 (meat) $50 for a medium size.

' The prices here, obtained from the fishers themselves, are reasonably consistent with those published in the Fisheries Division Annual Reports. 52 Several key species make up the bulk of the commercial village level catch. Sufficient data was collected during the creel census to give a brief analysis of catch and effort for kuita

(octopi), kaikoso (ark shells), and urau (lobsters).

Octopus (kuita)

Octopi or kuita {Octopus spp.) are extracted from holes in the reef, sometimes with the aid of a spear and diving gear (face mask). Usually this is done by the men, who travel further from the village by punt with outboard engine. A fee of $5 per head is generally charged by the boat owner, mainly to cover cost of fuel. Women also collect some octopi closer to the village while gleaning. It was reported that men sometimes use crowbars to break open the reef to catch octopi. Octopi are reported to be seasonal, being more abundant in the cooler, drier months. They are often caught in conjunction with lobster and sea cucumbers, which are also caught whenusing dive gear.

Individuals are generally large, weighing of up to 5 kg fresh, with an average size between

2 and 4 kg. Each fishermen catches up to 6 octopi, with a catch of 20 to 30 per boat not uncommon. The average return per fisherman hour was $6.93, excluding incidental by catch, and inclusive of travelling time.

Lobster (urau)

The lobster or urau (Pamdinis spp.) fishery based in Ucunivanua is the only fishery for which some reliable catch data is available. This is because there is one principal lobster buyer in the village. This buyer keeps an ice box (an old, disused freezer), and travels to

53 Suva once or twice per week to replenish the ice, and sell the lobsters. The lobsters are commonly sold to the major seafood restaurant in Suva, Tiko's Floating Restaurant.

The village buyer keeps a book of the weights of the catches by individual fishermen, thus providing reasonable catch and effort data (although there is no indication of how long the

fishermen spend fishing for the lobsters, or whether it is a by-catch or the target species).

Two species are commonly caught, Panulirus ornatus and P. versicolour, and the buyer

does not differentiate between these in his records. The lobsters are usually taken by free

divers with spears. No diving compressors are currently used by village fishers.

The creel census of lobsters indicated approximately equal numbers of each species of

lobster for the period of the survey (May-July). Catches averaged 17.8 kg per day. The

fishermen did not report any significant seasonal variation in either species or abundance

though this may exist. The return per hour for lobster fishermen was $18.64, excluding

incidental by-catch, and inclusive of travelling time. This was the highest rate of return

recorded for any species, due to the high value of $11 per kg. for lobsters received by the

fishermen.

Ark shell (Kaikoso)

Although the overall value of ark shell or kaikoso {Anadara antiquata) ranks it around equal third in the women's fishery for the period surveyed, and much lower for the combined fishery, year round it would be the most valuable single species fishery in which the women are involved. The sea cucumber and reef fish fisheries are based on a range of different species, and the seaweed (lumi cevata) fishery is seasonal. By weight, kaikoso

54 would also be the largest fishery, whether men's or women's, for a single species over the entire year, though seasonally it may be exceeded by octopus.

Kaikoso is collected almost exclusively by women, for both subsistence and commercial purposes. They usually walk out on the mud flats, and collect it by hand at low tide.

Occasionally they go further afield by punt. If the punt does not belong to them, or to a relative, they usually pay a small fee to the punt owner. The women realise a return of

$2.03 per hour fished, or an average of around $6 per average 3 hour trip.

THE VALUE OF THE VILLAGE LEVEL FISHERY

The village level fishery can be divided into two categories:

• the subsistence fishery, i.e. that portion of the catch which is retained for domestic

consumption within the village.

• the village level commercial fishery, i.e. that portion of the catch which is sold through

the urban markets or other outlets, usually in Suva or Nausori.

Subsistence fishery

There are several approaches that can be used to value the village level subsistence fishery.

These are dealt with below.

Impart substitution

The subsistence fishery can be valued on the basis of import substitution, or the opportunity cost of the seafood consumed, as discussed earlier in this chapter under the sub-heading "Subsistence Fishing and Food Consumption Patterns" (page 47). There it

55 was seen that an average meal for which a component (e.g. tinned fish, tinned meat, etc.) is purchased costs $2.73. As there are 6.25 meals per week in which fresh seafood is substituted for the purchased food, weekly consumption of subsistence seafood can be \ valued at $17.50 per household of 5.31 people. The coastal population of Verata is approximately 1600, or 301 average size households. This translates to a total value of

$5,273 per week, or $274,200 per year.

Creel Census and Observation

To value the subsistence fishery based on the creel census and observation made during field trips, several assumptions need to be made. These assumptions are based on observations of spatial and temporal fishing patterns in the village, and include:

• 28 men fishing from powered boats for 2.5 days per week, 43 weeks per year, and

catching the average value of $69.46 per person per trip, 11% of which is retained for

subsistence.

• 26 women fishing for 2.5 days per week, 46 weeks per year, and catching an average

value of $11.59 per person per trip, 36% of which is retained for subsistence.

• 5 women, subsistence fishing for 2 days per week, 50 weeks per year, and returning

$5.00 per person.

The assumptions of numbers of weeks fished are based on personal observations and informal interviews with fishers, as well as usual weather conditions, and should be regarded as a "best guess".

56 Calculations made using the above assumptions provide a value for the Ucunivanua village level subsistence fishery of around FJ$38,000 per year.

Extrapolation of Ucunivanua Questionnaire Data

If it is assumed that the subsistence level of fishing was approximately equal throughout the coastal villages of Verata, the value of the subsistence catch from Ucunivanua can be extrapolated to obtain an overall value for Verata. Thus the figure of $38,000 obtained by analysing fisher questionnaire data and observations and interviews with fishers from

Ucunivanua, population 292, would become $208,000, when extrapolated to account for a population of approximately 1600 for the 6 coastal villages in Verata. This figure is about 76% of the estimate based on import substitution.

Equivalent commercial value

Another extrapolated figure can be obtained by using the average per capita consumption of seafood of 6.25 times per week obtained from the Verata household questionnaires, an average portion of 250g per person1, and the total population of the coastal villages in

Verata, including Ucunivanua, of around 1600 people. Assuming some form of subsistence fishing is possible at least 46 weeks per year, this gives a figure of approximately 115,000 kg of seafood consumed annually. Using a value of $2.50 per kg, the price obtained for the lower-priced fish caught in the area if they were sold in the markets, gives a value of just under $287,500 for the annual subsistence catch in these villages. This figure does not vary greatly from the estimate based on import substitution.

It is difficult to obtain an exact figure for the amount of seafood consumed per person per meal. Rawlinson et al.( 1995) obtained a figure of 250g whole fish per person consumed per meal at meals where fresh fish was consumed. 57 Village Level Commercial Fishery.

Using the same assumptions as those under sub-heading "Creel Census and Observation", but using the commercial component of the catch in the calculations, a figure of $208,255 for the commercial harvest of Ucunivanua fishers is obtained.

It has so far been assumed that the commercial catch from the other villages is either minimal, or much more limited than that of Ucunivanua. This is based on the fact that they do not have access to the regular bus service to the market which is available at

Ucunivanua. There is also only one outboard engine in Naloto, which belongs to the store keeper rather than to a regular fisherman, and Kumi Village was reported to have only one semi commercial fisherman using an outboard. This severely limits the area of the qoliqoli which can be exploited, and access to the higher value commercial species such as lobsters, octopus, and sea cucumbers would be minimal.

However, some seafood does find its way to the market from these villages through a carrier service. An estimate of this was only available for Naloto village, based on the household questionnaire, where average fishing income was $6.00 per household per week.

It is also known that Kumi village is expanding its commercial operations (Vunisea, 1996).

If we use this figure of $6 per household for the estimated 246 other households (excluding

Ucunivanua), we can approximate an annual value of $76,750 for their commercial catch.

This would be approximately 23% of the total value of the fishery for these other villages, based on information above on the value of the subsistence fishery. This compares with about 85% of the total value of the Ucunivanua fishery being commercial, demonstrating the definite commercial orientation of that fishery.

58 This information for the other villages of Verata must however be treated with caution, as it is based on only 4 questionnaires. Data from the 5th questionnaire was discarded as being unreliable.

The total value for the village level commercial fishery in Verata is thus estimated to be

FJ$285,000 per year.

THE "LICENSED" COMMERCIAL FISHERY

All commercial fishermen, including those operating at village level, are supposed to hold a commercial licence, which is available for around $10 from the Fisheries Division1.

However, the term "licensed" is used here to refer to fishermen from outside Verata licensed by the Fisheries Division to fish in the Verata area. These fishermen generally fish from 9 to 10 metre launches, or half-cabin vessels of similar size. These vessels are capable of carrying substantial amounts of ice, and remain in the fishing area for up to a week, or until their ice box is full. These fishermen typically pay a "goodwill" fee to the traditional owners of the fishing area, which can be up to $4,000 per annum. In Verata,

$1,000 is commonly charged by the Turaga na Ratu for full-time commercial fishermen from outside the area.

There are three launches and fourteen half-cabin fishing vessels licensed for Verata, In addition, there are some punt fishermen from the villages also holding licences, bringing to

23 the total number of licences issued by the Fisheries Division for 1994. Launches are normally plywood 9 to 10 m FAO design, powered by Yanmar 20 horse power diesel engines. Half-cabins are either plywood or fibreglass vessels of around 8m, powered by 25

1 This licence fee comprises a $4.00 mother vessel fee, $4.00 Captain fee, $1.00 per tender vessel skiff and $1.00 per crew member. This study indicated that very few village level commercial fishermen bother obtaining a licence. 59 to 40 horse power outboards. Punts are also plywood or fibreglass, from 5 to 7m in length, powered by 8 to 30 horse power outboards. Plywood punts, propelled by oars, are also used by the net fishermen for setting and hauling their nets.

The launches are all licensed to Indian fisherman, while the half-cabin licences are evenly distributed between 7 Fijian and 7 Indian licence holders. Six of these vessels mainly use nets, and the other vessels are, to use local terminology, "still" fishing. Still fishing refers to fishing with baited hand lines. Some fishermen also troll, using plastic lures. Although, according to some informants, net fishing can be twice as lucrative as line fishing, the same goodwill payment is reported to be extracted for both methods, and most fishermen use both methods at different times. One informant said he uses nets for the first part of the year (the "cold" season) and lines for the latter part of the year. Based on the interviews conducted with several of these licenced fishermen, the following results were obtained.

Species caught. The major species caught in nets in the Verata area are mullet species such as kanace (Crenimugil crenilabis) and koto (Mugil cephalus). Other species commonly caught include kawago {Lethrinus nebuiosus), kabatia {Lethrinus harak), nuqa

(Siganus spp.), busa {Hemiramphus far), saqa (Carangidae family), salala (Rastrelliger brachysoma), and kaikai {Leiognathus equulus).1

Still fishermen catch mainly ogo (Sphyraena spp.), larger kawago and other Lethrinid species, walu {Scomberomorus commerson) and larger saqa and kawakawa {Epinephelus spp.).

'A more complete! lislistt ooff sspecies is contained in Appendix 8. 60 Valuing the Licensed Commercial Fishery.

In order to value this fishery, it was necessary to make several assumptions. These assumptions are based upon questionnaire interviews with two fishermen licensed in

Verata, and four fishermen licensed in adjacent areas, as well as on informal interviews, weather data, and observations. Additionally, a trip was taken on one of the vessels during fishing operations in Verata waters, where personal observations were made (see Appendix

4).

The following assumptions were used to determine the value of the catch.

• 1 launch fishes (net) for 10 weeks per annum, at $1300/wk1

• 1 launch fishes (net) for 40 weeks per annum, at $1000/wk

• 1 launch fishes (net) for 30 weeks per annum, at $1000/wk

• 11 half cabins fish (line) for 40 weeks per annum at $600/wk

• 3 half cabins fish (net) for 40 weeks per annum at $1000/wk

The figures are only estimates, and based only on the perceived reliability of the informants. Forty weeks is taken as the number of weeks that could conceivably be fished by a vessel fishing full-time in the area, after taking account of down time for maintenance of the vessel, breakdowns, holidays, and bad weather.

'This vessel is licensed in two areas, and spends a significant amount of time fishing the other area. 61 From this information, it can be calculated that the gross value of the catch from the

"licensed" commercial fishery from the Verata area is in the vicinity of FJ$467,000 per

annum. This is the gross value for the fish taken, at the price paid to the fishermen, and

does not take into account overheads or indicate the profitability of the fishing operation1.

TOTAL VALUE OF THE VERATA FISHERY.

The three methods used to estimate a value for the subsistence fishery provided values of

$287,500, $208,000, and $274,000. As it is not possible to say which is in fact a better

estimate of the true value of the fishery, and in view of the fact that the figures are not too

different from each other, all falling between $200,000 and $300,000 dollars, an average of

the 3 values should provide a reasonable estimate for the true annual value of the

subsistence fishery. This figure comes to FJ$257,000

The village level commercial fishery was estimated to be worth FJ$285,000 per year,

while the licensed commercial fishery was estimated to be worth FJ$467,000 per year.

The total value of the Verata fishery can then be estimated to be the sum of these three figures, or FJ$1,009,000 per year, i.e. an annual value in excess of one million Fijian

Dollars.

1 This study only attempts to place a gross value on marine resources, and various costs involved in each fishery have not been included. However, some information on these costs was collected in the course of the study, and these are presented in Appendix . 62 Chapter Five. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA FROM TONGAREVA, COOK ISLANDS

The sea has always played a large part in the lives of the people of the atolls of the

Northern Cook Islands. The villages are well-supplied with boats, and fishing provides the major source of protein. Tongareva residents own 65 boats (most around 5 m. in length) which are utilised regularly. Seventy two percent of these are aluminium, the others being plywood or fibreglass. In Tongareva, nearly every household has a boat, or access to one belonging to a close family member. They all have outboard engines, the preferred size being 25 horse power. The use of outrigger canoes has completely died out in recent years.

The economy of the island has recently been altered by the approval of the Island Council to allow for the development of black pearl farming. Pearl farming has been successfully carried out in recent decades in atolls of the Tuamotus, in French Polynesia. In the past 10 years, it has also been successfully undertaken in Manihiki Atoll, also in the Northern Cook

Islands. Tongarevan people are cautious by nature, and were reluctant to allow the introduction of pearl farming until they were reasonably sure it would not harm their lagoon. Disease problems from over-intensive farming in French Polynesia would appear to justify this caution.

Previously, the single largest source of income for the private sector of Tongareva has been pearl shell for mother of pearl (MOP) from the black-lipped pearl oyster or parau

{Pinctada margaritifera). Government employment is by far the greatest overall income earner for the island. The public service has grown from a total of 68 in 1990 to 146 at the time of this study (March 1995). Virtually all households have at least one person employed by Government.

63 Handicrafts made from coconut leaves (nikau) and pearl shell (parau) have also provided income to the island. Women in particular make a significant contribution to the household income through the many hours they spend weaving. Polished pearl shells are incorporated into hats and fans woven from processed young coconut fronds (rito). A good weaver can make up to 3 hats, 6 fans and 2 purses per week, providing an income of around $230. Men are increasingly utilising the pearl shell for carving jewellery items.

Another source of income is the natural pearls from the smaller pipi oyster (Pinctada maculata). Appendix 10 contains more details on the pipi fishery, as well as several other specific fisheries in Tongareva.

Approval for pearl farming utilising the black-lipped pearl oyster paved the way for the

Cook Island Government, with funding and technical assistance from the United States

Government, to construct the Tongareva Marine Research Centre. This centre is primarily aimed at supporting pearl farming initiatives in the northern group, and Tongareva in particular. Employment for more than 20 Tongareva Islanders by the Cook Islands

Government has been the direct result of the construction phase of this project. A further six were employed to staff the facility upon completion.

The gathering of pearl oysters for mother of pearl, while not prohibited, has greatly decreased. People have become aware that a live parau (pearl shell) on the pearl farm can be a lot more productive than killing the shell for use as mother of pearl. The first harvest of round cultured pearls in Tongareva was in October/November 1995, and another is expected in 1997.

64 The utilisation of other marine resources is mainly for subsistence. Commercial fishing ventures have been tried in the past, but have not succeeded due to several factors. These include the perishable nature of most seafood products, distance from markets, cost of transportation, maintenance and associated reliability of the central freezer (supplied under a UNDP development project in 1982), and internal politics. There was recently an attempt at a new commercial venture for producing dried shark meat (there is an apparent abundance of sharks both inside and outside Tongareva lagoon). This undertaking, like others before it) failed, in this case primarily due to conflicts between principals involved in the venture.

Another attempt at exploiting an under-utilised resource also recently began. One enteiprising individual is sending frozen cooked land crab or tupa (Cardisoma carnifex) meat to Rarotonga. At present the operation is small, exporting 2 to 3 kg of meat per week to a restaurant in Rarotonga. The tupa is abundant on all the islets (motus). Only one claw is taken from each crab. It is presumed the crab survives, and generates a replacement claw. The value of the crab meat in September 1995 NZ$45 per kg to the fisherman.

Airfreight cost is NZ$5.00/kg1.

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY

Household size, income and labour division

Analysis of the data collected from the household surveys in Omoka and Tetautua provided the following information.

1 Shortly after the field work for this study was completed, this business ceased operation, due mainly to what was considered an excessive amount of work to produce the crab meat for the financial returns gained. 65 The average household size on Tongareva was 6.7 people. Each household has an average of 2.1 Government employees. The average household income is NZ$423.20 per week, of which NZ$307.93 is from Government paid salary, wages and allowances1. Another significant source of income conies from handicrafts, principally hats and fans woven from young coconut fronds (rito) by the women. This averages out at NZ$75.67 per household.

