Fundamentals of Geoinformatics and Its Applications in Geography

Geoscience Research, ISSN: 0976–9846 & E-ISSN: 0976–9854 Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2010, PP-01-06

Fundamentals of geoinformatics and its applications in geography

Mankari M.P.1, Kodge B.G.2, Kulkarni M.J.1, Nagargoje A.U.1 1Department of Geography, M.U. College, Udgir, MS, India, [email protected] 2Department of Computer Science, S.V. College, Udgir, Latur, MS, India, [email protected]

Abstract- GIS has become a popular tool in recent studies in geography, environmental science, town planning, defense studies etc. In this paper we have made an attempt to present few, yet important aspects of Geoinformatics and applications of GIS in some branches of geographical research. Keywords- Geographical Information System, Remote Sensing, Global Positioning System, Spatial Data, Vector and Raster file formats, River Morphology

1. Introduction The art, science and technology dealing with the acquisition, storage, processing, 1.2 Elements of GIS production, presentation and dissemination • Hardware: It is the physical unit (electronic of geoinformation is called geoinformatics. machine) that ultimately performs the job. According to Burrough (1987) it is a powerful Monitor, printer, plotter, scanner digitizer etc. set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving • Software: A set of programs written to at will, transforming and displaying of spatial perform a specific job with the help of data form the real world. Geoinformatics is hardware. Operating system: windows 2000, made up of Geographical Information 2007, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Unix System (GIS), Remote Sensing (RS) and etc. Global Positioning System (GPS). It is the GIS Software: Arcinfo, AraGIS, Arcview, advancing science and technology, which Erdas, GRAM, GRAM++, Idrisi, ILWIS, can be used for research and development Autocadmap etc. in any discipline. For a geographer, it is a • Data: Two types of data powerful tool to generate and geocoded a) Spatial data and data and attribute database to help taking b) Non-spatial (attribute) data. decisions appropriately for planning. • Liveware: Users or people. Geographical Information System (GIS) is a • Data Model: computer system capable of capturing, storing, analyzing, and displaying A set of logical definitions for characterizing geographically referenced information i.e. the geographical data in order to present data identified according to location. Parker spatial information and their attributes, the (1988) defined GIS as “an information two approaches for data model are: technology which stores, analyses, and 1. Raster representation and 2. Vector display both spatial and non-spatial data. representation Followings are few raster file formats 1.1 Objectives of GIS commonly used in geoinformatics [8]. • Optimization of efficiency of planning and •ADRG - National Geospatial-Intelligence decision making. Agency (NGA)'s ARC Digitized Raster • Capacity to integrate information from Graphics various sources. •BIL - Band Interleaved by Line (image • Provide efficient means for data format linked with satellite derived imagery) distribution and handing. •CADRG - National Geospatial-Intelligence • Elimination of redundant data base. Agency (NGA)'s Compressed ARC Digitised • Complex analysis / query involving Raster Graphics (nominal compression of geographical referenced data to generate 55:1 over ADRG) new information. •ECRG - National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)'s Enhanced Compressed

