Geoinformatics: An UNIT 1 GEOINFORMATICS: AN Introduction INTRODUCTION

Structure 1.1 Introduction Objectives 1.2 What is Geoinformatics? 1.3 Components of Geoinformatics Computer Science Global Positioning System Geographical 1.4 Advantages 1.5 Evolution of Geoinformatics as a Multidisciplinary Discipline 1.6 Applications 1.7 Geoinformatics Products 1.8 Activity 1.9 Summary 1.10 Unit End Questions 1.11 References 1.12 Further/Suggested Reading 1.13 Answers 1.1 INTRODUCTION

You know that the increasing human population is exerting an unprecedented pressure on the existing natural resources. Therefore, in order to meet the ever increasing demand on the infrastructure development, urban planning, healthy neighbourhood, safe transportation of human populace and material, management of natural resources, disaster preparedness of the community, conservation of biodiversity and elevating the status of endangered animals to safe level, etc. require a comprehensive approach with careful understanding of of the Earth. Here comes the power of ‘Geoinformatics’, which uses the modern scientific and technological advancements for better utilisation of space to have for sustainable human growth. Geoinformatics can be defined as the science and technology that deals with the geoinformation, its acquisition, creation, storage, processing, presentation and dissemination. And, by spatial information and data we mean any information and data that can be linked to a location on Earth.

As you are being introduced to the new discipline of geoinformatics, we would like to present you some real time examples on how the geoinformatics technology could be better utilised to manage the day-to-day affairs and 7 Overview of Geoinformatics increase your efficiency. For example all major Telecom companies in India use geoinformatics technologies to lay their cables and locate mobile towers. Power sectors across Indian states have identified geoinformatics technologies as the decision support tool for locating the electrical assets in towns to reduce transmission loss and reduce electrical theft through consumer mapping.

With this brief introductory note on geoinformatics and its diverse applications, we further proceed to appraise you of varied components and products of geoinformatics. Objectives After studying this unit you should be able to: • define geoinformatics; • identify various components of geoinformatics; • develop a concept of its advantages and diverse applications; • recognise the evolution of geoinformatics; • discuss the multidisciplinary nature of geoinformatics; and • list types of geoinformatics products. 1.2 WHAT IS GEOINFORMATICS? Geoinformatics today has become an important technology to the decision- makers across a wide range of disciplines, industries and organisations as it enables them to acquire, process, analyse, visualise spatial information and deals with produce outputs. Now, before we delve deeper into the Geoinformatics the study of different aspects of the Earth. technology, let us first understand the meaning of the term Geoinformatics.

Informatics is understood The term geoinformatics consists of two words, geo (Earth) and as the study of (the study of ). Hence, geoinformatics can be information processing. understood as the union of Earth sciences and Informatics. We can say that Geoinformatics broadly deals with the use of information technology for Geographic refers to the collection, analysis, storage, retrieval, representation and dissemination Earth’s surface and near surface whereas spatial is of information about the Earth. a broad term which refers The term ‘geoinformatics’ is believed to have come in existence just few to any space and not just the space of the Earth’s decades back as a result of the integration of three disciplines, namely surface. photogrammetry, remote sensing and geographic information systems.