In a week the average household spends 13.9 person hours fishing, 23.7 person hours on handicraft, and 9.3 person hours on the family pearl farm.

Most fishing is done by men. The main exception is pipi collecting, in which both men and women are engaged. Some women also do a little line and net fishing within the lagoon, as well as assisting in the collecting of giant clams (pasua), but generally confine themselves to domestic duties and handicraft production. It has however been previously recorded that women were the principal gatherers of giant clams (Lamont, 1867).

Household Food Consumption

The average household eats fresh seafood 11.1 times per week. They eat tinned fish 0.6 times per week, at a cost of $5.27 per week. Tinned meat is consumed 2.28 times per week, at a cost of $19.23 per week. Fresh meat (usually frozen chicken) is consumed 0.4 times per week at a cost of $4.80. An average of 8.2 kg. of rice is also consumed per household per week. Local pork is also eaten, but this is usually reserved for special occasions. A total of 14.3 meals per week are consumed which contain a proportion of

1 'These allowances consist of mainly child endowment payments and old age pensions. These figures for Government salaries etc are valid for 1995. However, a significant reduction can now be expected to have occurred following large public service pay cuts and staff retrenchments following Government financial difficulties in 1996. 66 animal protein. These details are presented in Table 7 and Figure 71.

Table 7. Average animal protein consumption patterns, Tongareva.

Type of food No of meals per week Cost per week $ NZ

Fresh seafood 11.07 0

Tinned Fish 0.62 5.272

Tinned Meat 2.18 19.233

Fresh meat 0.42 4.80

fresh meat tin meat 15% 3% tin fish 4%

fresh seafood 78%

Figure 7. Average percentage of meals at which each of the animal protein sources are consumed in Tongareva.

1 Occasionally domestic chickens are also eaten. Seabirds such as sooty terns, red footed boobies, frigate birds, and their eggs, although an important part of the traditional diet, arc eaten only occasionally, and would not significantly affect this weekly consumption data 2Prices for tinned fish vary depending on which local shop they are purchased from. An average price of NZ$2 per tin is used here.

67 The main finfish species eaten were skipjack tuna or atu (Katsuwonus petamis), yellowfin

tuna or kakasi {Thunnus albacares), groupers, including hapuku {Epinephelus polyphekadion), two other Epinephelus species, veve, and ngatala (Serranidae), parrotfish

including rahi {Hipposcarus longiceps) and sau (Scams altipinnis), soldier fish or malau

(Myripristis spp.) and milkfish or ava (Chanos chanos) The main non-fmfish species

consumed were tridacnid clams or pasua (T. maxima), lobsters or kaura (P. penicillatus),

pearl oyster meat (pipi, kololi), coconut crabs or kaveau (Birgus latro), sand mussels or

kasi (Asaphis violascens), and pencil spined sea urchins or atuke (Heterocentrodus

mamillatus). The consumption of all these items was very low when compared to finfish.

Historical information from Lamont (1867) and Buck (1932) indicates that seafood then, as

now, was an extremely important component of the diet of Tongarevans. They note the

abundance of giant clams (pasua) which are still abundant in Tongareva, although at

present exploitation levels this may not be so in the future (see appendix 10). They also

noted that black trevally (rui, Caranx lugubris) was the most popular eating fish of the

time. This fish has also survived well over the years, and is still one of the most popular

food fishes on Tongareva. Pearl shell, previously of importance mainly for decoration or

the manufacture of fishing lures, and later for export as mother of pearl (MOP), is now of

major importance as the basis for the potentially lucrative cultured pearl industry.

A partial list of Tongarevan marine resources, with local and Latin names, is given in

Appendix 11

Similarly, a price of NZ$4 is used per tin. 68 VALUE OF SEAFOOD CONSUMED.

The value of seafood consumed in Tongareva was estimated in two ways. The first was using the opportunity cost of the seafood consumed (import substitution), using a similar method to that used for Verata (see pages 55 and 47). The second was to look at its equivalent commercial value if it could be sold. This is also similar to a method used for

Verata (see page 57).

Import Substitution.

From the household survey, there are 3.2 meals per week in which tinned fish or meat is consumed, compared with 11.1 meals in which local seafood is consumed. The 3.2 meals cost an average of $9.10 each for the animal protein content. Therefore, if these other forms of animal protein were substituted for the11.1 local seafood meals, they would cost

$101.04 to purchase. The value of this seafood can therefore be approximated at $100 per household per week.

The availability of freezers to virtually all Tongarevan households means fresh or frozen fish is available 52 weeks per year. The approximately ninety households on Tongareva therefore consume NZ$468,000 worth of seafood per year. (52 weeks x 90 households x

$100)

Equivalent commercial value

A study of the amount of seafood consumed in Tongareva in 1997 gave a figure of 380 g per person per meal (Ponia and Passfield, 1997'). The calculation based on this figure gives 28.3 kg of seafood per household per week (0.38 kg x 11.1 meals x 6.7 people), and

1 Based on a questionnaire survey of eight Tongarevan families. Four families responded, and data from a total of 21 meals of seafood was anylysed to provide this result. More detailed statistics are provided in Appendix 11 69 assuming that major portion of the seafood consumed is fish, valued at $4.10 per kg (the

Rarotonga market price less freight), we get a value of NZ$126 per household. This equates to a total value of seafood consumed for Tongareva of approximately

NZ$543,000 (52 weeks x 90 households x $116).

The two figures obtained are quite close, and provide a reasonable basis for valuing the subsistence fishery at around NZ$500,000 per year.

VALUE OF EXPORTS

Although there is no commercial fishery for seafoods of any significance on Tongareva at present, a significant quantity of seafood is sent to friends and relatives in Rarotonga, both by sea and air.

Exports by Air

There is an almost regular weekly air service operating between Rarotonga and Tongareva.

Occasionally, because of low bookings or lack of fuel on Tongareva, the plane is cancelled.

Approximately 45 flights per year occur. The airport was surveyed for 13 of the flights, and the seafood was weighed. An estimate of the weight of the empty container was made, and deducted from the total weight obtained for the seafood plus container. People were asked what was in their ice box or package, as it was not possible to open these as they were usually taped shut. These are usually taken as luggage by passengers, and no freight charged. The normal airfreight rate is $5.00 per kg.

An average of 57.45 kg of finfish, usually whole but occasionally fillets, was exported per trip. This has an estimated value of $344.70 based on a value of $6.00 per kg (Rarotonga market price). A further 10.38 kg of clam meat, and 1 kg of lobster or crab, is also

70 exported, with an approximate value of $163.00 at $14.00 per kg, the price that such high value commodities could command in Rarotonga. The total airfreight export of seafood is therefore valued at around $508 per flight, or $22,860 per year.

It is interesting to note that a significant amount of women's handicrafts, mainly woven hats and fans, are also exported by air. These have the advantage of being extremely light, non perishable, and of high value. Although they often incorporate a polished pearl shell within the handcrafted hats and fans, it was not feasible to apply a value to these alone. In any case, the main focus of the study was on seafood, rather than other uses for marine resources. These items were however included in the airport survey, and it was found that NZ$98,289 worth of handicrafts are exported annually by air.

Exports by Sea

Exports by sea were monitored on 3 occasions. The shipping service is irregular, though an average of around 8 trips per year can be expected. The cost of frozen freight to

Rarotonga is $1.90 per kg.

The surveys showed that an average of 365.3 kg of finfish is exported on each boat trip. As the product is packed in flour bags, it was not always possible to determine whether the fish were exported whole or as fillets. A considerable amount was known to be tuna fillets however, and an assumed weight of 33% of the total weight as fillets is used here. The total finfish consignment is estimated to have a value of approximately $1,000 as whole fish and $1,230.00 as fillets at Rarotonga market prices ($6.00/kg. whole fish, $12.00/kg. fillets) less freight costs. Total value is then $2,230 of finfish exports per trip, or $17,840 per annum.

71 Giant clam meat is the other major item exported by sea. An average of 126 kg. was exported per trip, with a value of $1,525 at Rarotonga market prices ($14.00), less freight, or $ 12,200 per annum.

A total annual value for seafood exported by ship is around NZ$30,000.

A total export value for air and sea exports combined is therefore around $NZ53,000.

The total value of the seafoods of Tongareva to the local economy is therefore around

NZ$553,000 ($500,000 subsistence + $53,000 export) or FJ$52S,000.

At the time of the study. $1.00 NZ was equivalent to approximately FJS0.95, Aus$0.87, US$0.68 72 Chapter Six. COMPARISON, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION.

This section puts the results into perspective, links some of the previous research to the present study, comments on some of the differences found between the two study sites, and offers some final thoughts on the thesis topic.

Some comparisons with results of other studies

Estimates of the value of fisheries based on limited questionnaire coverage can be considered indicative at best. Although coverage of Ucunivanua village was around 20 percent of all households, data from other villages in Verata was extremely limited, while overall coverage for Tongareva was around 17%. Other published figures are also based on comparatively small sample sizes, and this thesis should be viewed more as a contribution to the collective information available, rather than a study in isolation.

Dalzell et al (1995) estimated the commercial sector of the Fiji fishery to be 29% of the value of the total Fiji fishery. By separating out the commercial and subsistence sectors of i the Verata fishery, the commercial sector (village level plus licenced) is calculated to be

75% of the total value of the fishery, or around 2.5 times the Fiji average obtained by

Dalzell. This difference reflects the large degree of commercialisation of the fishery in

Verata compared to the Fijian average. This is not only because of the richness of Verata's marine resources, but also because of its proximity to Suva, the largest urban market in

Fiji.

Cooke (1994) states the average catch for a licenced commercial fishing vessel in Fiji is in the order of 10 tons. Information obtained for this study from fishermen in and around the

Verata area suggests that a figure of around 16 tons would be closer for this area, again

73 reflecting the richness of the marine resources here. This could explain why licenced fishermen are prepared to pay $1000 for an annual "goodwill" payment to fish the Verata qoliqoli, compared to reports of only up to $200 for other perhaps less productive or more remote qoliqoli (Jennings and Polunin, in press, b; Passfield, this study).

In Dravuni Village, Vuki (1991) found an average weekly income per household of $77, ranging from $30 to $250, "mainly from the sale offish". Veitayaki (1995) found fishing income for households in Qoma Village ranged from $10 to $100 per week, though an average figure was not given. Average fishing income for Verata was $65, while the range was from $0 to $195. If data from Ucunivanua village, where fishing activity is greater, is analysed separately, average household fishing income rises to $82, while the range remains the same (see appendix 12). Thus the figures obtained from this study can be considered reasonable when compared to the other published figures for Fiji.

One of the aims of the present study was to determine a suitable sum that could be paid to the resource owners in the event of the loss or degradation of the fishing ground. Kunatuba

(1982) estimated a suitable recompense to be in the vicinity of $4000 per week.

Information from the Fijian Fish Commodity Profile (anon, 1984) indicates that the price of seafood has approximately doubled between 1982 and 1996. It is therefore reasonable to double Kunatuba's estimate to $8000 per week to compensate for the increase since his survey. This then would put an annual value on the fishery of $416,000 to the people of

Verata. The present study would suggest that the figure should be at least double this amount, no doubt to some extent reflecting the increased commercialisation of the fishery since 1982.

74 For the Cook Islands, the limited number of previous relevant studies, and the nature of those studies that were undertaken, makes direct comparison with this study more difficult.

Fish consumption data collected by Adams et al (1996) from Aitutaki indicated that

Aitutakians eat fish on average 4.7 times per week. This compares with 6.25 for Verata, and 11.1 for Tongareva. While the difference with Verata is not high, there is obviously a much higher reliance on seafood in Tongareva than in either Aitutaki or Verata. This is consistent with the isolated location of Tongareva Atoll and the limited amount of non- seafood protein sources to be found on the atoll, with the resultant heavy reliance on the sea for food.

Fish consumption figures used in other studies in the Pacific include 300g per person per day in Dravuni (Vuki 1991), 400 g per person per meal in Aitutaki (Adams et al, 1996), and 284g, 427g and 467g per person per day for 3 Fijian coastal villages respectively

(Jennings and Polunin in press, b). It is difficult to compare most of these figures to those used in this study, as they were daily consumption figures rather than consumption per meal. The figure from Rawlinson et al (1995)was obtained after a detailed study, and is felt to be the most reliable to use in the analysis of Fiji data.

Average fish consumption on an atoll could be expected to be higher than that on a high island, owing mainly to the limited choices of protein and other foods available, and the relative proximity of the entire population to the sea. The figure of 380g per person used in the analysis of data from Tongareva would appear to be consistent with these expectations.

Although Taumaia and Preston (1985) found that commercial quantities of deep bottom fish were to be found in Tongareva, no evidence of commercialisation of this fishery was

75 found during the present study. This is despite the conclusion of Carleton (1982) that there was a potential export market for the fish in New Zealand, and is no doubt due to constraints such as cost of freight, irregularity of shipping, high cost of air transport, and lack of infrastructure for producing export quality seafood.

Marine Resources as a percentage of per capita income.

Expressing the value of marine resources utilised by the inhabitants of the study sites as a percentage of their respective per capita income gives further evidence of their relative economic importance.

Verata

From the household surveys, average per capita yearly income for Verata was calculated at

FJ$1,200. The total value of the subsistence and village level commercial fishery per head of population is FJ$339, or equivalent to around 30% of the value of the per capita cash income1.

For Ucunivanua Village, from which most of the village level commercial fishing takes place in Verata, the value of these catches is FJ$842 per head of population, equivalent to

70% of the per capita cash income.

1If the value of the licenced commercial fishery is included, this figure would almost double. However, as the proceeds from this fishery do not directly benefit the inhabitants of Verata, they have not been included. 76 Tongareva

The Tongareva per capita income obtained from the household questionnaire was

NZ$3,285). The total annual value of the subsistence and export fisheries was

NZ$553,000, or NZ$922 per capita, equivalent to 28% of the per capita cash income.

Excluding Ucunivanua because of the commercial aspects of its fishery, the percentage figures for Verata and Tongareva are very similar.

Subsistence Fisheries.

The average value for the Verata subsistence fishery was estimated at approximately

FJ$257,000 per annum, for a total population of 1,600, or FJ$161 per capita.

For Tongareva, this value is NZ$447,000 for 600 people, or around FJ$792 (NZ$833) per capita.

There are several reasons for the significantly higher value of the subsistence fishery on

Tongareva.

• The number of meals at which seafood is consumed is 11.1 per week on Tongareva,

which is 53% of all meals. This compares to 6.3 meals or 30% in Verata. Figures from

other studies include 4.7 or 22% in Aitutaki (Adams et al,, 1996), and 35% of all meals

in some other coastal Fijian villages (Rawlinson et al, 1995). The higher percentage of

seafood consumed in Tongareva reflects the significantly greater reliance of atoll

dwellers on their marine resources when compared to coastal dwellers of high islands,

who have access to a far greater range of terrestrial resources.

77 • It also reflects the fact that choices other than seafood are more limited in Tongareva.

Although frozen meat is often available for a short time after the inter-island ship

arrives, this is rapidly consumed. Verata villagers indicated that they ate fresh/frozen

meat nearly 3 times as often as Tongarevans

• The availability of power for twelve hours per day in Tongareva, with most houses

having access to a refrigerator or freezer, also no doubt contributes to increased seafood

consumption. Excess quantities of seafood can be saved, and eaten in times of bad

weather or other times when fresh seafood is not available, without having to resort to

tinned meat or fish. Although Ucunivanua and Naloto are only one hour by road from

Suva, there is no power available, apart from one or two portable generators used for

church or the village co-op shop.

• The relatively high per capita income in the Cook Islands overall, and in this case

Tongareva NZ$3,285 (FJ$3,100), compared to that of Verata (FJ$ 1,200), and the

consequently increased purchasing power, are possible reasons for the higher value per

kg. for most of the marine resources in the Cook Islands. People in Rarotonga pay

approximately double the price that consumers have to pay in Suva. The lack of

commercialisation of the seafood market both within Verata and Tongareva has resulted

in use of values from the commercial centre for each location, Suva (FJ$2.50) for the

Verata study and Rarotonga (NZ$6.00) for the Tongareva study.

• The relative affluence in Tongareva also manifests itself in the number of fishing boats,

where there are around 65, the majority made from aluminium, and all with outboard

engines. In Ucunivanua and Naloto there is a total of around 26 boats, 9 with

78 outboards. There is only one fibreglass skiff, the other boats being mainly wooden

punts. This too would contribute to the overall higher per capita value of the

subsistence fishery in Tongareva, as increased mobility gives access to fishing grounds

further afield. Few Tongarevans rely on gleaning near-shore areas for their seafood,

partly because the productivity of the near-shore areas is much lower in terms of

exploitable marine resources1, and partly because of this increased mobility.

Commercial Fisheries.

The other major difference between the two locations is the commercialisation which exists in the Verata fishery, which has a total value of FJ$752,00. This is only possible because of the proximity by road of Verata to a major commercial urban centre (Suva).

Commercial fishing for seafood is almost non-existent in Tongareva, though pearl shell has been commercially exploited for many years. Despite previous attempts at establishing a commercial operation for finfish, the remote location of Tongareva, and the associated high costs of transport, particularly air freight and frozen sea freight, have contributed to the failure of such ventures. Another contributing factor, also a result of the isolation, is the lack of technical support and spare parts to support a small fishing fleet and freezer facility.

Tongarevan Pearl Farming.