ARC Raster Graphics (Better resolution than •ISFC - Intergraph's MicroStation based CADRG and no color loss) CAD solution attaching vector elements to a •CIB - National Geospatial-Intelligence relational Microsoft Access database Agency (NGA)'s Controlled Image Base •Personal Geodatabase - ESRI's closed, (type of Raster Product Format) integrated vector data storage strategy using •Digital raster graphic (DRG) - digital scan of Microsoft's Access MDB format a paper USGS topographic map •File Geodatabase - ESRI's file-based •ECW - Enhanced Compressed Wavelet geodatabase format, stored as folders in a (from ERMapper). A compressed wavelet file system. ESRI also has an enterprise format, often lossy. Geodatabase format for use in an RDBMS. •ESRI grid - proprietary binary and •Coverage - ESRI's closed, hybrid vector metadataless ASCII raster formats used by data storage strategy. Legacy ArcGIS ESRI Workstation / ArcInfo format with reduced •GeoTIFF - TIFF variant enriched with GIS support in ArcGIS Desktop lineup relevant metadata •Spatial Data File - Autodesk's high- •IMG - ERDAS IMAGINE image file format performance geodatabase format, native to •JPEG2000 - Open-source raster format. A MapGuide compressed format, allows both lossy and •GeoJSON - a lightweight format based on lossless compression. JSON, used by many open source GIS •MrSID - Multi-Resolution Seamless Image packages Database (by Lizardtech). A compressed •SOSI Standard - a spatial data format used wavelet format, often lossy. for all public exchange of spatial data in •netCDF-CF - netCDF file format with CF Norway medata conventions for earth science data. Grid formats (for elevation) Binary storage in open format with optional •USGS DEM - The USGS' Digital Elevation compression. Allows for direct web-access Model of subsets/aggregations of maps through •DTED - National Geospatial-Intelligence OPeNDAP protocol. Agency (NGA)'s Digital Terrain Elevation Data And Followings are few raster file formats •GTOPO30 - Large complete Earth commonly used in geoinformatics. elevation model at 30 arc seconds •Geography Markup Language (GML) - XML •SDTS - The USGS' successor to DEM based open standard (by OpenGIS) for GIS Other formats data exchange •Binary Terrain - The Virtual Terrain •AutoCAD DXF - Contour elevation plots in Project's Binary Terrain format AutoCAD DXF format •Dual Independent Map Encoding (DIME) – •Shapefile (SHP)- ESRI's open, hybrid A historic GIS file format, developed in the vector data format using SHP, SHX and 1960s DBF files •Well-known text (WKT) – ASCII spatial •Simple Features - Open Geospatial projection description (ESRI uses a *.prj Consortium specification for vector data extension) •MapInfo TAB format - MapInfo's vector data •Well-known binary (WKB) - Binary spatial format using TAB, DAT, ID and MAP files projection description •National Transfer Format (NTF) - National •World file - Georeferencing a raster image Transfer Format (mostly used by the UK file (e.g. JPEG, BMP) Ordnance Survey) •TIGER - Topologically Integrated 1.3. Need of GIS Geographic Encoding and Referencing Collector, SP, Administrators, •Cartesian coordinate system (XYZ) - Academicians- University, MLA & MP, Simple point cloud Environmentalist, Agriculturist, Disaster •Vector Product Format - National management cell e.g. For agricultural Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)'s management GIS has to be considered format of vectored data for large geographic multidimensional with attribute dimension, databases. spatial dimension &temporal dimension GIS •GeoMedia - Intergraph's Microsoft Access offers capabilities of integrating multisector, based format for spatial vector storage. multilevel and multiperiod database.

2 Geoscience Research, ISSN: 0976–9846 & E-ISSN: 0976–9854, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2010 Mankari MP, Kodge BG, Kulkarni MJ, Nagargoje AU

GIS satisfy the following specific needs 2. Principles of Remote Sensing 1) The ability to preprocess data from large Different objects return different amount and stores into a form suitable for analysis, kind of energy in different bands of the including operation such as reformatting, electromagnetic spectrum incident upon it. change of projection, resampling and This property of the object depends on generalizations. structural, physical and chemical 2) Direct support for analysis and modeling, composition, surface roughness, angle of so that from of analysis, calibration of incidence, intensity and wavelength of models, forecasting, and prediction are all radiant energy, hence we can identify handled through instruction to the GIS. various objects by collecting and analyzing 3) Post processing of result including such returned energy. operations as reformatting, tabulation, report generation, and mapping. 2.1 Stages in RS An information system is the chain of • Emission of energy or EMR (Sun) operations- planning, observation and • Transmission of energy from the source to collection of data- storage and analysis of the surface of the earth as well as data- Decision making process. adsorption and scattering of energy in the atmosphere. • Interaction of EMR with the earth surface Reflection. • Transmission of the energy from the surface to the remote sensor. • Sensor data output. • Data transmission, processing and analysis. Fig. 1- Decision making process 2.2. Platforms and Sensors Four key activities can be enhanced by Platform is a stage to mount the camera or using GIS sensor to acquire the information about a • Measurement target. Based on their altitude above the • Monitoring earth surface they are Ground borne. Air • Mapping borne and Space borne. • Modeling Sensor is a device that gathers energy, Contributing disciplines to GIS. converts it into a signal and presents it in a •Geography suitable form for obtaining information about •Cartography the target under investigation. Two types of •Computer software sensors : •Surveying 1. Active and 2. Passive. •Photogammetry •Remote Sensing Technology 2.3. Resolution •Mathematics/Statistics Resolution is defined as the ability of the system to render the information at the 1.4 Steps in GIS analysis smallest discretely separable quantity in • Importing Data terms of distance (spatial), wavelength band • Georeferencing of EMR (spectral), time (temporal) and • Digitizing and editing radiation quantity (radiometric). • Data analysis: a) network analysis 2.4. Image Interpretation b) Digital Elevation Model (DEM). An interpreter can derive lot of information c) Morphometric analysis, etc. by studying the quantitative and qualitative • Query Building. aspects of images and photographs. An Remote Sensing (RS) means acquiring image taken from air or space is a pictorial information about a phenomena or object or presentation of the pattern of a landscape. surface while at distance from it (without Two types of image interpretation. being physical contact with it) 1) Visual Image Interpretation: Elements are Shape, Size, Tone, Shadow, Pattern,