Though the term There is another term i.e. ‘’, which was first used in Canada at Laval geospatial is a subset of University in the early 1980s to describe the above mentioned disciplines spatial, it is commonly realising the concept that increasing potential of computing which was used to refer to any revolutionising surveys and representation sciences. According to the spatial data. Department of Geomatics Engineering, University of Calgary, “Geomatics Engineering is a modern discipline, which integrates acquisition, modelling, analysis, and management of spatially referenced data, i.e. data identified according to their locations”. Geomatics Industry Association of Canada (GIAC) defines geomatics “as a technology and service sector focusing on the acquisition, storage, analysis, dissemination and management of geographically referenced information for improved decision-making”. 8 The word Geomatics is derived from the French word Ge´omatique, which Geoinformatics: An was coined by Dubuisson, a French Photogrammetrist. The term Geomatics is Introduction more commonly used in North America whereas Geoinformatics seems to be more popular in Europe such as in Netherlands where there is a Geoinformatics Department at the famous ITC (International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences). Michalak (2000), considers the term ‘geomatics’ to be interchangeable with ‘geoinformatics’. However, some people are of the opinion that though both geomatics and geoinformatics include and rely heavily upon the theory and practical implications of geodesy. There is a difference in the meanings that the terms geomatics and geoinformatics convey. Let us come back to the definition of geoinformatics. Wikipedia defines geoinformatics as “…the science and the technology which develops and uses infrastructure to address the problems of geography, geosciences and related branches of engineering”. According to Jachimski (2001), ‘geoinformatics’ is “...the science of the gathering, processing and dissemination of information which is spatially defined within the Earth’s system”. Geoinformatics has been described as “the science and the technology dealing with the structure and character of spatial information, its capture, its classification, its storage, processing, portrayal and dissemination, including the infrastructure necessary to secure optimal use of this information” or “the art, science and technology dealing with the acquisition, storage, processing, production, presentation and dissemination of geoinformation” (Oledzki, 2004). Conceptualisation of Geoinformatics is represented in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1: Conceptualisation of Geoinformatics (modified from Oledzki, 2004) Oledzki (2004) believes that the term Geoinformatics is more easily understood, and is much better at conveying the essence of spatial research focusing on informatics. Hence, in the course material the term Geoinformatics (GI) would be used. With this background, you will now be able to define geoinformatics. 9 Overview of Geoinformatics 1.3 COMPONENTS OF GEOINFORMATICS

From our discussion on the definition aspect of geoinformatics, we understand that geoinformatics is an integrated spatial research tool. It encompasses a broad range of disciplines including and mapping, Remote Sensing, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), Geodesy and computer science. Various components of geoinformatics are the followings: • Computer Science • Geodesy • Cartography • Photogrammetry • Remote Sensing (RS) • Global Positioning System (GPS) • Geographic Information System (GIS) You would be introduced to the major disciplines later in the relevant courses. However, let us get a brief idea about the various disciplines that constitutes geoinformatics. 1.3.1 Computer Science Informatics, as a discipline, comprises of both the computer technologies, i.e. hardware and software. The important role of information derives from our Computer science is composed of many broad necessity to manage more and more numerous and complex data in every disciplines, including field. The knowledge of computer science is a pre-requisite to represent and artificial and process applicable information through the development of hardware and software engineering. software. Computer science culture is now more prevalent contributing in improvement of our activities and research. The application and usage of computer science to geoinformatics go hand-in-hand. You will come across various aspects of the application of computer science to geoinformatics while studying about geoinformatics data acquisition, processing, product generation, data visualisation, dissemination, etc. 1.3.2 Geodesy Geodesy also known as geodetics is the discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth. Geodesy is defined as the science concerned with the study of shape and area of the Earth. Geodesy defines the shape and dimensions of the Earth through its two branches: gravimetry and positioning astronomy. Gravimetry deals with the determination of Earth’s gravity and its anomalies and the gravity determines the shape of the Earth. Positioning astronomy determines the position of the points on the globe through the observation of stars and artificial satellites. The study of geodesy began with mere curiosity and the never-ending human inquisitiveness to explain the Earth’s unknown through logic. It has been a great challenge for researchers to accurately represent the 3-dimensional Earth into 2-dimensional map forms. The underlying concept of geodesy helps in 10 representing the Earth in 2-dimensions. You shall read more about geodesy Geoinformatics: An while discussing datums, map projections and coordinate systems in Unit 8 of Introduction this course. 1.3.3 Cartography Cartography is generally considered to be the science and art of designing, constructing and producing maps. It includes almost every operation from original field work to final printing and marketing of maps. It is also treated as a science of human . We will study in detail International Cartographic Association defines Cartography as the discipline about map reading and dealing with the conception, production, dissemination and study of maps. their understanding in Map is a drawing of the whole or part of the surface of the Earth on a plane Unit 9 and 10 surface to a particular scale. It is a manually or mechanically drawn picture of Understanding the Maps, of Block 3 of MGY-001. the Earth showing the location and distribution of various natural and cultural phenomena. A sample map is shown in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.2: Cartographic visualisation of Avenue Trees in Chennai (map courtesy: WTI Advanced Technology Ltd.) Cartographic representation is the key in deciding the fate of any map generated out of various geoinformatics analysis. Cartographic visualisation, which is the graphical presentation of geographic information, such as data, processes, relations or concepts, limits the extent of map details which could be incorporated for the given study area as depicted in Fig. 1.2. Now, let us understand how a map is different from a photograph. Map gives a picture of one or several of the elements of the Earth’s surface (Fig. 1.3) but such a picture is not the same as a photograph. Photograph shows all the visible details (pertaining to shapes and sizes) of the area photographed irrespective of their relevance to the purpose for which it has been taken (Fig. 1.4).