Although commercialisation of seafood exploitation in Tongareva is hampered by its location, there is considerable potential for commercial exploitation of other marine resources, in particular pearl oysters (parau, Pinctada margaritifera). Pearl shell (mother of pearl, MOP) exports from 1945 to 1981 (Sims, 1988a) indicate that a sustainable annual

In Verata it is possible to walk within a perimeter of only 200 meters from the village shore line and collect or catch seaweeds, various shellfish, sea cucumbers, sea hares, and small reef fish in ample quantities to provide for the families needs. In Tongareva, the areas accessible by foot from the village, ie the inner lagoon reef flat and outer reef flat, have few of the sedentary resources available in Verata, though there are small reef fish.. 79 harvest in the vicinity of 10 tons from Tongareva lagoon could be possible, which, at present values, would be worth around NZ$70,000 per year. These natural pearl oyster stocks are now being utilised in cultured pearl production. The only reason that MOP exports are discontinued at present is because of the current transition from a pearl shell fishery for MOP to utilisation of shells for pearl culture. Eventually, shell will again be available for MOP, as older shells are retired from the pearl farms. Assuming around

100,000 shells per year will be killed from pearl harvests', at an average of 400g per shell, this will amount to forty tons of MOP shell per year, at a present value of around $280,000.

The first pearl harvest in 1995 had a value of NZ$218,000, which was shared among approximately sixty farmers (R. Newnham, pers. com.). This figure can be expected to increase significantly in the near future, based on experiences in Manihiki, an atoll in the northern Cook Islands which started pearl farming about 10 years ago (i.e. about 8 years earlier than Tongareva). The official figure for exports of pearls from Manihiki is now 3.5 million New Zealand Dollars (1995), with the actual figure likely to be between five or six million dollars (owing to "unofficial" exports). Tongareva, with a similar population and a much larger lagoon, can be expected to at least match this figure within 5 years, provided they apply themselves to the work required, and the market for black pearls remains firm.

1 Pearl shells can be seeded up to 3 times before their growth rate slows to the stage where nacre deposition is too slow to make future seedings worthwhile. At this stage, the shell is killed during the harvest, and available for MOP. Not all shells are suitable for reseeding, and many are killed after the first harvest. 8O CONCLUSION

Each of the hypotheses of this thesis have been shown to be true, though some variation of the importance of marine resources exists between study sites. The following section summarises how the study has proved the hypotheses.

Hypothesis 1. The marine resources of coastal villages are of significant

economic importance to the village because they replace other sources of food

which would otherwise have to be purchased.

Verata. The seafood consumed in the villages can be valued, as demonstrated in

Chapter 4, on the basis of import substitution or equivalent commercial value, using

data obtained from the household questionnaires. Seafood consumed was also

valued by using the subsistence portion of the creel census data, combined with

visual observations of fishing activity, extrapolating this data obtained from

Ucunivanua to account for the entire Verata coastal village population. An average

of these figures came to FJ$257,000, equivalent to $161 per capita or $855 per

household. This represents around 14% of the total income for the community.

Tongareva. Two methods were used to value the seafood consumed on

Tongareva. These were import substitution and equivalent commercial value, using

data collected during the household interviews (see chapter 5). Averaging these

two figures gives a figure of NZ$500,000, equivalent to NZ$833 per capita or

81 NZ$5,580 per household. This is equivalent to around 26% of the total income for

the community.

In both cases, it can be seen that the value of the seafood consumed is significant to both communities as it replaces food which would otherwise have to be purchased, which would in turn result in the expenditure of a significant proportion of their income.

Hypothesis 2. Marine resources can also provide the major source of income

to the community.

Verata. This study has indicated that the gross value of the seafood resources of

Verata is in excess of one million Fijian dollars per year. The subsistence and

village level commercial fishery alone have an annual per capita value FJ$339, or

FJ$ 1,800 per average household, equivalent to nearly 30% of the total cash income

to the Verata coastal villages. In Ucunivanua village, where fishing activity is

greatest, this figure rises to FJ$842 per capita, or $4,460 per average household,

equivalent to 70%, and thus the major portion, of their total cash income.

Tongareva. The situation here at present is somewhat different. The annual value

of the marine resources of Tongareva Atoll to the inhabitants is in excess of half a

million New Zealand dollars per year, or NZ$922 (FJ$876) for every man, woman

and child, and around NZ$5870 (FJ$5575) per average household, equivalent to

28% of their 1995 cash income. This figure is however made up largely by the

value of the subsistence seafood. The income derived from the sale of marine

resources is minimal, owing to the lack of a significant commercial fishery in recent

82 years. Therefore, at present, for Tongareva, this hypothesis is not true, as marine resources do not currently provide the major portion of Tongarevan's income.

However, the initiation of pearl farming in recent years, together with the large downsizing of the public service since this field work took place, means that this situation is likely to change in the immediate future. Within the next 10 years, marine resources are likely to become a major income earner for Tongareva, and the major contributor to the household economy.

Hypothesis 3. The loss or degradation of this resource would constitute a significant economic loss.

Verata. It is apparent from the results of this study that the loss of the marine resources here would have a debilitating effect on the economy of the tikina. All coastal villages would suffer a loss of a subsistence source of food, and at least one village, Ucunivanua, would lose its major source of income. The loss of these resources would also result in job loss for at least 70 people directly associated with the licensed commercial fishery, and have a detrimental effect on the livelihood of an unknown number of other middle men, carrier drivers, retailers and others involved in the fishery post harvest.

Tongareva. The loss or degradation of these resources in Tongareva would have even worse repercussions than for the inhabitants of Verata. The seafood which is such an integral feature of their diet would have to be replaced to a large extent by store bought protein sources. Increased consumption of the other major meat protein sources available on the atoll, pork and tinned meat, would inevitably occur

83 if seafood was not available, which could be expected to have a detrimental effect

on the health of the people. Increases in the incidence of heart disease would be

likely owing to the higher fat content of these and other processed foods. This in

turn would have a negative impact on the economy, as people are removed from the

work force and become reliant on the Government health system for treatment.

The harsh atoll environment, together with the extreme isolation of Tongareva,

means inhabitants have extremely limited resources which they can exploit other

than those available in their lagoon, both for subsistence purposes and commercial i gain.

The current (1996) economic crisis being experienced in the Cook Islands has

meant that many public servants employed on Tongareva at the time of the field

work for this study are now unemployed, making any income that can be derived

from the marine resources even more important than before. The future economy

of Tongareva is likely to be heavily reliant on pearl farming, which requires a

healthy lagoon in which to be successful.

Threats to the sustainability of these resources should be carefully monitored. Disease in lagoons of French Polynesia as a result of over intensive pearl fanning had devastating effects on several lagoons there, some of which have still not fully recovered. Intensive farming and spat collecting in Manihiki, Cook Islands, have recently resulted in very heavy pearl oyster spat falls. This now means there are far too many pearl oysters in Manihiki lagoon. If culling does not occur quickly, ecological problems similar to those in French

Polynesia are likely to occur.

84 It is encouraging to see that Tongarevans are proceeding with pearl farm development in a controlled and cautious manner. Limits placed on the size of farms by the Island Council means that farmed shell numbers will build up slowly. Together with the large and well flushed lagoon, this is likely to mean that ecological problems are less probable for

Tongareva's lagoon. If the current trend in pearl farming in Tongareva continues, and the market for black pearls remains strong, the value of the marine resources of Tongareva's lagoon could increase to several million dollars over the next few years. However, they would probably also be wise not to "put all their eggs in one basket". Rowntree (1993) pointed out the volatility of commodity markets, based particularly on supply and demand, and noted that black pearls were no exception. With more Pacific islands, including the

Solomon Islands, Marshall Islands, and Kiribati, currently attempting to enter into the cultured pearl industry, together with the current expansion of farming in the Cook Islands, it can be assumed that the supply of black pearls will increase in the near future, most likely resulting in a lower price per pearl being obtained1.

1 The Cook Islands Government expects to be calling for tenders in late 1997. both within the Cook Islands and internationally, for companies to begin farming operations for up to 3 million pearl shell in the lagoon of uninhabited Suwarrow Atoll. 85 Epilogue

Coastal peoples of the Pacific Islands have a unique lifestyle, the envy of many in the so- called developed world. They do not have to live in the 9 to 5 rat race in which so many city dwellers, even in their own Pacific Island countries, are now living. They do not need to take regular trips to the butcher or supermarket for their daily needs, nor do they need a large income in order to provide a nutritious balanced diet for their families. This is only possible because of the rich environment in which they live.

The encroaching influence of the commercial world - a move toward a cash based economy, means that threats to this environment and the associated lifestyle are increasing rapidly. It is hoped that knowledge of the monetary value of their marine resources, together with an understanding that conservation is the way to ensure the perpetuation of this route to financial independence, will assist in encouraging the people to ensure these bountiful resources are utilised sustainably and conserved for their future generations.

While it has only been possible to obtain an indication of the tangible economic value for these marine resources from this study, it is also recognised that they are, in many cases, priceless resources that are of inestimable cultural value to the people who utilise or claim ownership over them.

86 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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ADB. 1995. Cook Islands: Economic Performance, Issues, and Strategies. Asian Development Bank, Manilla.

Anon. 1988. Report of the Workshop on Inshore Fishery Resources. South Pacific Commission, Noumea.

Anon. 1996. Cook Islands Annual Statistical Bulletin. Cook Islands Statistics Office, Rarotonga. Baines, G. 1984. Environment and resources- managing the South Pacific's future. Ambio, vol. XIII, Number 5-6, pp.355-358.

Brodie, J., and J. Morrison 1984. The management and disposal of hazardous wastes in the Pacific Islands. Ambio, vol. XIII, Number 5-6.

Buck, P. 1932. The Ethnology of Tongareva. Bulletin no. 92. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Hawaii

Campbell, A.R.T. 1985. Social Relations in Ancient Tongareva. Pacific Anthropological Records no. 36. Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Hawaii.

Carleton, C. 1982, Cook Islands: export markets and the development of the fishing industry. Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, Project RAS/73/025.

Cavuilati, T. 1993. Managing Fisheries Resources: the Fiji Experience. In R. South (Ed.), Marine Resources and Development. The Ray Parkinson Memorial Lectures, 1992. PIMRIS, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji.

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Connell, J. 1984. Islands under pressure- population growth and urbanization in the South Pacific. Ambio, vol. XIII. Number 5-6, pp.306-312.

87 Cooke, A. 1994. The qoliqoli of Fiji: management of resources in traditional fishing grounds. MSc thesis, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom. (Quoted in Jennings and Polunin, in press, b). Craig, P. 1995. Are tropical nearshore fisheries manageable in view of projected population increases? Background paper no. 1. South Pacific Inshore Fisheries Workshop Manuscript Collection, Vol. I, P. Dalzell and T. Adams, (Eds.) South Pacific Commission, Noumea.

Dahl, A.L. 1984. Oceania's most pressing environmental concerns. Ambio, vol. XIII, Number 5-6, pp. 296-301.

Dalzell, P., T. Adams, and N. Polunin. 1995. Coastal Fisheries in the South Pacific Islands. Background paper no. 30. South Pacific Inshore Fisheries Workshop Manuscript Collection, Vol II. P. Dalzell and T. Adams, (Eds). South Pacific Commission, Noumea.

FFA 1993. Cook Islands Fisheries Resource Profiles. FFA Report 93/25. Forum Fisheries Agency, Honiara.

Fong, G. 1992. Case study of a traditional marine management system: Sasa Village, Macuata Province, Fiji. Forum Fisheries Agency, Honiara, and the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, Rome. Hau'ofa, E. 1983. Tales of the Tikongs. Beake House, Suva.

Jennings, S. and N.V.C. Polunin (in press, a). Effects of fishing effort and catch rate upon the structure and biomass of Fijian reef fish communities. Journal of Applied Ecology.

Jennings, S. and N.V.C. Polunin (in press, b). Fishing strategies, fishery development and socioeconomics in traditionally managed Fijian fishing grounds. Fisheries Management and Ecology.

Jennings, S. and N.V.C. Polunin 1995a. Comparative size and composition of yield from six Fijian reef fisheries. Journal of Fish Biology 46, pp. 28-46.

Jennings, S. and N.V.C. Polunin 1995b. Relationship between catch and effort in Fijian multispecies reef fisheries subject to different levels of exploitation. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 2, pp. 89-101.

88 Johannes, R.E. 1984. Marine conservation in relation to traditional lifestyles of tropical artisanal fishermen. The Environmentalist Vol. no. 4, supplement no. 7.

Johannes, R.E. and M. Riepens 1995. Environmental, economic and social implications of the live reef fish trade in Asia and the Western Pacific. The Nature Conservancy and the South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency.

King, M., and A. Mcllgorm 1988. Fisheries Biology and Management for Pacific Island Students. School of Fisheries, Australian Maritime College. King, M., and A. Mcllgorm 1989. Appraising Inshore Fishery Resources in Pacific Island Countries. Economics of Fishery Management in the Pacific Islands Region. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) proceedings no. 26, pp. 78-84.

Kunatuba, P. 1982. Preliminary assessment of subsistence and commercial fisheries in Verata waters. Report compiled for T. Meagher and Associates by the Institute of Marine Resources, University of the South Pacific.

Lal, P. 1984. Environmental Implications of Coastal Development in Fiji. Ambio, vol. XIII, Number 5-6, pp. 317-321.

Lal, P. 1990. Conservation or conversion of mangroves in Fiji: an ecological economic analysis. Occasional paper no. 11. Environmental and Policy Institute, East-West Centre, Honolulu, Hawaii.

Lal, P. 1992. Foreshore development, customary fishing rights, and the recompensation system. Report prepared for IUCN National Environment Management Project, Fiji.

Lamont, E.H. 1867. Wild Life Among Pacific Islanders. Hurst and Blacket Publishers, London. Reprinted 1994 by The Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, Fiji.

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Mcallister, D.E. 1988. Environmental, economic, and social costs of coral reef destruction in the Philippines. Galaxea, 7: 161-178.

89 Morrison, R.J. and J.E. Brodie. 1985. Pollution problems in the South Pacific: fertilisers, biocides, water supplies and urban wastes. In A.L. Dahl and J.Carew-Reid (Eds.). Environment and Resources in the South Pacific. UNEP Reg. Seas Rep. and Studies no. 69, pp. 69-74. Munro, D.M. 1996. Case study of a traditional marine management system. Pukapuka Atoll, Cook Islands. Forum Fisheries Agency, Honiara, and the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, Rome.

Munro, J.L., and S. Fakahau (1988). Management of coastal fishery resources in the South Pacific region. Background paper no. 52, South Pacific Commission Workshop on Inshore Fishery Resources, Noumea, 14-25 March 1988.

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Passfield, K.D. 1988. Tropical Spiny Rock Lobsters (crayfish) [koura tai]. Marine Resource Profile no. 4. Ministry of Marine Resources, Cook Islands.

Passfield, K.D. and J. Evans, 1991. Aquarium Fish. Marine Resource Profile no. 7. Ministry of Marine Resources, Cook Islands. Ponia, B.E., and K.D. Passfield, 1997. A survey to determine the average size fish portion consumed per meal on Tongareva Atoll. Unpublished manuscript.

Preston, G., A. D. Lewis, N. Sims, I. Bertram, N. Howard, S. Maluofenua, B. Marsters, K. Passfield, T. Tearii, F. Viala, A. Wright, B. Yeeting. 1995. The Marine Resources of Palmerston Island, Cook Islands. Report of a survey carried out in September, 1988. South Pacific Commission, Noumea.

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90 RDA International Inc. 1995. Summary technical report, Cook Islands black-lip pearl oyster project. Report prepared under the Pacific Islands Marine Resource Project, Cook Islands Component, Project No. 879-0020. RDA International Inc. Placerville, California. Richards, A. 1994. Fiji Fisheries Resource Profiles. FFA Report 94/4. Forum Fisheries Agency, Honiara.

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92 APPENDIX 1. HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE FOR VERATA

Questionnaire no.1/ Household economic and fishing data.

Date: Household:.—

1. Household economic survey. Complete for all members of household, including children.

Est. other s Age Job Est. incm Est. Est. incm. Rel. to from Hours total fished fish weeek X head of job per incm. house week

2, Do you fish usually fish from a boat, or shore?

Whose boat? Type? Engine? Payment for use?

3. Do you ever sell fish, or other seafood? Which ones?

- fish (which ones) - turtles (vonu) - sea urchins cawake) - clams (vasua) - lobsters (urau) -crabs - beche de mer (rori) - octopus (mangamanga) - other shellfish, eg kai koso, yaga, others?

5. Are there some fish, or other seafood that you never eat?

Why? (poison, totem) 93 6. Do you process some seafood, eg smoke, dry, fillet? 7. Do you ever fish at night? Which nights (moon phase)?

What do you catch? (lobsters, ku, others?).

8. Are there some seafoods that you get a lot more of at certain times of the year?

Which ones? Time of year? Indicators (flowers, etc)

9. Can you name at least 3 seafoods harder to get now? Why?

Are there any you used to get, but never get now?

10 Are any seafoods getting easier to catch? Why?

11. How many meals do you normally eat per day?

What do you normally have for breakfast?

Lunch?

Dinner?

12. How many meals per week do you eat fresh/frozen seafood?

more than once per day? Once per day

* Several times per week (how many)

Once per week?

Something else?

94 Do you catch your own, or get it from somebody else?

13. At how many meals do you eat tinned fish?

more than once per day?

Once per day

Several times per week (how many)

Once per week?

Something else?

How many tins per meal? How much do you spend?

14. At how many meals do you eat tinned meat?

more than once per day?

Once per day

Several times per week (how many)

Once per week?

Something else?

How many tins per meal? How much do you spend?

15. At how many meals do you eat fresh/frozen meat or chicken?

more than once per day?

Once per day

Several times per week (how many)

Once per week?