Texture, Location, Resolution, and 3. The satellite and the receiver generate Stereoscopic Appearance. the same pseudo-random code at the same 2) Digital Image Processing (DIP): can be time. The distance to a satellite is categorized into the following types of determined by measuring the time it takes computer—assisted operations: for a radio signal to reach us from that (a) Image Rectification: aim at correcting satellite. distorted data 4. This code allows for the GPS system to (b) Image Enhancement: increase the work with very low power signals and small amount of information that can be visually antenna. interpreted form the data. E.g. Contrast, 5. Distance to satellites is measured by Edge, Band Ratioing. accurate timing, using atomic clocks on (c) Image Classification: automatically board. Four satellite range measurements categories all pixels in an image into land will reduce errors in timing. cover classes or themes. Two Types: (i) 3.1. Three major segments: Unsupervised and (ii) Supervised (i) Space Segment; Consists of 24 classification: Ground truth sites should be satellites at an altitude of 20200 km above large enough, well-distributed and readily the earth surface. identifiable on the toposheets and the (ii) Ground control segment; Five image. ground stations distributed around the earth Global Positioning System (GPS) also called for monitoring and controlling the satellite as NAVSTAR GPS (Navigational System system continuously with Time and Ranging) was created by the (iii) The user segment: includes all U.S. Department of Defense for defense those who use GPS tracking equipment to reasons. This system is being used for many receive GPS signals to satisfy positioning civil applications now a days. requirements. It is a system of earth-orbiting satellites transmitting precisely timed signals (a 4. Applications of Geoinformatics similar system of Russian Federation: Geoinformatics has become a popular tool GLONASS - global navigation satellite in the recent studies in geography, system) which provides direct measurement environmental science, town planning, of position on the Earth's surface and the defense studies etc. some active domains location is expressed in latitude/longitude. for application of Geoinformatics are. The GPS receiver measures the travel time of signals transmitted from triangulated 4.1 The main producers and sources satellites. It calculates the satellites' latitude, Topographical Mapping: National Mapping longitude, altitude and speed. GPS provides Agencies, private Mapping Companies an address to every square meter of the Land Registration and Cadastre. earth's surface. Hydro graphic Mapping. Military Organizations. 3. The Five Main Points of Global Remote Sensing companies and satellite Positioning System agencies. 1. The basis of the GPS system is Natural resource surveys; Geologists; triangulation from the satellites. Hydrologists; Physical Geographers and Triangulation is when distance is measured Soil. using the travel time of radio messages from Scientists; Land Evaluators; Ecologists and satellite. Biogeographers; Meteorologists and 2. Two receivers are needed; the first Climatologists; Oceanographers. receiver acts as a "reference point". It is The main types of geographical data stationary and monitors, transmits and available: records the corrections to errors. The Topographic maps at a wide range of scales second receiver is placed in a position that Satellite and airborne scanner images and is recorded and calculates position of photographs satellite (with data). Then it compares the Administrative boundaries: Census tracts answer with a known position; the difference and census data; Postcode areas is the error in the GPS signal. Statistical data on people, land cover, land use at a wide range of levels.