11 Overview of Geoinformatics Moreover, a photograph shows only those objects which are physically present. A map, being the mental and manual creation of man gives only those details in their true or visible shape and size using symbols in which we are interested. They may or may not have similarities with the shape and size of the objects represented on the photograph.

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.3: (a) Ward Map of Chennai city corporation useful for detailed study (Source: http://tnmaps.tn.nic.in/district.php) whereas (b) is a district map of Tamil Nadu with district capitals as dots useful for regional level study (source: http:// tnmaps.tn.nic.in).

Fig. 1.4: An aerial photograph of the Jolly Buoy island at the Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park at Wandoor located about 30 km from Port Blair in Andaman 12 1.3.4 Photogrammetry Geoinformatics: An Introduction Photogrammetry is the technology developed for determining the geometric properties of objects from their photographic images. Photogrammetry is concerned with making measurements about position and shape of objects with the help of photographs. The American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS) has defined photogrammetry as “…the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and the environment through processes of recording, measuring and interpreting photographic images and patterns of recorded radiant electromagnetic energy and other phenomena”.

Although, both maps and aerial photographs present a ‘bird’s eye-view’ of the Earth, aerial photographs (Fig. 1.4) are not maps. Maps are orthogonal representations of the Earth’s surface, meaning that they are directionally and geometrically accurate (at least within the limitations imposed by projecting a 3-dimensional object into 2-dimensions). Aerial photographs, on the other hand, display a high degree of radial distortion. In other words, the topography is distorted, and until corrections are made for the distortion, measurements made from a photograph are not accurate. Nevertheless, aerial photographs are a powerful tool for studying the Earth’s environment.

In the late 1800s, cameras were positioned above the Earth’s surface in balloons or kites and aeroplanes to take oblique aerial photographs of the landscape. During World War I, played an important role in gathering information about the position and movements of enemy troops. After the war, civilian use of aerial photography from airplanes began with the systematic vertical imaging of large areas of Canada, the United States, and Europe. Many of these images were used to construct topographic and other types of reference maps of the natural and human-made features found on the Earth’s surface.

Photogrammetry is useful in various fields including topographic mapping, architecture, engineering, manufacturing, quality control, police investigation, and geology. Archeologists use photogrammetry to produce plans of large or complex sites. Meteorologists use it to determine the actual wind speed of a tornado in places where objective weather data cannot be obtained. In movie production, photogrammetry is used to combine live action with computer generated imagery. Check Your Progress I 1) What is the difference between geographic information and spatial Spend information? 5 mins ...... 13 Overview of Geoinformatics 2) What is Cartography? ......