Something else?

How much do you spend per meal?

95 APPENDIX 2. VILLAGE LEVEL FISHERS QUESTIONNAIRE, VERATA.

Questionnaire no.2/

1. What did you catch/collect.

Guess Eat Precess, eg Comments/ something What caught Sell? cook, smoke, else weight How % fillet, iced How much $ much/ many

• :'•:••.•••••• :• :•;':.'-: •, -:..

2. How many hours were you fishing? (Time depart: Time return

3. Did you fish from a boat or shore? If boat, whose boat?

How much did it cost to use the boat?

4. What type or types of gear and bait did you use?

5. How many people were fishing with you?

6. Is the catch what you caught yourself, or what the group caught?

7. Normally from which seafood do you make most money?

96 APPENDIX 3. COMMERCIAL FISHERS QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire no. 3/

1. What sort of fishing boat and engine do you use

2. How much would it cost you to replace boat and engine.

3. How many nights do you normally fish per month.

4. What fishing gear do you normally use?

Nets (How long? ; mesh sizes? ; how many?

Hand reels/ fishing lines?

Spear guns?

Trolling lines?

5. How many skiffs do you use?

6. How many crew and others do you employ?

7. What are the 10 main species you catch, with value per kg

8. Are some fish seasonal? If so, which ones and what time?

9. Do you use bait? If so, what kind?

10. Do you clean the fish, eg gill, gut, or scale?

97 11. Where do you sell the catch?

Market? Which one?

Door to door?

To friends

To village people in the area you are fishing?

To a middleman, fish retailer, other retail outlet?

Other?

12 How much does it cost you for your main expenses?

Fuel? Ice? Crew wages? Fishing rights? Other major expenses? 13. How much money do you make from fishing after expenses are taken out?

14. Do you have a bank loan? Which bank? How much?

15. Are some fish getting harder to catch now? Which ones?

16. Are some fish you catch getting smaller? If so, which ones?

Why?

17. From which single species do you make most money?

18 Do you ever catch lobster, sea cucumbers, or octopus? 19 Are there any limitations put on you by the Ratu who gives you permission to fish, e.g. some species, areas, or fishing methods forbidden.

20. Do you fish in more than one licencing area?

21. Do you see any major problems facing the fishery?

98 APPENDIX 4. A DAY IN THE ROUTINE OF A COMMERCIAL FISHING

VESSEL IN VERATA.

Background.

Durgesh started fishing while he was still at school, in his father's punt, which was powered by a 6 horse power Johnson outboard motor. He travelled daily from his home at Nasinu to Naisamoa village, Tailevu, on the Savu River where the punt was kept. His formal education ended at form 4. Nineteen years later, he is still fishing from the same river, though he now has his own launch. He is married with 3 children.

The following diary of events was recorded on 26 and 27 July, 1994, while on board a 9 metre commercial fishing launch belonging to Durgesh, in the Verata qoliqoli.

Diary of events, 26 to 27 July, 1994.

9am. We departed the Savu river bridge around 9 AM in an outboard powered punt. We joined the launch at the mouth of the river, where it had been waiting for us (the captain and myself). The 2 punts from the launch were at this stage engaged in a net hauling operation close to the launch. The crew on the punts splashed the water with their paddles, to scare the fish into the net. The crew consists of 2 Fijians and 2 Indo-Fijians.

When they returned to the launch, they had around 300 fish, mostly diamond scale mullet (kava, Liza vaigiensis). The fish were tied in strings (actually using strips of vadra, the prop root of the pandanus tree). An average string weighed around 4.8 kg, and 15 strings (72 kg) offish comprised the catch. The net used was 2.25" mesh.

2 pm. After grog (yaqona), and lunch. Motoring into Verata qoliqoli. Eleven people (ladies?) were observed gleaning around Telau Is. They appeared to have come in 2 punts which were visible. The crew report that the area is rich in the shellfish kaikoso {Anadara spp.), and this is probably what is being collected.

A school offsh is sighted. A punt is despatched to set the net. By 2.20, around 60 salala or chub mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma) are on the back deck of the launch. This resulted in 2 strings, around 3.8 kg per string, plus 4 larger individual fish around 400g each, making a total of 9.2 kg.

2.45 pm. Anchor off Kumi Village. Five ladies gleaning, 1 man in a punt with a net, plus 2 more people gleaning, and 1 man with a hand spear, observed off Kumi.

2 punts from launch set 2 nets around a school off Kumi. The nets are set in a circle, and then the 2 punts row to and fro inside the circle, while the crew are splashing the water with their oars.

99 3.10 pm. Start hauling net. Too many fish, so they are left in the net until the punts are back at the launch, where there are more crew to help with removing them.

4.15 pm. Still removing fish from second net and stringing them. Another school is spotted, and one punt as sent to set a net. Most of this school escapes, and only about 13 kg (3 strings, 60 fish) are caught. The previous large school was about 135 kg, which went into 32 strings, mainly mullet or kanace (Crenimugil crenilabis).

5.30 pm. Another school is spotted, but the water is too deep. Presumably the fish would escape under the net. The school is watched to see if it moves into shallower water.

5.45 pm. Another school of mullet spotted in shallow water. 3 punts rapidly deployed to set nets, but school is missed completely. The sun is now setting over Naivorovoro village.

7 pm. Another grog session, The crew have been steadily consuming yaqona for most of the day, between fishing periods.

8.15 pm. Three punts leave launch looking for fish. Only the cook and myself stay on the launch. Punts return at 11pm. Larger size fish comprise most of the catch. Kanace or mullet (Crenimugil crenilabis), yawa or milk fish (Chanos chanos), kawago or spangled emperor (Lethrinus nebulosus) kabatia or thumb-print emperor (Lethrinus harak) saku or crocodile longtoms (Tylosuru, crocodilus) and kake or black spot sea-perch (Lutjanus fulviflamma) 3 nets, 2.5", 2.75", and 3" were used. By 11.45 pm another 130 kg (30 strings) are in the ice box, which is getting quite full. The crew finally settle down to dinner. Then bed.

6.30 am, 27/7/96. An outboard powered punt from Kumi village, with 1 fisherman, arrives at the launch. He has 11large kawago, from 2 to 2.4 kg each, which he wants Durgesh to sell on his behalf. This would sell for around $100, and Durgesh will give him the money next time he is out, probably next week. He also has about $30 worth of smaller fish that he is taking back to the village to fulfil his communal obligations there. He has been fishing most of the night, and by being able to give his fish to Durgesh to place in the ice box, they will not go bad. Otherwise it would be very difficult for him to sell them. This is the sort of favour Durgesh does for the people in the villages, which helps maintain good relations. Apart from that, of course he still pays his $1000 per annum to the head Ratu of Verata, but the people who actually live in the villages would not get any benefit from this.

Apparently this fisherman has the only operational outboard in Kumi, and is the only line fisherman who does some commercial fishing.

6.45. am. Breakfast. The same fisherman returns with some yaqona and vadra from the village. Durgesh often buys supplies such as this from the villages, again to maintain good relations. Another licensed vessel (launch) is observed engaged in net fishing close to Kumi and Naivorovoro.

100 7 am. Start motoring back towards Savu River slowly, looking for schools. The old diesel engine starts freewheeling, as the shaft has managed to disconnect itself from the engine. This is obviously a common problem, as a 6" nail was promptly produced from the tool box to replace the one that has snapped ( a sort of adaptation on the shear pin arrangement in outboards!!)

8.15 am. Drop anchor, as the old diesel engine is starting to get a bit hot, and has temporarily seized.

8.35 am. Top up the diesel tank, top up engine oil. The punt and outboard take the launch in tow, and we continue looking for schools.

9 am. Stop towing. A fibreglass skiff with a 40 horse power outboard from Namara approaches, and then hangs back, waiting to see if we catch any fish. The strongest looking crew member, Atu (Fijian) cranks up the engine. 1 can see why he got this job. Meanwhile the skiff approaches, and leaves with a string of fish. Atu says that this sort of thing happens all the time. He says these people are lazy, and its easier to ask for fish than catch their own.

9.10 am. Diesel engine starts again. We resume the search for fish.

10.10 am. Anchor again. No more fish found so far. Unload 85 strings of fish from icebox into punt. Another fibreglass skiff from a nearby village collects a free string of salala.

10.35. Depart launch by punt with fish, to Savu River bridge. Transport has been pre arranged, and a van is waiting. 2 villagers help unload fish to the van, and receive a string of fish. We end up with 80 strings, or around 340 kg of fish, the result of 2 full days fishing.

The fish is transported to a middleman, who purchases the whole catch. Durgesh will return to the launch tomorrow with fresh ice, and the boat will continue fishing in his absence.

101 APPENDIX 5. HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TONGAREVA

Date: Household: Questionnaire no.-

1. Household economic survey. Complete for all members of household, including children.

Name s A Relto Job Est Hours Hrs Est. Est. e g head incm fished Est on other total x from per fish e of pearl incm week house job week incm farm/ incm week

2. Do you fish from a boat, or shore?

Whose boat? Type? Engine?

3. Do you ever sell fish, or other seafood?

4. Which types of seafood do you normally eat?

- fish (which ones) - turtles - sea urchins (atuke) - pasua - lobsters (urau) - coconut crabs - beche de mer (rori) - octopus - other shellfish, eg pipi, parau, kasi, others?

5. Are there some fish, or other seafood that you never eat?

Why? (poison, totem)

102 6. Do you process some seafood, eg smoke, dry, fillet?

7. Do you ever fish at night? Which nights (moon phase)?

What do you catch? (lobsters, ku, others?).

8. Are there some seafoods that you get a lot more of at certain times of the year?

Which ones? Time of year? Indicators (flowers, etc)

9. Can you name at least 3 seafoods harder to get now? Why?

Are there any you used to get, but never get now (donu)?

10. Are any seafoods getting easier to catch? Why?

11. I low many meals do you normally eat per day?

What do you normally have for breakfast?

Lunch?

Dinner?

12. How many meals per week do you eat fresh/frozen seafood?

more than once per day?

Once per day

Several times per week (how many)

Once per week?

Something else?

Do you catch your own, or get it from somebody else? 103 13. At how many meals do you eat tinned fish?

more than once per day?

Once per day

Several times per week (how many)

Once per week?

Something else?

How many tins per meal? How much do you spend?

14. At how many meals do you eat tinned meat?

more than once per day?

Once per day

Several times per week (how many)

Once per week?

Something else?

How many tins per meal? How much do you spend?

15 At how many meals do you eat fresh/frozen meat or chicken?

More than once per day?

Once per day

Several times per week (how many)

Once per week?

Something else?

How much do you spend per meal?

104 APPENDIX 6. QUESTIONNAIRE TO DETERMINE AVERAGE FISH PORTION SIZE, TONGAREVA.

Name:

Date commenced:

date no of people fish type no. of fish fish wt. (gm) •• Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

105 APPENDIX 7. PORT SAMPLING QUESTIONNAIRE, TONGAREVA.

Port sampling questionnaire.

1. What is in the chilly bin (ice box)?

Fish (which species) Kg. Sale or family? Value$

Pasua

Other

Total

2. How often do you send chilly bins (ice boxes) to Rarotonga?

106 APPENDIX 8. PARTIAL LIST OF MARINE RESOURCES FOUND IN FIJI

WATERS.

This list is adapted from another which was compiled by the author in conjunction with Dr Randy Thaman as part of the Macarthur Foundation funded biodiversity project. Although the list is not restricted to Verata, fishermen and women from Verata were the major source of indigenous knowledge regarding these species. The great majority of resources listed below are utilised there.

Key (V)= Verata name, which may be different from the more commonly accepted Fijian name *FP = the species was found on the Fijian Seafood posters, but cannot be verified in other available references. ? = either local vernacular name or Latin name unverified * Existence not verified, but texts suggest that it is present juv.=juvenile Common name Scientific name Local name SHARKS AND RAYS Carcharinus albomarginatus silver tip shark Carcharinus amblyrhynchos qioloa grey reef shark Carcharinus melanopterus ? black tip reefshark Triaenodon obesus qio damu whitetip reefshark Galeocerdo cuvier qiodina, qiosaqa, bulubulu(juv) tiger shark Amphotistius kuhlii vai curuqara (V), vaidina, tinanivai, tinatina blue-spotted ray Taeniura melanospila vai curuqara (V), vai loa (V), vai damu spotted stingray Aetobatus narinai i vai nili li (juv), ilo kawa (adult), vai lilii (V)(V) spotted eagle ray Rhinobatus sp (banski?) qiouluvai (V) shovel nose ray Sphyrna lewini qio mataitaliga (V) scalloped hammerhead Stegostoma sp. (fasciatum?) qiokaboa (V) leopard shark

Acanthurus blochii balagi (V) ringtail surgeonfish Acanthurus guttatus ta bace (V), tabacenitoga white-spotted surgeonfish Acanthurus lineatus lase (V), dridri, guru? Zebra surgeonfish Acanthurus nigricauda dridri (V), balagi epaulette surgeonfish Acanthurus olivcaceus orange band surgeonfish Acanthurus triostegus tabace (V), tabace ni Toga convict surgeonfish Acanthurus xanthopterus balagi (V), balaginawa yellowfin surgeonfish Ctenochaetus striatus dridri, ta bace (V), balagi lined bristletooth Naso brevirostris ta tagane (V). ? Naso lituratus, ta masi masi (V) smooth-head unicornfish Naso'unicornis ta, ta yalewa (V) brown unicornfish Naso sp. (tuberosis) ta masi masi ? Naso vlamingi Ta masi masi ? Albula neoguinaica yawa (V), yawakio bonefish Abalistes stellatus cumu? starry triggerfish