4 Geoscience Research, ISSN: 0976–9846 & E-ISSN: 0976–9854, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2010 Mankari MP, Kodge BG, Kulkarni MJ, Nagargoje AU

Data from marketing surveys. sectional geometry, sediment loads in Data on utilities (gas, water, electricity lines, relation to discharge and river stability. The cables) and their locations. investigations are more aimed at to find out Data on rocks, water, soil, atmosphere, causes, which are responsible for behavior biological activity, natural hazards, and of a river in a particular manner. The studies disasters collected for a wide range of also deal with the causes and sites of spatial and temporal levels of resolution. aggradations and degradation along the river course. Erosion caused by the rivers is 4.2 Some current applications one of major problems of rivers flowing Agriculture Monitoring and management through alluvial plains. River morphological from farm to national levels. observation of help in identification of areas Archaeology site description and scenario undergoing serve bank erosion and taking evaluation. appropriate river engineering measures to Environment Monitoring, modeling, and combat bank erosion. Construction of spurs, management for land degradation; land embankment, dykes, etc. are primarily evaluation and rural planning; landslides; dependent on the river behavior- its desertification; water quality and quantity; dynamic nature. River morphological studies plagues; air quality; weather and climate are of prime requisite while planning for modelling and prediction. construction of dam, barrage, culverts and Epidemiology and health location of disease so on. Selection of sites for sediments in relation to environmental factors. gauge stations needs morphological Forestry Management, planning, and information of the rivers [9]. optimizing extraction and replanting. Emergency services Optimizing fire, police, 4.4 Information needs and ambulance routing; improved The data is available, in general, in the form understanding of crime and its location. of maps, reports, charts, tables, etc. Use of Navigation Air, sea, and land. maps in river basins studies is Marketing Site location and target groups; indispensable. The maps quite often are optimizing goods delivery. available in different formats and scales. Real Estate Legal aspects of the cadastre, Most crucial component of the river basin property values in relation to location, studies is a reliable, comprehensive, insurance. compatible and recent data on various Regional / local planning Development of watershed characteristics. Most of the data plans, costing, maintenance, management. available today on the network. Road and railway planning and management.. 5. Conclusion Site evaluation and costing. Geoinformatics has become an inevitable Cut and fill, computing volumes of materials. tool in recent times for research, planning Social studies Analysis of demographic and projections of various aspects of movements and developments. different fields of studies. Tourism Location and management of facilities and attractions. References Utilities Location, management, and [1] Deosthali V.H. (2006) Lecture notes planning of water, drains, gas, electricity, prepared for the UGC sponsored telephone, cable services. Refresher course in Earth sciences The various phenomenon on the earth can (March 1-21,2006), University of be studied using geoinformatics, as river Pune, Pune. morphology. [2] Burrough P.A. and Mc Donnell R.A. (2005) Principles of Geographical 4.3 River Morphology information systems, Oxford River morphology, primarily, deals with the University Press. UK. formation, of channels and their [3] George Josph (2005) Fundamentals of characteristics. Morphological studies, Remote sensing, 2nd Edition, therefore, include plan form, length and Universities Press. Hyderabad. width of the channels, slope and sediments [4] Lillesand T.M. and Kiefer R. (2003) distribution along with the rivers, cross Remote sensing and Image

Interpretation : 3rd Edition, John Willey. New York. [5] Agarwal C.S. and Garg P.K. (2002) Texlbook on Remote sensing, wheeler publishing, New Delhi. [6] Reddy A.M. (2001) Tetbook of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System, 2nd edition B.S. Publication. Hyderabad. [7] Star J. and Estes J. (1990) Geographic Information System An Introduction, Prentice Hall. New Jersey. [8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS_file_for mats#Raster_formats [9] Naik S. D. (2001) Dynamic Fluviogeomorphology of Brahmputra river and its erosion aspects- a case study of Kaziranga National Park, Assam, The Deccan Geographer, 39(1), 84-90.

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