You will study in detail 1.3.5 Remote Sensing about remote sensing and its various aspects in Remote sensing is the collection of data about an object from a distance. Blocks 1 and 2 in MGY- Scientists use the technique of remote sensing to monitor or measure 002 Remote Sensing and phenomena found in the Earth’s lithosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and Image Interpretation. atmosphere. Humans and many other types of animals accomplish this task The data collected by with aid of eyes or by the sense of smell or hearing. Remote sensing is usually the remote sensing and done with the help of mechanical device known as remote sensor. This device photogrammetry has greatly improved ability to receive and record information about an object is also known as without having any physical contact with them. Often, these sensors are geoimagery. It includes satellite positioned away from the object of interest by using helicopters, planes, and images and aerial satellites. Most remote sensing devices record information about an object by photographs. measuring an object’s transmission of electromagnetic energy from reflecting and radiating surfaces. The simplest form of remote sensing uses photographic cameras to record information from visible or near infrared wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. Concept of remote sensing is diagrammatically shown in Fig. 1.5, You will study about wherein you can see that Sun is the principal source of energy. When the electromagnetic radiation energy (in the form of electromagnetic radiation) reaches the Earth’s and its interaction with atmosphere, it undergoes the process of reflection, absorption and atmosphere and Earth transmission. Earth’s surface consists of different natural and man-made surface in Block -1, Introduction to Remote features which reflect, absorb, store and emit Earth’s radiation at different Sensing of MGY-002, wavelengths in different percentages, depending upon their physical and Remote Sensing and chemical properties. Image Interpretation.

14 Fig. 1.5: Concept of remote sensing Remote sensing sensors record different amount of radiation that is reflected Geoinformatics: An or emitted from different earth surface features and reproduce it in form of an Introduction image. Remote sensing provides synoptic view of the earth surface by virtue of recording interactions of Earth surface features with electromagnetic radiation. These interactions are recorded in remote sensing images in the form of some numerical information. When the remote sensing data is generated employing Sun’s energy it is known as passive remote sensing. In the other type i.e. active remote sensing, remote sensors, such as radars, send radiation themselves and collect the signal returned back to them from Earth surface features. Based on the factors, such as portion of the electromagnetic spectrum used and the number of bands, sensors are generally categorised into optical and microwave: • Optical sensors: These operate in the region between 0.3 and 15 μm of You will study in detail the electromagnetic spectrum. about the types of optical and microwave remote • Microwave sensors: These operate in the microwave region of the sensing in Unit 2 Recent electromagnetic spectrum (EMS). Optical remote sensing is further Trends of Geoinformatics. classified as panchromatic RS, multispectral RS, superspectral RS, hyperspectral RS and thermal RS. We will discuss about them in the next unit. Remote sensing imagery has many applications in mapping land-use and land cover, agriculture, soil mapping, forestry, city planning, archaeological investigations, military observation, and geomorphological surveying, mineral exploration, among other uses. One of the common examples of the use of remote sensing is the weather maps which you see in the news channels providing forecast of weather conditions. Two man-made features i.e. Lotus Temple located in New Delhi and Taj Mahal in Agra, India are shown in Fig. 1.6 (a) and (b), respectively.

Fig. 1.6(a)

15 Overview of Geoinformatics

(b) Fig. 1.6: (a) A multispectral remote sensing image showing Lotus Temple located in New Delhi, India. The central dome like object in bright color is surrounded by small symmetrical pools of water appearing in cyan blue color; (b) Image of Taj Mahal appearing as bright white object. Dark coloured object in extreme left is a river and plants are green and reddish in colour (source: www.earth.google.com) More recently, laser scanning systems have come up which have the ability to produce complete information with high precision and automation. Remote sensing has following advantages over other forms of data collection methods: • synoptic coverage and wide area coverage – regional, national and global • repeatability – satellites can revisit the same area at regular intervals and record data, enabling monitoring events and phenomena, and change detection analysis • all weather capability – active remote sensing, like RADAR could be used in spite of cloud cover and during night • it can provide data of inaccessible areas. 1.3.6 Global Positioning System

You will study in detail Global Positioning System (GPS) is a constellation of about 24 satellites about GPS in Block 1 which are orbiting the Earth every 12 hours at an altitude of ~20,200 km, as Global Navigation shown in Fig. 1.7. These satellites broadcast signals, which are used to derive Satellite System of MGY- precise timing, location, and velocity information. The derived information 003, Global Navigation can then be clubbed with other systems, such as communication devices, Satellite System and Geographic Information computers, and software to perform a variety of functions. With equipment System. ranging from hand-held receivers to rack-mounted electronics, the signals of GPS can be used by anyone, anytime, anywhere in the world. GPS technology consisting of space, control and user segments enables people to precisely know where they are on the surface of the Earth. Prior to GPS, positions were being established by complex procedure of relative and 16 absolute measurements of directions and distances. Geoinformatics: An Introduction