107 Common name Balistapus undulatus cumu oriori, cumu titi(juv)(V) orange-lined triggerfish Baltstoides viridescens cunuidina, cumu (V) titan trigger fish Canthidermis maculatus cumu, regua spotted oceanic triggerfish Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus cumu, dredamu, cumudamu green triggerfish Rhinecanthus aculeatus cumu (V) clear Picasso triggerfish Tylosurus crocodilus saku (V) crocodile longtom Bothuss sp. mancus ? pantherinus? davilai (V), dabilai leopard flounder Carangoides hedlandensis saqa, gawaqawa (V), saqadrau fringefin trevally Caranx ignobilis saqa, saqaleka, saqataudrau giant trevally Caranx lugubris saqa, saqaioa (V) black trevally Caranx melampygus saqa, saqanivata (V), tauta bluefin trevally Elagatis bipinnulata votonimoli, kanailagi, drodrolagi rainbow runner Gnathanodon speciosuf vilu (V), vakasasau (V), saqa golden trevally Megalaspis cordyla votonimoli, salalanitoga finny scad Scomberoides sp. voto ni moli talang queenfish (commersonianus or lysan?) Scomberoides lysan voto ni moli double-spotted queenfish Scomberoides tol voto ni moli needleskin queenfish Selar crumenopthalmus se (V), yatule, tuqadra purse-eye scad Seriola rivoliana saqa, saqavotoqa, votonimoii amber jack Trachinotus blochi toto kulu kulu, vilu, kaikai ni saqa snub-nosed dart Trachinotus bailloni qawaqawa (V), iribuli, black-spotted swallowtail Chaetodon auriga tivi tivi threadfin butterflyfish Chaetodon ephippium tivi tivi saddled butterflyfish Chaetodon lineolatus tivi tivi lined butterflyfish Chaetodon ocellatus tivi tivi ? Chaetodon xanthurus tivi tivi ? Heniochus acuminiatus tivi tivi long-fin bannerfish Chanos chanos yawa kanai lagi ? (V) milk-fish Chirocentrus dorab voivoi, magimagi (V) wolf herring Herklotsichthys quadrimaculatus daniva, taniva fourspot herring, gold-spot herring Sardinella fijiense vosevose, niva? Fiji sardine Thryssa baelama vaya, vaca little priest Coryphaena hippurus saqakula, maimai dolphinfish Diadon histrix soki soki porcupine fish Diodon liturosus soki soki black-blotched porcupinefish Echeneis naucrates bakewa (V) slender suckerfish Platax orbicularis tivi tivi (V), veita kau orbicular batfish Platax teira manumanu ni sago (V) longfin spadefish Cypselurus spp. ikavuka (V), malolo flying fish Pronietichthys prometheus malaka snake mackerel Plectorhinchus chaetodonoides drekeni (V) sevaseva many-spotted sweetlips Plectorhinchus sp. (diagrammus?) qitawa, qiawa volavola, giawa uruuru striped sweetlips Plectorhinchus goldmanni tina ni kake (V) regurawa? diagonal-banded sweetlips Plectorhinchus gibbosus guru (V), drekeni, drekenikuro blubber-lip bream Plectorhinchus schotaf drekeni loa?, sabutu damu? sombre sweetlips 108 109 Scientific name Local name ParSacaes>io kusakarii *FP Bedford, uluqa Kusakar's snapper Paracaesio stonei *FP bedford, uluga stone's snapper Pristipomoides amoenus *FP canati blue-lined flower snapper Pristipomoides filamentosus *FP pakapakabui damu red-finned opakapaka Pristipomoides flavipinnis *FP pakapakabuidromo yellow-finned opakapaka Pristipomoides multidens *FP pakapakaqia purple-cheek opakapaka Pristipomoides typus* FP pakapakabuidamu red-tailed opakapaka Pristipomoides zonatus*FP yalayala flower snapper Lutjanus sp. ? tina ni kake 7 Symphorus nematophorus ? Chinamanfish Megalops cyprinoidae siga (V), yawa tarpon Mene maculata ? moonfish Crenimugil crenilabis kanace warty-lipped mullet Liza vaigiensis kava diamond-scaled mullet Mugil cephalus L. koto, uralo sea mullet Valamugil seheli? sevou, kanace ? bluespot mullet Mulloides vanicolensis ose, osekula yellow goatfish Parupeneus barberinus cucu dot dash goatfish Parupeneus indicus cucu Indian goatfish Upeneus vittatus? or taenipterus ki yellow banded goatfish Muraenesox cinereus ikasa,ovuci, boila pike eel Gymnothorax fimbriatus dabea, yalu, abea moray eel Lactoria cornuta toto vaileu (V) long-horned cowfish Ostracion cubicus toto (V) blue-spotted boxfish Polydactylus sexfilis ucu luka six fingered threadfin Pomacanthus semicirculatus lati ni daveta (V), tivi tivi semicircle angelfish Pygoplites diacanthus ? regal anbgelfish Cheiloprion labiatus ? big-lip damsel Stegastes sp nguru gregory Priacanthus hamrur mata levu, isulutavoi crescent-tail bigeye Bolbometopon muricatum ulurua, kalia, kelia, kaliya bumphead parrotfish Cetoscarus bicolor lau, ulavi, ulavidraniqai, dogosasa bicolour parrotfish Leptoscarus vaigiensis damudamu (V), lau (?) seagrass parrotfish Scarus ghobban ulavi, lau blue-barred orange parrotfish Scarus microrhinos uluvua (V), karakarawa,ulavi steephead parrotfish Scarus niger ulavi swarthy parrotfish Scarus sordidus karakarawa bullethead parrotfish Scatophagus argus tivi tivi, veita kau eyed scat Acanthocybium solandri wau wahoo Euthynnus affinis yatu mackerel tuna, bonito Gymribsarda unicolor yatunitoga dogtooth tuna Grammatorcynus bicarinatus salalanitoga shark mackerel Katsuwonus pelamis yatu skipjack tuna Rastrelliger brachysoma salala chub mackerel Rastrelliger kanagurta salalnicakau long-jawed mackerel Scomberomorus commersoni walu Spanish mackerel 110 Thunnus albacares yatunitoga yellowfin tuna Anyperodon leucogrammicus kawakawabatilotu white-lined rockcod Cephalopholis argus Kasala ni cakau peacock rockcod Cephalopholis boenak kasala brown-barred rockcod Cephalopholis miniata kasala damu coral cod Cephalopholis urodeta kasala damu flagtail rockcod Epinephelus chlorostigma *FP cevaninubu wirenetting cod Epinephelus corallicola kawakawa siga coralrockcod Epinephelus cyanopodus ceva, raravuya speckled grouper Epinephelus fuscoguttatus delabulewa, kawakawa, kasala blotchy grouper, marbled grouper Epinephelus fuscus *FP kasalaninubu spotted-fin cod Epinephelus maculatus kawa kawa siga trout cod Epinephelus malabaricus soisoi, votosiga orange-spotted cod Epinephelus magniscuttis *FP kasalaninubu deepwater cod Epinephelus merra senikawakawa, sinusinu honeycomb rockcod Epinephelus miliaris *FP kasala ? Epinephelus morrhua FP * votoqaninubu snakeskin cod Plectropomus aereolatus donu, lava? squaretail coral trout Plectropomus leopardus donu, lava, droudroua ? coral trout Plectropomus laevis ? ? Variola albomarginata varavaranitoga lunar-tailed cod Lo uspi ? USP rabbitfish Siganus doliatus vasu rauvula, ulavi pencil-streaked rabbitfish Siganus spinus nuqa spiny rabbitfish Siganus vermiculatus nuqa vermiculate rabbitfish Sphyraena barracuda ogo, dulu taga great barracuda Sphyraena flavicauda sasa, motomoto seapike Sphyraena forsteri dulutoga (when small), silasila Forster's seapike Sphyraena putnamiae ogo, dulu toga chevron barracuda Sphyraena genie ogo, sasanitoga dark-finned barracuda Synodus variegatus dolo (V) ? Synodus dermatogenys dolo (V) ? Synodus vanotatus dolo (V) ? Terapon jarbua qitawa crescent grunter Trichiurus haumela tovisi hairtail Zanclus cornutus tivitivi moorish idol ? saku vorowaqa black marlin? OTHER MARINE RESOURCES Chelonia mydas vonu dina, ika dina green turtle Eretmocheys imbricara taku hawksbill turtle Dermochelys coriacea tanoa leatherback turtle Tursiops truncatus babale bottle nose dolphin

111 SEAWEEDS LUMI Codium geppi totoyara, sagati codium Caulerpa racemosa nama balavu, nama, na sea grapes Caulerpa sp nama ni cakau, nama kei sea grapes belo, nama drau ni ivi Gracilaria verrucosa lumi wawa, lumi yara glass weed Hypnea pannosa lumi cevata, lumi yabia maidenhair Solieria sp. lumitamana, lumi karokaro goldenweed

Actinopyga echinites dri tabua deep-water redfish Actinopyga mauritiana tarase (V)? surfredfish Actinopyga sp. dri, dri tabua? blackfish Bohadaschia argus vula (V) brown sandfish Bohadaschia marmorata vula (V) brown sandfish Holodeima atra lololi (V); lolly fish Metriatyla scabra dairo (V), tero? sandfish Miciothele fuscogilva sucuwalu (V) white teatfish Microthele nobilis loaloa (V), dri loli, loli black teatfish Stichopus chloronotus tarasea (V)? greenfish Stichopus sp. madra (V) sea cucumber Thelenota ananas sucudrau pineapple fish Tripneustes gratilla cawaki (V) cake urchin MOLLUSCS Acanthozostera gemmata tadruku, dadruka(V?) chiton Anadara antiquata kaikoso, tuasa? (V) antique ark shell Anadara scapha* kaikoso (V)? scapha ark shell Area ventricosa kai vutavuta (V?, Nairai) ventricose ark shell Fragum fragum kai sivaro (V)? strawberry cockle Fragum unedo kai sivaro (V) fragum cockle, Lyrocardium lyratum no name? lyrate cockle Trachycardium elongatum? j kai sivaro (V), kai ni niu (V), sakaro? (V) coconut scraper shell Trachycardium unicolor? kai sivaro (V)?, kai ni niu unicolor cockle subrugosum? (V), sakaro? (V) Chama iostoma su(V) purple-edged jewel-box shell Chama lazarus* su?. lazarus jewel-box shell Chama pacifica su (V), bu, sobu Pacific jewel-box shell Donax cuneatus sigawale ? cuneate donax Donax faba* sigawale ? bean donax Haliotus ovina ? oval abalone Haliotis varia ? variable abalone Isognonmon isognomon melamela (V) Pacific tree oyster Isognomon ephippium. civa vatu (V), civa (V)? saddle tree oyster Isognomon perna* civa? (V) rayed tree oyster Lima ales 7 ales lima Codakia divergens* kai bakoko? divergnet lucina Codakia punctata kai bakoko (V) punctate lucina 112 Codakia tigerina kai bakoko (V) Pacific tiger lucina Fimbria fimbriata. gaga, gaga dina (V), kai bakoko (V?) common basket lucina Malleus albus* ? white hammer oyster Malleus malleus* 7 common hammer oyster Vulsella vulsella* drivi (V) ? sponge-finger oyster Modiolus agripetus* Kai kuku (V), kuku, boro mangrove mussel Crassostrea mordax* dio vauvau (V?), dio (V), dio ni veitiri mangrove oyster Hyotissa hyotis vasua vatu (V), dio vatu (V) honeycomb oyster Lopha cristagalli dio vatu (V)? cock-comb oyster Saccostrea cucullata dio, diovauvau, dio vatu? hooded oyster Chlamys squamosa kolakola damu (V) squamose scallop Gloripallium pallium suvi (V), sosodavui (V), kai mantle scallop Atrina pectinata* isivi kai belo (V), isivi media na belo (V) comb pen shell Atrina vexillum isivi (V) Indo-Pacific Pen Shell Pinna bicolor* isivi medra na belo (V) bicolor pen shell Pinna muricata* isivi medra na belo curved pen shell Streptopinna saccata* 1S1V1S1V1 baggy pen shell Asaphis violascens kai vadra (V), kai sasa (V) Pacific asaphis Pinctada inargaritifera L. civa (V) black-lipped pearl oyster Pinctada maculata pigmy pearl shell davea (V), dovea? (V), civaciva Pteria avicula melamela, leveni melamela (V), melamela (V) black wing oyster Pteria penguin mela mela (V) giant Penguin wing oyster Spondylus candidus kola kola (V) candid thorny oyster Spondylus nicobaricus kolakola (V), suesue Nicobar thorny oyster Spondylus rubicundus 9 rubicund spiny oyster Spondylus squamosus kolakola(V), suesue , saulaki Ducal thorny oyster Spondylus varians 7 thorny oyster Tellina palatam* palate tellin Tellina remies kai bakoko (V?) Remies tellin Tellina rostrata 9 rostrate tellin Tellina staurella 7 cross tellin Tridacna derasa vasua (V), vasua dina (V), matau vulivuli (V)? smooth giant clam Tridacna maxima katavatu (V), kativatu rugose giant clam Tridacna squamosa vasua cega (V) fluted giant clam Tridacna tevoro? vasua tevoro devil's clam Dosinia juvenalis 7 juvenile dosinia Gafarium pectinatum* qaqa (V) venus shell Gafarium tumidium* qaqa (V),(V) kaitaitakidri venus shell Lioconcha castrensis kai bibi (V) Camp Pitar venus Lioconcha fastigiata* kai bibi (V)? fastigiate venus Lioconcha lorenztana kai bibi (V) Lorenz's Pitar venus Lioconchcha ornata kai bibi (V) ornate Pitar venus Periglypta reticulata* kaibakoko (V)? reticulate venus Periglypta purpurea kaibakoko(V), kaidawa(V) youthful venus clam Tapes literatus kai calidi (V, Nairai); kai bibi (V), kai vadra (V); lettered venus clam Atactodea striata sigawale (V), silawale smooth beach clam Dolabella auricular ia veata (V), senikavere, kotia? green seahare 113 Dolabella sp. (dolabrifera?) veata (V), veataika, kotiaika (V)? black seahare Architectonica perspectiva ? clear sundial shell Atys cylindricus* 7 cylindrical atys Atys naucum * 7 white Pacific atys Bulla ampula* qala caidro (V), qala cawedra (V) ampulle bubble shell Bulla punctulata qala caidro (V), qala cawedra (V) punctuated bubble shell Bulla vernicosa* qala caidro (V), qala cawedra (V) punctuated bubble shell Bursa bubo davui sogasoga (V), buli giant frog shell Bursa margaritula* ? noble frog shell Bursa rubeta davui sogasoga (V,) ruddy frog shell Casmaria erinaceus 7 vibex bonnet shell Casmaria ponderosa 7 heavy bonnet shell Cassis cornuta. ko, davui horned helmet shell Cassis rufa* ? bullmouth helmet shell Cerithium aluco saukoso(V) Aluco cerith Cerithium echinatum surkoso? spiny cerith Cerithium nodulosum sau koso (V), sici giant knobbed cerith yarayara(V), durulevu Rhinoclavis aspera* sici (V) rough vertigus Rhinoclavis sinensis* saukoso, sici (V)? obelisk vertigus Conus ammiralis koi ni masi (V) admiral cone Conus arenatus* koi ni masi (V), vuru sand-dusted cone Conus aulicus koi ni masi (V)? princely cone Conus bullatus* koi ni masi (V), vuru bubble cone Conus canonicus koi ni masi (V) tiger cone Conus capitaneus koi ni masi (V), vuru captains cone Conus chaldeus koi ni masi (V)? vermiculate cone Conus distans koi ni masi (V), vuru distant cone Conus ebraeus koi ni masi (V)? Hebrew cone Conus eburneus Koi ni masi (V) eburneus cone Conus emaciatus koi ni masi (V)? false virgin cone Conus figulinus koi ni masi fig cone Conus flavidus koi ni masi (V), vuru yellow Pacific cone Conus general is koi ni masi (V), vuru general cone Conus geographicus koi ni masi (V) geography cone Conus imperialis koi ni masi (V) imperial cone Conus leopardus koi ni masi(V) leopard cone Conus litteratus koi ni mase lettered cone Conus lividus koi ni masi (V), vuru livid cone Conus marmoreus koi ni masi (M) marble cone Conus miles koi ni masi (V), vuru soldier cone Conus mustelinus koi ni masi (V), vuru weasel cone Conus nussatella koi ni masi (V)? nusatella cone Conus obscurus* koi ni masi Obscure cone Conus ochroleucas koi ni masi (V), vuru prefect cone Conus pennaceus koi ni masi (V) feathered cone Conus pertusus* koi ni masi (V), vuru pertusus cone 114 Conus pulicarius koi ni masi (V), vuru flea-bitten cone Conus quercinus koi ni masi oak cone Conus rattus* koi ni masi (V), vuru rat cone Conus sanguinolentus* koi ni masi (V), vuru blood-stained cone Conus spectrum. koi ni masi (V), vuru spectrum cone Conus stercusmuscarum* koi ni masi (V), vuru fly-specked cone Conus striatus koi ni masi (V), vuru striated cone Conus terebra* koi ni masi? terebra cone Conus tessulatus koi ni masi tesselate cane Conus textilis koi ni masi (V) textile cone Conus tulipa koi ni masi tulip cone Conus vexillum koi ni masi (V), vuru flag cone Conus virgo koi ni masi (V), vuru virgin cone Conus vitulinus koi ni masi (V), vuru calfcone Charonia tritonis davui (V), davui dina Pacific triton Cymatium pileare* davui common hairy triton Distorsio anus 7 common distorsio Cypraea annulus buli (V); gold-ringed cowrie Cypraea arabica buli (V) Arabian cowrie Cypraea argus buli (V) eyed cowrie Cypraea asellus 7 Asellus cowrie Cypraea aurantium* buli kula (V) golden cowrie Cypraea bistrinotata* 7 cowrie Cypraea caputserpentis ? snake-head cowrie Cypraea carneola buli (V) carnelian cowrie Cypraea catholicorum buli Catholic cowrie Cypraea caurica buli (V) caurica cowrie Cypraea childreni buli children's cowrie Cypraea chinensis buli (V) Chinese cowrie Cypraea cicercula* 7 chickpea cowrie) Cypraea clandestina* buli (V) clandestine cowrie Cypraea cribaria buli (V) cribaria cowrie Cypraea depressa buli (V) depressed cowrie Cypraea eburneus buli vula (V) pure white cowrie Cypraea eglantina buli (V) eglantine cowrie Cypraea erosa buli (V) eroded cowrie Cypraea errones buli (V); wandering cowrie Cypraea felina buli (V) cat cowrie Cypraea fimbriata buli (V) fimbriate cowrie Cypraea globulus ? globular cowrie Cypraea gracilis bull (V) graceful cowrie Cypraea helvola buli (V) honey cowrie Cypraea hirundo buli (V) swallow cowrie Cypraea humphreyssi* buli (V) Humphrey's cowrie Cypraea isabelia buli (V) Isabella cowrie Cypraea kierneri buli (V) Kiener's cowrie Cypraea limacina 7 limacina cowrie 115 Cypraea lynx buli (V); lynx cowrie Cypraea maculifera buli (V) reticulated cowrie Cypraea niappa buli (V) map cowrie Cypraea margarita* ? Margarita cowrie Cypraea mariae* ? Maria cowrie Cypraea mauritiania buli (V) humpback cowrie Cypraea moneta L, buli (V) money cowrie Cypraea nucleus* ? nucleus cowrie Cypraea onyx* ? onyx cowrie Cypraea ovum* ? golden-mouth cowrie Cypraea poraria* ? porous cowrie Cypraea punctata* ? punctate cowrie Cypraea scurra* ? jester cowrie Cypraea staphylaea* ? staphylaea cowrie Cypraea stolida buli (V) stolid cowrie Cypraea subviridis 7 greenish cowrie Cypraea summersi buli (V) Summer's cowrie Cypraea talpa buli (V) mole cowrie Cypraea teres buli (V) teres cowrie Cypraea testudinaria buli (V), buli balavu (V) tortoise cowrie Cypraea tigris buli, bulibuli? (V) tiger cowrie Cypraea ursellus buli (V) little bear cowrie Cypraea ventriculatus buli (V) ventral cowrie Cypraea vitellus buli (V) Pacific deer cowrie Pleuroploca filimentosa davui (V) filamentous horse conch Harpa amouretta* ? minor harp shell Harpa articularis ? articulate harp shell Harpa harpa ? true harp shell Harpa major* ? major harp shell Aplustrum amplustre ? royal paper bubble shell Mitra assimilis sici balavau (V)? orange miter Mitra aurantia* sici balavau (V)? orange miter Mitra cardinalis sici balavau (V) cardinal miter Mitra ferruginea sici (V)? rusty miter Mitra floridula sici balavau (V) flowery miter Mitra mitra sici, sic balava (V) episcopal miter Mitra nubila sici (V)? partly-colored miter Mitra papalis sici, sici balava (V)? papal miter Mitra stictica sici (V)? pontifical miter Vexillum vulpecula ? little fox mitre Chicoreus ramosus davui sogasoga ramose murex Chicoreus rubiginosus gusubona, drakabona (V)? reddish murex Chicoreus torrefactus gusubona, drakabona (V)? firebrand murex Drupa morum gusubona, drakabona (V) purple Pacific drupe Thais armigera gusubona, drakabona (V) belligerent rock shell Thais mancinella gusubona, drakabona (V) mancinella rock shell Thais tuberosa gusubona, drakabona (V) tuberose rock shell 116 Murex tribulus* sici kalou (V) caltrop murex Nassarius papillosus ? pimpled nassa mud snail Polinices aurantius dre vula (V) golden moon Polinices flemingiana drevula(V) Fleming's moon snail Polinices maurus drevula (V) maurus moon snail' Polinices melanostoma drevula (V) black-mouth moon snail Polinices sebae drevula (V) Seba's moon snail Polynices tumidus drevula (V) pear-shaped moon snail Nerita albicilla telei (V), sicisici(V) nerita shells Nerita plicata venegara? plicate nerite Nerita polita telei(V), madrali? polished nerite Nerita undata telei(V), madrali? waved nerite Oliva annulata buli balavu (V) annulated olive shell Oliva carneola buli balavu (V)? carnelian olive shell Oliva elegans buli balavu (V)? elegant olive shell Oliva miniacea sici balavu (V), tewatewa? red-mouthed olive Oliva reticulata sici balavu (V) bollod olive shell Oliva sericea sici balavu (V), tewatewa? textile olive Oliva tessellata* tesselate olive Oiiva tremulina* ? noble olive shell Oliva vidua buli balavau black olive shell Calpurnus verrucosus buli vula (V)? umbilical ovula Ovula costellata buli vula (V)? pink-mouth ovula Ovula ovum ? common egg cowrie Cellana testudinaria* ? common turtle limpet Lambis chiragra yaga (V) chiragra spider conch Lambis crocata yaga (V) orange spider conch Lambis lambis yaga (V) common spider conch Lambis scorpius yaga(V) scorpion spider conch Lambis truncata yaga, yaga ni cakau (V) Seba's spider conch Strombus bulla yaga (V) bubble conch Strombus canarium* ? dog conch Strombus gibberlus golea (V), gera(V) hump-back conch Strombus labiatus ? plicate conch Strombus lentiginosa yaga (V), golea (V) silver conch Strombus luhuanus golea (V), tivikea(V), blood mouth stromb Strombus minimus golea? minute conch Strombus mutabilis golea (V?) mutable conch Strombus sinuatus yaga (V) laciniate conch Strombus thersites yaga? (V) thersite stromb Terebejlum terebellum* ? terebellum conch Hastula strigilata sici balavu (V)? strigulate auger Terebra areolata sici balavu (V)? fly-spotted auger Terebra crenulata ? crenulate auger Terebra dimidiata sici balavu (V), sici/sisici dimidiate auger Terebra guttata sici balavu (V) spotted auger Terebra maculata sici balavu (V) marlinspike 117 Terebra subulata sici balavu (V), sici/sisici? subulate auger Malea pomum Pacific grinning tun shell Tonna allium ikoi? onion tun shell Tonna cepa ikoi(V channeled tun shell Tonna dolium i koi (V)? spotted tun shell Tonna galea i koi (V) giant tun shell Tonna perdix i koi, malea? Pacfic partridge tun shell Tonna tesselata i koi, malea? Pacific partridge tun shell Angaria delphinus ? common delphinula Tectus pyramis tovu (V) pyramid top shell Trochus maculatus ? maculated top shell Trochus niloticus sici, sici dina (V) commercial trochus shell Astraea haematraga? ? Pacific star shell Astiaea rhodostoma star shell Turbo argyrostomus la sawa (V) silver-mouthed turban shell Turbo bruneus* la sawa (V)? brown Pacific turban shell Turbo chrysostomus la (V), la sawa? gold-mouth turban shell Turbo cinerea sici la (V), sisici smooth moon turban shell Turbo crassus la sawa (V)? crass turban shell Turbo petholatus matakarawa (V) tapestry turban shell Turbo setosus la sawa (V) rough turban shell Vasum ceramicum gusu bona, draka bona (V)? ceramic vase shell Vasum turbinellus gusu bona, draka bona (V) common Pacific vase shell Nautilus pompilius waqa ni kuita(V), vale ni kuita pearly chambered nautilis Octopus sp. kuita(V), sulua octopus Sepioteuthis lessoniana kuitanu(V), suluanu bigfin reef squid

118 Lingula unguis i voce (V), (V) lamp shell Calappa hepatica cuqavotu (V); box crab Matuta Iunaris? tina i kaweki (kaueki)(V) burrowing crab Cardisoma carnifex lairo (V) giant land crab Ocypode ceratopthalmus kaweki (kaueki)(V), kauke ghost crab Portunus sanguinolentus taba cula (V) blood-spotted swimmer crab Scylla serata qari (V), bakera (Indian) mudcrab Thalamita crenata buco (V), quarivatu swimmer crab Carpilius maculatus kavika (V), tavutolu three-spot reef crab Eriphia sebana motodi (V), taqalito redeye crab Grapsis albolineatus? saravalivali (V) grapsid crab Hemigrapsus penicillatus? grapsid crab Metapograpsus messor kukaloa (V), kukavulu (V) black mangrove crab Sesarma erythrodactyla kukadamu (V) red-clawed crab Lysiosquilla maculata ura vidi (V), urata banded prawnkiller Palaemon concinnus moci (V) mangrove shrimp Scyllarides squamosus ura vidi?, ura kei rasaqa? slipper lobster Paribacus caledonicus vavaba, ivinibila slipper lobster Panulirus ornatus urau bola (u), urautamata ornate rock lobster Panulirus penicillatus uraukula (u), urau vatu golden rock lobster Panulirus versicolor uraudina (V), urau (V) painted rock lobster Penaeus canaliculatus ura ni cakau witch prawn Penaeus monodon giant tiger prawn urakeirasaqa (V) Thalassima anomala mana (V) mud lobster

Cassiopea andromeda drose (V), yalove? upside down jellyfish

Eunice viridis balolo (V) eunicid sea worm Marphysa sanguinea sewasewa (V) blood worm Sipuncula mundanus vetuna (V) peanut worm Siphonosoma australe ibo (V) peanut worm Sources of scientific and common names for fishes: Randall et. al., 1990 and Myers, 1989. For shells principal sources were: Abbot and Dance, 1991 and Cernohorsky, 1972.

119 APPENDIX 9. SOME COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH CATCHING AND

MARKETING SEAFOOD IN FIJI.

Although the major purpose of this study was to put a gross value on the fishery resources of Verata, it is felt that some information on the costs associated with fishing and marketing will help to put this value in perspective. To this end, the following information is presented.

Some costs associated with the commercial fishery.

Weekly expenses Expenses for launches and half cabins are assumed to be about equal. Fuel costs are probably less for the diesel powered launches. However, higher maintenance costs for the larger vessels probably result in expenses being approximately equal

Fishing for 20 days per month. Fuel diesel, $40.00 Outboard fuel $40.00 Ice $36.00 Crew $300.00 Food/ grog $60.00 Total $476.00 per week per vessel.

In addition, net fishermen would need to maintain their nets. The following information was obtained from a net fisherman.

Net replaced every 2 years = 100/yr/net. Net expenses = about $15/wk (for 6 nets)

Payment for fishing rights. ( The general fee for fishing rights in Verata is apparently $1000 (= $20/wk). However, this may vary depending on ethnic origin, or the state of the relationship between the licence holder and the Tui Verata, or on the type of fishing being done. Apparently there are only

120 5 net fishermen who pay $1000 (3 launches and 2 half cabin). "Still fishermen" ie line fishing, may only pay $100 per year, but this was not verified. This opinion is supported by one of the launch fishermen (Durgesh Lal, pers comm). It is assumed that locals of Verata pay nothing.

The adjoining Viwa area is $4000 for goodwill, but only 1 licence is issued for this area. (Durgesh Lal, pers comm).

Total weekly costs for a licensed net fisherman in Verata are therefore around $500. This does not include depreciation, vessel maintenance costs and other overheads, the occasional need to replace a punt or outboard, and land based transport of fish.

Total people employed by licensed commercial fishery in Verata Around 70 people are employed full time in the Verata commercial fishery. Others are part time e.g. carrier drivers , middlemen, net menders.

Costs of the village level commercial fishermen.

There are of course costs involved in the village level commercial fishery as well. It costs one fisherman $20 per day for fuel for his outboard. He recoups this by charging $5 to $7 per head for other fishermen to accompany him, or takes it out of their catch. Ladies who travel further afield often have to pay $1 or $2 for the use of punts.

There are also costs involved in selling seafood at the markets for the village level commercial fishermen. Typical costs for Suva market, the major outlet, are :

Market fee ! 2.35 Wheel barrow hire 2.00 Carrier (includes cargo) 5.00 (return) Plastic bags 1.00 Total 10.35 If vendors can travel by bus, the cost is around $2 less.

121 APPENDIX 10. NOTES ON SELECTED FISHERIES OF TONGAREVA

1. Notes on Hapuku (Ephiephelus polyphaekedion) fishing in Tongareva, June 6, 1995.

Tongareva (or Penryhn) is situated around 9 degrees south and 158 degrees west. The fishermen there target an annual spawning aggregation of Epinephelus polyphekadion, known locally as hapuku. In 1995 the hapuku started their spawning aggregation in early

June. It is possible that they were gathering in late May, but significant catches were being made on the week end of June 3. For 2 to 3 weeks leading up to the time of the main spawning aggregation, higher than normal numbers of hapuku are caught while fishing around coral heads inside the lagoon. The main aggregation appears to last for only about

2 weeks. A similar annual event in further to the west in Manihiki atoll (10 degrees south and 160 degrees west) is reported to last from new moon to full moon, around the same time.

Fishing is conducted usually just inside the main passage. , in depths of around 60 to 100 ft. The boats anchor in shallower water, around a patch reef, and drift back on long anchor ropes so that they are over deep water. The preferred bait is fish, with several informants saying kaha (mullet, Liza vaigiensis) is best. A reasonable weight is required to sink the hook fast, as sharks can and do take the bait. Four inch long pieces of reinforcing rod or big bolts are commonly used. Sharks are a significant problem, often biting through the line, resulting in loss of gear. Spare hooks, weights and traces must be carried. Steel traces are sometimes used to prevent losing gear, with no apparent reduction in hapuku catch. About

15 aluminium skiffs regularly fish Taruia passage, and catch rates are usually in the vicinity of 10 to 12 fish per man hour, though can be much higher in perfect conditions.

122 Fish average around 1.5 kg, and generally range from 1 to 2 kg. Fishermen return home on dark, as the hapuku appear to stop biting at night fall.

Apparently the other major passage in Tongareva lagoon, at Tetautua, also has Hapuku aggregations. However, locals maintain that fish, especially hapuku, caught in this passage are poisonous (ciguaterra) and they do not fish there..

The aggregation is either mainly females, or the males are not taking the baits. Of a sample of 33 fish, 31 were females, and only 2 were males. Other Epinephelus species, notably

Cephalopholis argus (roi), also join the aggregation, but in much smaller numbers. Locals who have observed the fish say that they are all lined up on the bottom, pointing out through the passage.

A similar event is also reported to occur in passages on at least 3 of the atolls in Tuvalu i further to the est (9 degrees south, 179 degrees east), and at about the same time.

Nukufetau, Funafuti, and Nukulaelae all report spawning aggregations of gatala, a species most likely to be Epinephelus polyphekadion. Other Epinephelus species are also present.

Informants indicate that these fish have also been observed to be lined up facing the same direction.

In all the above cases, the fishermen are in general only fishing for local consumption, with some minor exports to national urban centres. Anecdotal information does not reveal any perceived significant reduction in stocks caused by these fisheries to date.

123 2. Notes on rui (Caranx lugihris) fishing in Tongareva

Rui (black trevally, Caranx lugibris) is one of the favourite fish on Tongareva. Lamont

(1863) noted that it was also a very popular fish even then.

Rui are caught by an ingenious method. The boat is anchored outside the reef, in one of several known rui spots. A diver goes over the side with a mouthful of bait. He dives down above a school of rui, and spits out the bait. The fish are attracted upwards in this manner, by the diver releasing bait at shallower and shallower depths. The diver then takes a baited hook, and feeds it to the rui. Another person in the boat pulls in the rui. The boat person must pull in the fish very quickly, as sharks are numerous. The diver gets understandably nervous if the rui is still in the vicinity of his hand as a shark rushes in for a bite. Using this method, large numbers of rui are caught in a short time.

A slightly less exciting, but perhaps safer, method of catching rui is trolling along the reef, just outside the breakers, 2 or 3 days after the full moon. (Thanks to Junior Papa for the description of the dive fishery, and for the fish.).

124 3. Notes on pipi (Pinctada maculata) fishing in Tongareva.

Pipi (Pinctada maculata) is gathered by both sexes, and is one of the few fisheries in

Tongareva which involves women. The pipi are collected from the tops of the patch reef within the lagoon. Mask, snorkel and gloves are the necessary items, and the shells are simply plucked from the reef, to which they are attached by their byssus.

Pipi are collected primarily for the natural pearls which are sometimes found inside. The meat is also eaten, though a considerable amount is thrown away.

Fishing activity was closely observed on one occasion. Two women collecting for 50 minutes collected 21 kg of pipi. This equates to what is commonly referred to as a bag, ie approximately one full 25 kg rice sack. This is the common unit of measurement used by pipi collectors.

7 kg of pipi were counted out, giving 355 pipi. Therefore approximately 1000 pipi would constitute a bag. It took 3 girls approximately 2 hrs to open the 7 kg of pipi. 50 pipi were weighed (852 g), and the shucked meat also weighed (121 g), giving a recovery weight of around 14%. The meat can be eaten raw or cooked, and is very tasty, though a little gritty.

On this occasion, in the 7 kg sample, 3 pearls of little value were found, and 1 reasonable one. The number of pearls found in a full bag of pipi varies greatly, with sometimes no valuable pearls found at all, and sometimes as many as 20 of various qualities.

These pearls are a significant source of income for Tongarevans. As they are found, they are stored in small jars. They are then often used as a cash reserve. When a major purchase is required, for example a TV or video, new freezer, etc, the jar can be sold to buyers in Rarotonga. Although exact figures are difficult to obtain, jars containing an unknown number of pearls are sold for several thousands of dollars.

125 4. Notes on the Pasua (Tridacna maxima) fishery in Tongareva.

On 2 Nov, 1994, 8 men in 1 boat went fishing for 7 hrs, with about 4 hrs of this time spent in the water collecting pasua. Three men collected, while 5 stayed in the boat, processing.

They went way over to the eastern side of the lagoon, where stock density is greater.

Closer to Omoka, and presumably Tetautua, pasua are more heavily fished. Lamont (1863, p. 279) noted that even then, clams were apparently more abundant around Tepuka, although in those days the population was larger, and more evenly distributed around the atoll. The human population at that time (1853) was estimated to be between 1500 and

2500.

The combined effort of the eight men resulted in 2 filled large flour sacks of pasua meat.

This was later transferred to 10biscuit tins, at 15.5 kg clam meat plus 3 kg of salt each tin.

This equates to 155kg of clam meat. Ten pieces were randomly selected from one bag.

Weights of the processed (cleaned, ie minus kidney) meat ranged from 27 g to 72 g, and averaged 54 g. Assuming a rough average of 20 clams per kg, this equates to around 3100 clams to make the 155kg.

A tere party (visitors) from Mangaia were visiting Tongareva at this time. It is traditional to load up such departing guests with quantities of seafood. About 10 boats went out getting pasua for the tere party on Monday31 Oct. From talking to various people, 1 would estimate that between 1 and 3 ton of pasua meat was collected. This represents between 20,000 and 60,000 clams.

126 Tongareva is very fortunate in having the abundance of marine resources it has. No attempts have been made to determine the abundance of pasua on Tongareva. However, some controls on exports of giant clams may become necessary, especially in light of the large decrease in abundance of giant clams in Aitvitaki, previously the main source of giant clams for the southern Cook Islands, and in particular Rarotonga. Over-harvesting is the probable reason for this decline in Aitutaki.