Fig. 1.7: Global Positioning System (source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/9/9c/ConstellationGPS.gif) Real world applications of GPS fall into following five broad categories: • Location: determining a basic position • Navigation: getting from one location to another • Tracking: monitoring the movement of people, animals and goods • Mapping: creating maps of the world One of the applications of GPS gaining momentum is the Location Based Services (LBS). LBS are geoinformation services that can provide location- aware information based on the user’s current position. LBS are primarily used in emergency services. However, these are also used to provide information on nearby public resources (such as fuel stations, bus stops, ATM machines, etc.), for map and navigation services (such as in vehicles), and even for locating friends though your mobiles. GAGAN (GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation or GPS and Geo Augmented Navigation system) is a planned implementation of a You will read more about regional Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) by the Indian GAGAN, in Unit 1 Introduction to GNSS of government. The project is being implemented by the Airport Authority of MGY-003. India with the help of the Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO) technology and space support. Its aim is to provide navigation system for all phases of flight over the Indian airspace and in the adjoining area 1.3.7 Geographic Information System Geographic Information System (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and You will study in detail data for capturing, managing, analysing, and displaying all forms of about GIS in Blocks 2, 3 geographically referenced information. GIS has been defined based on its and 4 of MGY-003, different aspects i.e. the tools, the organisation and the spatial database. Global Navigation Satellite System and GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualise data in Geographic Information many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, System. globes, reports, and charts. A GIS helps you answer questions and solve problems by looking at your data in a way that is quickly understood and easily shared. 17 Overview of Geoinformatics The components of GIS include: the computer systems, the software, spatial data, data management and analysis procedures, and the people to operate the GIS (Fig. 1.8). Data forms the major component of GIS. With recent developments in remote sensing and GPS technologies, large volume of high resolution data is widely available at affordable cost. The remote sensing data and GPS data are used as input in GIS. Computer hardware and software components are required for data entry, data storage, data processing, and analysis and also for producing outputs. GIS is of no use if people and the organisations in which they work are not properly oriented towards GIS.

Finally, the information generated in GIS is communicated through network. GIS has been traditionally used as a tool for generating outputs helping in decision making process for urban planning, management of natural resources, natural hazard assessment and management, environmental management and many more. Recently, GIS has been used for emergency planning, logistics and transportation related analysis, crime analysis, business and service planning, government and public services, analysis of genome sequences on DNA, etc. Internet has also been exploited to disseminate geographic information to the general public resulting into a new breed of specialised GIS generally known as Web GIS. Web GIS is capable of dynamically generating digital map products from DATA geospatial data and with it internet has now become core to many aspects of GIS application. GEOGRAPHICAL SOFTWARE HARWARE INFORMATION SYSTEMS

METHOD PEOPLE

Fig. 1.8: Components of GIS. More recently, capability of GIS has increased with its integration with GPS and has introduced exciting new applications, such as in-car navigation systems, precision farming, mobile mapping, LBS, etc. Applications of GIS are believed to become more imaginative with its wider public reach. With time GIS has evolved from a data analysis tool to a Spatial Decision Support System (SDSS) and Virtual GIS (VGIS) or Expert System (ES). SDSS can be considered as a tool coordinating between different professionals and making the decision processes interactive. It consists of processing tools which are able to answer the question what is going to happen if…? VGIS is characterised by the simplified user interfaces which allow management of analysis functions in a complex GIS even by non-qualified personals. Open GIS and interoperability are the recent keywords in GIS world. Open GIS stands for open source coding. Interoperability aims to increase interaction between different software packages for easy data transfer and 18 processing from one package to another and vice versa. Check Your Progress II Geoinformatics: An Introduction 1) List the segments of GPS. Spend 5 mins ...... 2) List the components of Geographic Information System...... 3) List some of the real time application areas of GPS and GIS......

1.4 ADVANTAGES The understanding of Earth as a complex system of various interrelated processes and mechanisms had been realised by scientists. Despite the availability of huge amount of data and technological advancements, the amount of information available and the existing level of techniques are often inadequate to understand the Earth and its complex functions. Major problem lies in the fact that the availability of the huge amount of data lies improperly managed and there is lack of information product in a form that can be directly utilised by the end users i.e. policy/decision makers and managers. The power of geoinformatics is its ability to acquire spatial data, integrate spatial data with non-spatial data (i.e. descriptive information about the spatial data), analyse them, create and visualise different scenarios and produce outputs which can be used for understanding processes and management and decision making. You may be aware that Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP) is situated in the vicinity of Mumbai. Its close proximity to the most populous city puts tremendous pressure on the forest ecosystem and monitoring of the entire park poses greater challenges to the forest officials. So, the park authorities decided to use geoinformatics techniques to map and monitor the park for initiating 19 Overview of Geoinformatics various conservation measures. With the above brief introduction on the real time need for spatial technology, let us discuss on the innumerable benefits derived out of using satellite remote sensing. Some of the advantages of geoinformatics are listed below: • can acquire geospatial data in time and cost effective manner • can provide synoptic view and multi date information of an area in different parts of electromagnetic spectrum • it helps in collecting data of an area without disturbing or destroying it • it can answer where, when, what and why scenarios which is not possible with any other software system • it assists in predicting events/outcomes based on multi-criteria analyses • it helps in visualising the scenarios under a given situation, and its consequences. Such scenarios greatly assist disaster managers to plan for future and save human lives • it helps to create a comprehensive solution to a problem in hand particularly assisting the decision and policy makers to arrive at an appropriate decision/solution • it assists in planning strategies and is especially useful in cases where disastrous events demand quick decision making. 1.5 EVOLUTION OF GEOINFORMATICS AS A MULTIDISCIPLINARY DISCIPLINE You have learnt in the earlier sections how geoinformatics was earlier considered primarily as a tool which was being applied in numerous application areas related to various disciplines. about the geoinformatics has more or less changed from being a tool to a science. Geospatial information has now been recognised as an essential informational requirement for decision makers and planners. With the technological advancements and related developments, geoinformatics is emerging as a new scientific discipline and this emergence is being recognised by the scientific community. It is believed that to be a discipline, a subject should have certain elements such as text books, academic programmes in universities, scientific conferences and related journals, academic societies, etc. All these elements exist with geoinformatics which qualify it to be a discipline. Moreover, geoinformatics as a discipline has been accepted by people from academia and industry. Geoinformatics is multidisciplinary by nature. You have already read that it integrates methodologies from computer science, geodesy, geography, cartography, remote sensing, GIS, GPS, digital image processing, , cognitive psychology, etc., in order to understand Earth features and processes and solve its problems. Using geoinformatics, we can study about Earth’s surface features, such as human settlement, road network, water body, forest, wildlife and demography, etc. After reading the above sections, you shall agree that the complexity of the 20 technologies in geoinformatics is dependent on skills of other disciplines. Therefore, geoinformatics application specialists need to have a sound Geoinformatics: An knowledge of the theoretical aspects and practical approaches to integrate Introduction many resources of information that address different applications. Further, scientists, planners or engineers interested in these technologies should be familiar with past, present and future satellite systems, their appropriate usage, suitable data acquisition methods for problem at hand and be able to handle and integrate with other data sources. By understanding its multidisciplinary nature, any person can get interested into geoinformatics and learn to quickly adapt to the need based on his/her prior experience with the real world. It is even very essential that every Government Department and IT professional realise the power of geoinformatics as a decision support system. 1.6 APPLICATIONS In about last four decades, geoinformatics has grown as a major tool for collecting information on almost every aspect on the Earth. In fact, with the You will study in detail availability of very high spatial resolution satellites in the recent years, about different applications of applications of geoinformatics have increased multifold for a range of geoinformatics in Block 4 applications related to emergency services, public health and epidemiology, of MGY-001 Overview of transportation and infrastructure, mineral exploration, urban planning and land Geoinformatics. use management, in-car navigation systems, environmental modelling and analysis, military, agriculture, meteorology, climate change, oceanography and coupled ocean and atmosphere modelling, business location planning, telecommunications, crime mapping, etc. In India, remote sensing has been used for various applications and has contributed significantly towards planning and development. Geoinformatics has facilitated mapping, inventorying and monitoring of various natural resources, like forests, minerals, soil, water, agriculture, etc., which has further helped in conservation and also towards decision making for resources management. It has also helped in monitoring of natural hazards and prepare action plan for disaster preparedness and management. Geoinformation is helping thousands of organisations around the world. It is being used by the transmission and distribution companies for route alignment, asset mapping to reduce the transmission loss, check outage and theft. Route alignment for new transmission lines take critical geographic factors to avoid human settlement, forest areas, water bodies, existing mining areas and prohibited areas through geoinformatics. Ministry of Environment and Forests prepares, maintains and updates the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) maps across the entire coast of India to check the human land use practices and preserve ecologically sensitive zone where corals and mangrove forests are found. Now many of the city Municipal Corporations maintain extensive database at ward level in GIS environment for better governance in times of emergency situation, relief distribution, land ownership, civic amenities, urban forestry, etc. State run water authorities use geoinformatics to plan for water distribution, laying of new water connection, leakage detection and perform hydraulic analysis to ensure enough pressure is maintained for water to travel upstream in hilly terrain.