127 APPENDIX 11. PARTIAL LIST OF TONGAREVAN MARINE RESOURCES.

Note: Although the official alphabet for Tongareva is the Rarotongan alphabet, the local names in the following table use the L" sound of the spoken Tongarevan language, rather than the "R" of Rarotongan. ? = species identification or name not verified

Acanthurus achilles suku toto achilles surgeon fish Acanthurus guttatus api whitespotted surgeonfish Acanthurus lineatus maito striped surgeonfish Acanthurus sp (nigricans) pone Acanthurus triostegus manini convict tang Chanos chanos awa milk fish Cephalopolis argus loi peacock cod Cephalopolis miniata velu coral cod Cheilinus trilobitus papo triple tail maori wrasse Cheilinus fasciatus papo red breasted maori wrasse Cheilinus undulatus malatea Napolean wrasse Thalassoma spp.(hardwicki?) patakotako Epinephalus merra hapuku, tolo honeycomb grouper Epinephalus sp. veve Epinephalus polyphekadion hapuku camouflage rock cod Variola albomarginata, louti valo yellow margined grouper Myripristis adusta ? ngutuli soldier fish Myripristis berndti? malau soldier fish Myripristis violacea? nato soldier fish Fistularia sp Aulostomus sp kohaki Hiposcarus longiceps lahi Pacific longnose parrot fish Scarus altipinnis sau kula initial phase Scarus altipinnis sau moana terminal phase Scarus microrhinos uhu ? Scarus sordidus tomole bullethead parrotfish Scarus sp.? manenga ? Scarus schlegelli sau yellowband parrotfish Scarus sp. (red) aliki o te uhu Note: other parrots follow behind this one, hence the local name. Scomberoides lysan lai queenfish Lutjanus bohar hangamea red bass Lutjanus gibbus taea paddle tail snapper Lutjanus fulvus tangau yellow margined snapper Lutjanus fulviflamma taiva flametail snapper Lutjanus kasmira or vitta, or takapeti 7 quinquelineatus Caranx lugubris luhi black trevally

128 Caranx melampygus ulua bluefin trevally Gnathanodon speciosus leileionga golden trevally Carangoides orthogrammus paoa yellow spotted trevally Caranx sexfasciatus? komuli bigeye trevally Carangoides ferdau paoa barjack Caranx ignobilis? ulupiti giant trevally Crenimugil crenilabis kanae? warty lipped mullet Liza vaigensis kaha diamond scale mullet Parapaneus multifasciatus? kahululuhulu multi-barred goatfish Mulloides vanicolensis memea yellowfin goatfish Mulloides flavolineatus vete yellowstripegoatfish Monotaxis granoculis mu big eye bream Katsuwonus pelamis atu skipjack Thunnus albacares kakasi yellow-fin tuna Albula neoguanica kiokio bonefish Euthynis affinis tuatava mackerel tuna Gymnosada unicolor tavatava dog tooth tuna Tylosorus crocodilus or aku Crocodile long torn Strohgylura incisa? Hemiramhus far? ise garfish various titi (generic name) Angel fish (most if not all) Priacanthus hamrur? palu, kupa goggle eye Alepes sp. atule pai Polydactilis sexfklis moi threadfin salmon Kuhlia mugil? ahole barred flagtail Echeneis naucrates or Remora talitali uliuli remora remora Stingray sp. hai various Aetobatus narinari haihaimanu eagle ray Manta birostris? hahalua manta ray Gymnothorax spp. buse moray eels Balistes undulatus kokili orange-striped triggerfish Diodon histrix? totala porcupine fish Arathron meleagris? sue puffer fish Lethrinis sp. tamule ? Makaira and Tetrapturus spp sakula, mali, talapuepue blue, black or striped marlins Elegatis bipinnulatus? loloa rainbow runner Dolphin sp paraoa, isuisuakivi long nose dolphin Dolphin sp. tauaki short nose whale small leilua? pilot whale ? whale sp (large) tohola humpback whale? Goby sp. kalaea various gobies Crayphaena hippurus mahi mahi dolphin fish

129 INVERTEBRATES Pinctada maragaritifera palau (meat = kololi) black lipped pearl oyster Pinnctada maculata pipi golden pearl shell Acanthaster sp. talamea, talakula crown of thorns starfish Cypraea sp. poleho cowry shell (general) Class Astreoidea mangungu starfish (general) Octopus sp. manga manga octopus Various oma sponge (general) Heterocentrotus sp. atuke pencil spine sea urchin Tripneustes sp? nava sea urchin Tridacna maxima pasua giant clam Asaphis violascens kasi Pacific asaphis, sand clam Chelonia mydas honu green turtle Birgus latro kaveau coconut crab Panulirus penicillatus kaula golden spiny lobster Chama sp. (Also other bivalves, generic) kapikapi jewel box oyster Turbo setosus alili turban shell Various loli sea cucumbers (general) Lyosquilla sp. valo giant mantis shrimp Sources of scientific and common names for fishes and invertebrates: Randall et. at. 1990, Myers, 1989, and Colin and Arneson, 1995. Sources of Tongarevan names: various fishermen and women on Tongareva.

130 APPENDIX 12. COLLECTION OF SPREADSHEET ANALYSES OF

QUESTIONNAIRES

131 Analysis of Vcrata Household survey HHno. no. of inh < 15rs >60 yrs Gov empl self empl other emp no.of pe vs fish fish inc other inc ot inc ul 7 5 0 0 1 0 2 8 115 70 185 u2 4 2 0 0 I 0 0 0 0 85 85 u3 6 4 0 0 2 0 2 25 110 70 180 u4 10 1 2 0 6 0 6 88 195 72 267 n5 6 0 0 0 2 0 2 10 24 60 84 n6 2 0 0 0 2 0 1 7 0 45 45 u7 7 4 0 0 1 0 1 14 100 0 100 u8 4 0 0 0 3 0 2 26 60 30 90 u9 4 2 0 0 2 0 2 48 80 30 110 UlO 4 1 0 0 1 0 1 25 170 0 170 u11 6 2 0 0 3 0 1 15 20 40 60 ul2 3 1 0 1 0 0 1 8 0 170 170 ul3 5 2 0 0 2 0 2 36 85 55 140 nl4 6 1 1 0 3 0 1 12 0 41 41 nl5 6 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 130 130 ul6 5 1 0 0 2 L_ ° 2 18 85 0 85 Avg 5.31 1.88 0.19 0.06 1.94 0.06 1.63 21.25 65.25 56.13 12138 SD 1.89 1.59 0.54 0.25 1.44 0.25 1.36 21.93 63.01 45.71 60.84 95% C 0.92 0.78 0.27 0.12 0.70 0 12 0.67 10.74 30.87 22.40 29.81

HHno. no. of inh < 1 5yrs > 60 yrs Gov empl self empl other emp No, of pe hrs fish fish inc other inc tot inc nl4 6 1 1 0 3 0 1 12 0 41 41 nI5 6 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 130 130 n5 6 0 0 0 2 0 2 10 24 60 84 n6 2 0 0 0 2 0 1 7 0 45 45 Avg 5.00 1.25 0.25 0.00 1.75 0.25 1.00 7.25 6.00 69.00 75.00 SD 2.00 1.89 0.50 0.00 1.26 0.50 0.82 5.25 12.00 41.48 41.48 95% C 1.75 1.66 0.44 #NUM! 1.10 0.44 0.72 4.60 10.52 36.36 36.36

ulO 4 1 0 0 1 0 1 25 170 0 170 ull 6 2 0 0 3 0 1 15 20 40 60 ul2 3 I 0 1 0 0 1 8 0 170 170 ul3 5 2 0 0 2 0 2 36 85 55 140 ul6 5 1 0 0 2 0 2 18 85 0 85 u2 4 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 85 85 u3 6 4 0 0 2 0 2 25 110 70 180 u4 10 1 2 0 6 0 6 88 195 72 267 u7 7 4 0 0 1 0 I 14 100 0 100 U8 4 0 0 0 3 0 2 26 60 30 90 u9 4 2 0 0 2 0 2 48 80 30 110 Avg 5.27 1.82 0.18 0.09 2.09 0.00 1.82 27.55 82.27 50.18 132.45 SD 1.95 1.25 0.60 0.30 1.58 0.00 1.54 23.94 62.78 49.93 60.29 95% C 1.15 0.74 0.36 0.18 0.93 0.91 14.15 37.10 29.51 35.63

19/09/96UNV-ECON.XLS Shecll ] Analysis of Verata fishers survey data i Verata womens calch weight kg Verata men catch Speclesi number value % by value lotwcighl Species weight kg umber value %by value tot. wt. 50! 15 bdm 10 10 bdm 20! 4 bdm 50 35 bdm 4[ 2.5 bdm It 10 bdm 151 4 bdm 36 25 bdm 4,5 33 10 bdm 20 4 bdm 3 1 bdm 90 40 bdm 14i 3.5 bdm 2 12 10 bdm 10| 3 bdm 8.5 20 bdm 8 3 bdm 30 40 bdm 15 25 19.04 bdm 12 27 6 isivi 5Oi 10 1.7 1 5 isivi 1 1 bdm 9 5 10.83 isivi 5: 1 giant clam 8 7 isivi 8! 1.5 giant clam 3 15 isivi 0.5 10 2 5.05 giant clam 5 35 kaikoso 501 1 giant clam 3 3 kaikoso 20 0.5 1 giant clam 8 35 kaikoso S : 5 giant clam 4 30 6.44 kaikoso 10 8 kuita 20 5 60 kaikoso kuita 14 5 35 kaikoso 24 10 kuita 1 10 kaikoso 14 1 6 kuita 2.5 1 10 kaikoso 2 kuita 3 30 kaikoso ! t kuita 2 10 kaikoso 4.5 2 kuitaa 4.7 2 15 kaikoso 3 2 kuita 12 4 32 kaikoso 3 kuita 3 45 kaikoso 2 351 I 14.16 kuita 4 4 12 kavere 3 3 kuita 12 i 35 kavere 4 kuita 4.5 2 15 kavere 1 5 :kuita 1 1 3 kavere 0.1 0.5 kuita 9.25 25 kavere 1 4 9.28 kuita 7 4 24 lumi cevata 13 7 kuita 4 12 lumi cevata • kuita 6.5 20 I lumi cevata kuita(octo) 11.5 30 lumi cevata 5 ; 24 23 6 65 25,16 lumi cevata 2.5 10 lobsterr 0.5 5 lumi cevata 0.6 3 lobster 1.5 2 15 lumi cevata 1.8 8 lobster t t 44 lumi cevata 2 lobster 9.7 106.7 lumi cevata 0.3 7 20.51 lobster 3.1 34 qari 2 2 15 obiter 3.5 3(5 qari 2 8 7.49 lobster 0.k 9 Reef fish 1.6 71 4 00 obiter 13.7 6 150 reef fish 4 27j 10 lobstcr 15.5 170 reef fish 3 50l 9 lobster 55 reef fish 1.6 801 5 lobster n 141 reef fish 1.25 54 4 obiter 2.4 26 40.94 reef fish ] 5 reef fish ' 2 6 reef fish 0.75 1 1.9 reef fish 3.5 10 10 reef fish 0.1 11 0 3 reef fish 4 12 reef fish 2.5 15| 6 14.71 reef fish 2.7 9 veata 1 reef fish 1.9 6 veata 12 1 recf fish 6 24 veata 8 1 recf fish 4 12 veata 30! 3 reef fish 9 veata ' 10 5.21 recffish 6.9 4 20 yega 30 4 reef fish 1.2 ; i kuita 1 I. 4 reef fish 1.7 qaqs 4 reef fish 1.5 1 45 civa 1 2 4,5S recffish 1 5 ; 4.5 total 307.20 100 00| reef fish 2.8 ; • reef fish 15.8 42 47.5 reeff fish 1.2 ; 3.6 ! reefish 1 954 ! turtle 8 i turtle 50 turtle 40 5,0 i davui(big) 4 10 mclamela 14 qari 0.5 5 j civa 0.2 1,55 i civa 0. 3 civa 0. ; ! eia 0. civa 0. 2.04 Totals i 1939.80 100.00

t 1 AV.J XLS Sheetsl ] |Combined catch, men and women Species weight kg number value :Tot wt Species weight kg lnumber due Tot.wt. bdm 50 15 lobstcr 0 51 2 i\ bdm 20 4 lnbster 15 2 15 bdm 4 2.5 | lobstcr 4 4 44 bdm 15 4 1 lobstcr 97 106.7 bdm 4.5 33 10 lobster 3.1 4 34 bdm 3! 1 lobiter 3.5 4 38.5 bdm 14 3.5 lobster 0.8 9 bdm 10' 3 | lobstcr 13.7 6 150 bdm 8 3 lobster 15.5 170 bdm 15 12.5 lobster 5i 7 55 bdm 10 10 lobstcr 13 141 70.3 bdm ! 50 35 lobster .3 4 26 bdm 11 10 lumi cevata 1 3: 7 bdm 36 25 | lumi cevata 1 bdm 20 4 lumi cevata 1 bdm 10 40 lumi cevata 5 24 bdm 2 12 10 lumi cevat 0.5 10 bdm S.5 20 lumi cevata 06j 3 bdm 30 40 lumi ccvata 18 8 bdm 12 27 6 lumi cevata 2 bdm 1.7 li 5 lumi cevata 0.3 7 bdm 9 5 reef fish 1.6 7 4.00 glint clam 8 7 reef fish 4 27 10 giant clam 3 15 reef fish 3 50 9 giant clam 5 35 reef fish 1.0 80 5 giant clam 3 3 reef fish 1,25 54 giant clam 8 35 reef fish 2 1 4 giant clam 30 reef fish 0-751 1 1.9 kaikoso 3 50 1 reef fish 0 1 1 0.3 kaikoso 1 20 0.5 reef fish 2.5 15 6 kaikoso 8 5 reef fish 2 2 6 kaikoso 10 • S reef fish 3.5 10 10 kaikoso 4 68 2 reef fish 4 12 kaikoso 24 10 reef fish 2.7 3 9 kaikoso 14 6 reef fish 1.9 2 6 kaikoso 4 2 reef fish 6 3 24 1 kaikoso 1 1 reef fish 4 12 [aikoso 4.5 2 reef fish 31 1 9 kaikoso 3 2 reef fish 0.9 4 20 kaikoso 2 3 reef fish 1.2 A 4 kaikoso 35 1 S1.5 reef fish 1.7 ! 5 kuita 1 1 4 reef fish 1.5 S 4.5 kuita 20 5; 60 reef fish 1.5 2 4.5 kuita 14 51 35 reef fish 2! kuita 11 10 reef fish 15.S 42 47.5 kuita 2.5 1 1o reef fish 1.2 2 3.6 kuita 3: 30 reef fish 0,3 2 76 8 kuita 2: 10 turtle l(x 14'') kuita 4.7 2 15 turtle 50 kuita 12 4 32 turtle ; 1 40 kuita 3 45 vc&ata kuita 4 4i 12 veata 12 kuiu 12 4i 35 veata kuita 4.5 2: 15 vcata 30 kuita 1 3 veata 5 kg 10 kuita 9.25 2; 25 yega 30 4 kuita • 5 24 ! civa kuita 4 3 12 civa 0 25 1 1. kuita 6.5 20 civa 05 ; kuita 11.5 5 30 civa i 0 3 1 2 kuita (octopus) 23 6 65 136.95 civa j 0,3 Isivii 50 101 civa 0,3 isivi 1 :l davua(big)[ 175 10 Isivi 5 \ mlamela 1 3.4 1 isivi 8 1.5 r qaqa isivi 0.5 10: 2 qari 2 1 kavere 3 kg 3 qari ; kavere 4 kg • 16 qari 0.5 kavere 5 kavere 0. 1 0.5 kavere 1 4 total 973 total 2 127 total i 2247.0

19/06/96VERATA%1XLS Sheet 2 Ucunivanua Village Catch Sheet

Village catch, UcuniVanua

Date Sex Com catch Sub catch ot catch Best sp today Usual best sp hrs fished 30-Mar 25 5 30 dairo dairo 6 30-Mar 10 2 12 reef fish reef fish e 30-Mar 15 0 15 qari qari, kaikoso 5 13-Apr 0 9 9 reef fish 5 20-Apr 0 5 5 kake (fish) (qari 4 20-Apr 0 4 4 take sabutu 4 11May 15 0 15 cata vatu 10 11-May f 0 5 5 ish (saqa) 6 11-May i 15 3 18 kaikoso 6 24-May 0 5 5 3 24-May 10 0 10 veata kaikoso 2.5 24-May • 12 2 14 kaikoso kaikoso 3 30-Jun • 20 1 21 vula dri 6 30-Jun 17 0 17 dairo 3 13-Jul • 0 4 4 kaikoso nama, kuita 3 13-Jul • 10 3 13 kaikoso 5.5 13-Jul 6 5 11 kaikoso 5.5 13-Jul 40 0 40 lumii cevata 4 20-Jul • 6 0 6 qaqa kaikoso, qaqa 2.5 20-Jul • 0 11 11 umi cevata 3 20-Jul • 0 10 10 seni kavere 4 20-Jul 0 5.5 5.5 umi cevata 3 20-Jul r 0 11 11 umi cevata 2.5 20-Jul f 8 2 L 10 qari 5 20-Jul r 0 7 7 seni kavere 2.5 f 0 10 10 busa (fish) fish 7 f 0 3 3 kaikoso kaikoso 2.5 f 0 3 3 kaikoso kaikoso 3 30-Mar m 65 0 65 kuita kuita 8 30-Mar m 65 6 71 kuita kuita, urau 8 30-Mar m 10 10 20 dri dri 6 6-Apr m 83 12 95 kuita urau 6 13-Apr m 10 9 19 dri dri 11 14-Apr m 50 6 56 dri urau 6 11-May m 15 0 15 kuita kuita 10 11-May m 196 30 226 urau urau 6.5 11-May m 100 24 124 urau urau 6.5 16-Jun m 34 c 43 urau urau 6 16Jun m 65 14 79 urau urau 6 16-Jun m 32 4 36 kuita kuita, vasua 6 16-Jun m 54 0 54 kuita kuita 7 16-Jun m 162 0 162 urau urau 8 16-Jun m 175 0 175 urau urau 7 16-Jun m 15 4 19 kuita 7 16-Jun m 15 0 15 vula 7 29-Jun m 20 5 25 dairo 29-Jun m 25 0 25 lokoloko 6 30-Jun m 90 5i 95 urau urau 8 30-Jun m 203 7 210 urau ! 8 30-Jun m 35 3 38 vasua kuita, vasua 7.5 30-Jun m 60 40 100 turtle 1kuita 7.5 13-Ju m 42 3 45 fish 4 13-Ju m 20 4 24 kuita lurau 3 13-Ju m 40 11 51 urau lurau 5 13-Ju m 25 2 27 kuita 5.5 13-Ju m 30 1 31 kuita 5.5 Total 1945 324.5 311.5 Avg 34.73 5.79 40.53 5.56 Std Dev 48.69 i 7.35 51.34 2.09 Con. lim(95%) 12.75 1.92 13.45 0.55