21 Overview of Geoinformatics Crime department analyses the historic crime pattern in GIS environment to map the crime hot spots for better policing. Forest Department is increasingly relying on geoinformatics derived maps to improve the forest cover at state level. Zoo authority is no exception. Animal migration, habitat destruction and biodiversity hot spots are studied through geoinformatics for preserving the last surviving wilderness in India. Applications of geoinformatics are unlimited and it is in the hands of the user to derive the results to the best advantage. Now, with this background, can you the list the geoinformatics applications wherein you can make use of in daily life? 1.7 GEOINFORMATICS PRODUCTS

You will study in detail Geoinformatics encompasses a broad range of applications, mapping agencies, about different satellite images, service providers and all of which involve use of some geoinformatics products in combination of digital maps and georeferenced data. Results of geospatial the Block 4 GIS Analysis, analysis are presented in different forms, which are known as geoinformatics Output and Project products. The products include tabular text data, thematic maps, animations, Design of MGY-003, GNSS and GIS. information systems, spatial decision support systems, etc. (Figs. 1.9 and 1.10).

(a)

(b) Fig. 1.9: Examples of cartographic outputs showing (a) Multi-layered display; (b) A thematic output with symbols (source: (a & b) TN Forest Department, www.forests.tn.nic.in/ indexb.html) 22 The geoinformatics products can be categorised into the following: Geoinformatics: An Introduction • Cartographic products • Non-cartographic products Cartographic outputs include both hard and soft copy maps which are prepared adhering to the cartographic conventions as shown in Fig.1.9. The hard copy maps can be taken as printouts from GIS system using a simple printing machine or a complex system like a plotter. Non cartographic outputs include map models such as Digital Elevation Models (DEM) and information system which are primarily used for visualisation purposes (Fig. 1.10). DEM allows versatile displays of topographic data showing additional landscape attributes. An Information system is a set of written, electronic, or graphical method of communicating information.

(a) (b)

(c) Fig. 1.10: Examples of non-cartographic outputs showing (a) A shaded relief map; (b) A remote sensing image draped over a digital elevation mode (DEM); (c) internet usage of GIS (source: (a & b) www.reliefshading.com/cartographers/ imhof. html) and (c) TN Forest Department) 23 Overview of Geoinformatics The basis of an information system is the sharing and processing of information and ideas. Computers and telecommunication technologies have become essential information system components. Non-cartographic outputs also include texts, graphic outputs, and digital data and hardcopy outputs. Tables may include attribute data of objects in GIS or it may contain the driving directions to tourists or a list of hospitals located in a city or a list of temples in a village.

Geoinformatics products also include Decision Support Systems (DSS), which serve the management, operations, and planning levels of an organisation and help to make decisions. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software based system intended to help decision makers compile useful information from a combination of raw data, documents, personal knowledge, or business models to identify and solve problems and make decisions.

1.8 ACTIVITY 1) Visit Google Earth website (www.earth.google.com) and zoom to city/ village of your residence. You can visualise how your city/village appears in a remote sensing image. 2) If there are historical images of the city/village, you can try to see how with time the place has changed. 1.9 SUMMARY

In the present unit you have been introduced to the concept of geoinformatics, its components and different application potential. Let us now summarise what we have studied in the unit: • Geoinformatics is the union of Earth Sciences and Informatics. • Components of geoinformatics include Computer science, Geodesy, Cartography, Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing, Global Positioning System and Geographical Information System. • Geoinformatics data acquisition, processing, product generation, data visualisation and dissemination depend on the application and usage of computer science. • Geodesy defines the shape and dimensions of the Earth through its two branches: gravimetry and positioning astronomy. • Cartography deals with the conception, production, dissemination and study of maps. • Photogrammetry is concerned with the making measurements about position and shapes of objects with the help of photographs. • Remote sensing is the collection of data about an object from a distance. • Global Positioning System (GPS) broadcasts signals, which enables people to precisely know, where they are on the surface of the Earth. • Geographic Information System (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analysing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. 24 • Understanding of Earth as a complex system and its various interrelated Geoinformatics: An processes and mechanisms have been made possible by geoinformatics. Introduction Geoinformatics is particularly useful in mapping, monitoring and management of natural resources and disasters.

Spend 1.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS 30 mins 1) Differentiate between Geoinformatics and Geomatics. 2) Briefly discuss about the multidisciplinary nature of geoinformatics. 3) List out the advantages of geoinformatics. 4) What are the different geoinformatics products? 1.11 REFERENCES • http://tnmaps.tn.nic.in. • http://tnmaps.tn.nic.in/district.php. • http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/ ConstellationGPS.gif • Jachimski, J. (2001), Dyskusja panelowa poswiecona zagadnieniom terminologicznym geoinformatyki [Panel discussion devoted to matters of terminology in geoinformatics; in Polish], Geoinformatyka Polonica, Kraków, No. 3, pp.57-79. Crossreferenced from Oledzki, J. R. (2004). • Michalak, J. (2000), Geomatyka (geoinformatyka) – czy nowa dyscyplina? [Geomatics (geoinformatics) - Is it a new discipline?; in Polish], Przeglad Geoogicjny (Geology Renew), vol 48, no.8, NetGIS. Crossreferenced from Oledzki, J. R. (2004). • Oledzki, J. R. (2004), An integrated spatial research tool geoinformatics - An integrated spatial research tool. Miscellania Geographica vol.11, pp.323-331. English translation by J. M. Kwiatowska (www.wgsr.uw.edu. pl/pub/uploads/mcg04/35oledzki.pdf). • www.earth.google.com. • www.forests.tn.nic.in/indexb.html. • www.reliefshading.com/cartographers/imhof.html. The data from all the above web sites was retrieved between 10th and 20th May, 2011.

1.13 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READING • Gomarasca, M. A. (2009), Basics of Geomatics, Springer, 656 p. 1.14 ANSWERS

Check Your Progress I 1) Geographic information refers to the Earth’s surface and near surface whereas spatial information is broad term which refers to any space and not only the space of Earth’s surface. Spatial may refer to space of other planets, cosmos and even the space of human body captured on medical images. 25 Overview of Geoinformatics 2) Refer to paragraph 1 of sub-section 1.3.3

Check Your Progress II 1) Space segment, control segment, user segment. 2) Computer Hardware Module, Computer Software Module, Data, People and Method 3) Real-world applications of GPS are location, navigation, monitoring the movement of people, animal and material, mapping and precise timing.

Unit End Questions 1) Refer to section 1.2 2) Refer to section 1.5 3) Refer to sub-section 1.4 4) Refer to section. 1.7

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