Page 1 Ucunivanua Village Catch Sheet

30-Mar m 65 0 65 kuiita cuita 8 30-Mar m 65 6 71 kuita kuita, urau 8 30-Mar m 10 10 20 dri dri 6 6-Apr m 83 12 95 cuita urau 6 13-Apr m 10 9 19 dri dri 11 14-Apr m 50 6 56 dri urau 6 11-May m 15 0 15 cuita kuita 10 11-May m 196 30 226 urau urau 6.5 11-May m 100 241 124 urau urau 6.5 16-Jun m 34 9 43 urau urau 6 16-Jun m 65 14| 79 urau urau 6 16-Jun m 32 4l 36 cuita kuita, vasua 6 16-Jun m 54 Ol 54 cuita kuita 7 16-Jun m 162 0l 162 urau urau ! 8 16-Jun m 175 0 175 urau urau 7 16-Jun m 15 4 19 cuita 7 16-Jun m 15 0 15 vula 7 29-Jun m 20 5 25 dairo 5 29-Jun m 25 0 25 lokoloko 6 30-Jun m 90 5 95 urau urau 8 30-Jun m 203 7 210 urau 8 30-Jun m 35 3 38 vasua kuita, vasua 7.5 30-Jun. m 60 40 100 turtle kuita 7.5 13-Jul m 42 3 45 fish 4 13-Jut m 20 4 24 kui(a urau 3 13-Jul m 40 11 51 urau urau 13-Jul m 25 2 27 kuita 5.5 13-Jul m 30 1 31 kuita 5.5 Avg 62.00 7.46 69.46 6.68 Std dev 56.4S 9.59 59.70 1.64 Con. lim. (95%) 20.92 3.55 22.11 0.61

' 0 10 10 busa (fish) fish 7 30-Mar '• 25 5 30 daio dairo 6 30-Jun t 17 0 17 dairo 2 11-May f 0 5 5 fish (saqa) 6 24-May f 0 5 5 kaikoso kaikoso 3 24-May f 12 2 14 kaikoso kaikoso *3; 13-Jul f 0 4 4 kaikoso nama, kuita 3 13-Jul f 10 3 13 kaikoso 5.5 13-Jul f 6 5 11 kaikoso 5.5 f 0 3 •3 kaikoso kaikoso 2.5 f 0 i kaikoso kaikoso 3 20-Apr f 0 4 4 kake sabutu 4 20-Apr f 0 5 e kake (fish) qari 4 11-May f 15 0 15 kata vatu 10 11-May f 15 3 18 lokoloko dri 6 13-Jul f 40 0 40 lumi cevaia i 20-Jul f 0 11 11 lumi cevata 3 20-Jul 1 0 5.51 5.5 lumi cevata 3 20-Jul f 0 11! 11 lumi cevata 2.5 20-Jul f 6 Ol 6 qaqa kaikoso, qaqa 2.5 30-Mar f 15 0| 15 qari qari, kaikoso 5 20-Jul f 8 2 10 qari 5 30-Mar f 10 2! 12 reef fish reef fish 8 13-Apr f 0 9 9 reef fish 5 20-Jul f 0 10 10 seni kavere i 20-Jul f 0 7 7 seni kavere 2.5 24-May f 10 0 10 veata kaikoso 2.5 30-Jun f 20 1 21 vula,dri 6

Avg 7.46 4.13 11.59 4.45 Std dev 9.83 3.51 8.25 1.90 Con. lim. (95%) 3.64 1.30 3.05 0.70

Page 2 New data analysis for Fiji, 10/6/96 no. of meals per week of: hhno. Fresh seafo cost tin fish cost $/ tin meat costs fresh meat cost$ total meals total cost n1 7 1 3.6 0.25 1.25 1 10 9.25 14.85 u2 2.5 2 2 2 3.6 2 7.5 8.5 13.1 u3 10 0.33 0.87 2 20 0.33 3 12.66 23.87 u4 4.5| 2 5.2 1 2.5 I 7 8.5 14.7 n5 2 5 3 4.2 1 2.5 1 3 7 9.7 n6 1 2 2.8 1 2 I 3 5 7.8 u7 2 3.5 5.2 2.5 6 2 17 10 28.2 u8 3 4 5.2 0.25 0.6 1 4 8.25 9.8 u9 7 2 2.2 I 2.25 1 5 11 9.45 ulO 3.5 2 2.6 2 4.5 1 3 8.5 10.1 ull 10 3 3.9 1 2.25 3 6 17 12.15 ul2 7 1 1.3 1 2.4 0.5 2 9.5 5.7 ul3 12 0 0 0 0 1 5 13 5 nl5 4.5 2 3 1 2.5 1 3 8.5 8.5 ul6 4.5 1 1.3 3 6 2 10 10.5 17.3 kl7 8.5 2.5 3.5 1.5 4 I 5 13.5 12.5 kl8 6.5 2.5 3.5 1 2.8 1 3 11 9.3 k19 10 2.5 3.5 0.25 0.75 1 3 13.75 7.25 k20 10 2.5 3.5 1 3 1 4 14.5 10.5 k21 6 2 3.2 1 2.85 1 5 10 11.05 k22 6.5 2.5 3.5 1 3 1 6 11 12.5 k23 9.5 1 1.5 I 3 1 4 12.5 8.5 Totals 137.50 44.33 65.57 25.75 77.75 25.83 118.50 233.41 261.82 Ave 6.25 2.02 2.98 1.17 3.53 1.17 5.39 10.61 11.90 SD 3.18 0.98 1.41 0.74 3.97 0.58 3.40 2.76 5.49 Con. Lim (95%) 1.33 0.41 0.59 0.31 1.66 0.24 1.42 1.15 2.29

Meals per week Cost per week Fresh scaf 6.459 0 Tinned Fis 2.02 2.98 Tinned M 1.17 3.53 Fresh mca 1.17 5.39 Total 10.61 11.9

19/09/96 FIJIFOOD.XLS Sheet 1 1 New data analysis for Fiji,10/6/96 no. of meals per week of:

Kumi and Naloto lh no. fresh scafo cost tin fish cost $/ tin meat cost $ fresh meat cost $ total meals total cost kl7 8.5 ! 2.5i 3.5 1.5] 4 1 5 13.5 12.5 kl8 6.5 ! 2.5: 3.5 1 2.8 1 3 11 9.3 kl9 10 2.5 3.5 0.25 0.75 I 3 13.75 7.25 k20 10 2.5 3.5 1 3 1 4 14.5 10.5 k21 6 i 2 3.2 1 2.85 1 5 10 11.05 k22 6.5 2.5 3.5 1 3 1 6 11 12.5 k23 9.5 11 1.5 1 3 1 4 12.5 8.5 nl 7 1 3.6 0.25 1.25 1 10 9.25 14.85 nl5 4.5 2 3 1 2.5 1 3 8.5 8.5 n5 2 5 3 4.2 1 2.5 1 3 7 9.7 n6 I 2 2.8 1 2 1 3 5 7.8 Avg 6.5

Ucunivanua u10 3.5 2 2.6 2 4.5 1 3 8.5 10.1 u11 10 3 3.9 1 2.25 3 6 17 12.15 ul2 7 1 1.3 1 2.4 0.5 2 9.5 5.7 ul3 12 0 0 0 0 1 5 13 5 u2 2.5 2 2 2 3.6 2 7.5 8.5 13.1 u3 10 0.33 0.87 2 20 0.33 3 12.66 23.87 u4 4.5 2 5.2 1 2.5 1 7 8.5 14.7 u7 2 3.5 5.2 2.5 6 2 17 10 28.2 u8 3 4 5.2 0.25 0.6 1 4 8.25 9.8 u9 7 2 2.2 1 2.25 1 5 11 9.45 Avg 6.15

Fresh meat Tinned Meat 11 % 11%

19%

Fresh seafood 59%

19/09/96 FIJIFOOD.XLS Sheet1 2 Sheet 1

Analysis of lobster catch, Ucunivanua, 1994 (purchase records, Siti) Wed. 4/5 1.7 Fri 13/5 0.8 1.2 0.9 0.5 3.1 0.5 1.8 0.4 2.8 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3l 0.6 5.7 6.4[ Fri, 6/5 3.3 0.3 0.3 4.3j 9.2 3.5 1.1 0.3 0.3 2.8 • 1.3 0.8 28.8 0.8 Wed 18/5 2.4 0.7 17 2.6 5 Sat, 7/5 2.4 Thurs 19/5 0.2 1.4 0.2 0.7 1.2 1 1.8 4.3 0.2 0.9 1 1.7 1.6 6.2 1.2 13.6 Fri 20/5 0.8 Wed, 11/5 2 0.2 0.4 0.2 7.3 1.4 9.7 1.4 5.2 1.5 5.5 1.4 Sat 21/5 1.5 1.2 1 0.6 27.8 3 5.5 Thurs, 12/ 1.1 Tue 24/5 4.9 2.8 1.3 1.5 0.3 0.7 4.7 11.2 1 Wed 25/5 1.4 4.4 1.3 2.5 2.3 2.4 1 1 1| 6 1 2.5 0.8 21.2 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.6 0.3 17.8

Page 1 Sheet 1

Thur 26/5 4.5 Thu 30/6 30 30 1.5 Wed 6/7 0.3 2.5 0.3 0.7 8.1 1.8 0.8 3.2 0.3 1 15.2 3.5 13.3 Fri 27/5 10.8 |Thu 7/7 12.2 3 5.1 1 8.5 0.6 1.7 3.1 18.5 1.1 Thur2/6 5.4 3 1.1 1.3 2.3 3.9 0.8 0.9 37.7 1 10.6 Fri 8/7 6.6 Fri 3/6 4.4 1.2 9.5 0.5 1.5 1.2 1.9 7.3 1 5.8 1 1.7 0.8 20.1 6 Thu 9/6 0.8 2.2 4.4 0.6 33.1 3.1 Wed 13/7 0.5 0.3 1.8 : 3.1 0.6 2.9 0.3 Thur 14/7 0.5 3.1 1.8 3.5 4.9 0.5 4 11.8 0.6 Fri 15/7 4.5 13.7 1.3 0.5 2.3 0.8 34.7 2.3 Thu 16/6 3.8 1.5 7.7 1.6 2.5 0.7 15.5 12.3 0.7 0.6 0.8 31 0.5 27.6 Fri 17/6 3 Sat 16/7 5.8 5.8 t 2 0.4 1 8.3 0.4 1.1 1 0.8 0.9 1 20.4 0.9 12 Wed 20/7 13 13

Daily mean 19.65 Std dev 8.345766 1 Conf lim 3.760242

Page 2 PENECON.XLS

Analysis of household economic data, Tongareva no. no. of inh <15yr > 60 yrs Gov empl self empl hrs fish hrs farm hrs hcraft hcraft $ tot gov inc tot pte inc tot inc inc/head seed loan dev loan 1 4 2 0 1 1 5 22 44 200 184 214 398 99.50 yes no 2 8 2 2 3 1 7 3 33 60 414 60 474 59.25 no no 3 4 0 1 3 1 12 6 10 150 383 350 733 183.25 yes no 4 8 5 0 3 0 3 2 18 190 466 190 656 82.00 yes yes 5 9 3 3 5 0 22 8 45 100 625 100 725 80.56 yes yes 6 4 2 2 0 0 0 0 32 130 105 190 295 73.75 yes no 7 9 2 3 0 24 23 28 30 399 50 449 49.89 yes no 8 6 3 0 1 0 2 77 150 143 150 293 48.83 yes no 9 2 0 2 1 0 9 0 4 0 252 0 252 126.00 yes yes 10 12 9 0 1 2 29 25 39 125 204 250 454 37.83 yes yes 11 7 3 2 1 0 8 5 1 0 285 75 360 51.43 yes yes 12 5 3 0 1 0 4.5 3 7.5 0 146 0 146 29.20 no no 13 3 0 2 0 12 5 0 235 0 235 33.57 yes l 7 25 yes 14 8 3 0 4 1 21 18 3.5 0 516 100 616 77.00 yes yes 15 7 3 0 2 0 20 10 8 0 262 0 262 37.43 yes no Avg 6.67 2.80 0.93 2.07 0.40 13.83 9.27 23.67 75.67 307.93 115.27 423.20 71.30 Stdv 2.55 2.14 1.10 1.39 0.63 9.31 8.74 21.56 76.65 152.56 106.21 186.74 40.99 95%CL 1.29 1.09 0.56 0.70 0.32 4.71 4.42 10.91 38.79 77.20 53.75 94.50 20.74 Household food consumption, Tongarcva No. of meals per week of: ts hhno. fresh seafood tin fish cost SAvcck tin meal fresh meat costs total meal* total cost kg rice/ week ] 4 1 6 1 5 2 6 8 17 3.5 2 6 1 6 1 8 1 18 9 32 7 3 14 0 1 9 0.25 5 15.25 14 10 4 10 0 2 14 1 17 13 31 7 5 10 0 1 12 0.5 9 11.5 21 15 6 10 1 3.5 4 18 0.5 8 15.5 29.5 3 7 14 1.5 13 2 24 0.5 9 18 46 10 S 14 0.25 2 0.5 3.5 0 0 14.75 5.5 8 9 10 2 7 ] 4 0 0 13 11 4 10 7 0.25 3.5 2 16 0.25 0 9.5 19.5 10 11 7 0.5 4.5 0.5 4 0 0 8 8.5 8 12 20 0.5 2 0.75 3 0 0 21.25 5 8 13 . 14 0.25 1.5 6 48 0 0 21 49.5 12 14 14 0 7 84 0 0 84 10 15 12 1 9 3 36 0.25 0 16.25 45 8 Avg 11.07 0.62 5.27 2. 18 19.23 0.42 4.80 14.28 27.90 8.23 std dcv 4.11 0.61 3.47 2.01 22.08 0.56 6.29 4.55 21.35 3.20 conflim 2.08 0.31 1.75 1.02 11.17 0.28 3.18 2.30 10.80 1.62

fresh seafood tin fish tin meat fresh meat Avg 11.07 0.62 2.18 0.42 8.23

ti tin fish fresh seafood 78%

] 9/09/96 PENFOOD.XLS Sheeti 1 PENXPORT.XLS

Tongareva seafood and handicraft exports analysis Fish kg Clam lob/crab value hats fans purse basket broom shell hooks value 19-Nov 54 12 0 492.00 24-Dec 152 12 2 1110.00 7-Jan 27 0 1 62.00 120 0 0 0 0 6000.00 14-Jan 59 3 0 396.00 21 5 2 0 0 1178.00 21-Jan 52 7 0 410.00 27 11 0 1 0 11 1801.00 28-Jan 17 0 102.00 17 17 5 0 0 1237.50 4-Feb 92 4 0 608.00 20 1 2 0 0 1068.00 11-Feb 77 0 462.00 49 40 5 4 18 3316.50 25-Feb 43 8 378.00 43 33 0 7 20 2822.00 4-Mar 40 0 240.00 40 22 0 9 4 2449.00 22-Apf 7 15 0 252.00 16 11 0 3 0 998.00 28-Apr 26 14 0 352.00 22 11 0 2 0 1287.00 10-May 102 16 3 881.00 39 7 0 0 10 2105.00 Average 57.54 10.38 1.00 505.48 37.64 14.36 1.27 2.36 4.73 2180.64 Std dev 39.95 5.04 2.31 282.09 29.65 12.77 2.00 3.14 7.71 1477.63 Conf lm 21.72 2.74 1.26 153.34 16.12 6.94 1.09 1.71 4.19 803.24

Note: Fish valued at $6/kg, clam meat at $14/kg, lobster/crab at $1 5/kg, Hats at $50 ea, fans 515, purse $26.5, baskets $11, shell hooks $25, brooms $5

By sea Fish Est fillet Est whole clam Value 25-Jan 560.00 373.33 186.67 156.00 5605.33 20-Feb 217.00 144.67 72.33 105.00 2706.67 March 319.00 212.67 106.33 118.00 3542.67 Average 365.33 243.56 121.78 126.33 3960.67 Std dev 176.13 117.42 58.71 26.50 1491.97 Con lim 199.31 132.87 66.44 29.99 1688.28

Mote: CIF values are fish fillets at $8/kg, whole fish at $4/kg, and clam meat at $12/kg -

Page 1 Sheet 1

Tongareva seafood consumption survey May, 1997 Onio Terekia date no. people fish type 1No fish fish wtkg no. of mea Av /person/meal 5.5.97 ! 6|Ature, nato 14 1.5 2 0.125 6.5.97 " ! 6[ature 13! 2 2 0.167 7.5.97 " 6nil nil 8.5.97 ! 6nil nil 9.5.97 11 parrot 8 3.5 1 0.318 10.5.97 11nil nil • " 11.5.97 11 y/fin 4 1 0.364 Average j 0.243 SD ! 0.115 Con lim ! 0.113;

Sera Woonton 5.5.97 : 7toropunga 1 2 1 0.286 6.5.97 Sitoro punga 2 3 1 0.600 7.5.97 5 1 head 3 1 0.600 8.5.97 5 i 9.5.97 i 5 • [ 10.5.97 i 7 mullet, milk 20 3.5 1 0.500 11.5.97 ! 7 Average ! 0.496 SD ! 0.148 Con lim 0.145!

•

Rakei Tonitara 5.5.97 ! 4 milkfish j 8 1.5 2 0.188 6.5.97 j 4 ruhi 3 1.75 1 0.438 7.5.97 6 ruhi 4 2 1 0.333 8.5.97 ! 4 ature 8 2 2 0.250 9.5.97 10.5.97 11.5.97 6 ature 6 6 3 0.333 Average 0.308 SD 0.095 Con lim ! 0.093! Ben Ponia i 5.5.97 2 trevally 1 1 1 0.500 6.5.97 7.5.97 ! 8.5.97 9.5.97 10.5.97 11:5.97 ! 3trevally ! 1 2 1 0.667 Average Total meal 21 0.583 SD ! 0.118 Con lim 0.115 Average 0.378 SD 0.168 Con. lim 0.072

Page 1