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Procesos Microbianos 1 Lillian Frioni (*) PROCESOS MICROBIANOS EDITORIAL DE LA FUNDACION UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE RIO CUARTO ARGENTINA 1999 Esta Editorial es miembro de la Red de Editoriales Universitarias Nacionales General Paz 1141 - Telefax (058) 4642727 (5800) Río Cuarto Armado e Impresión: Departamento de Imprenta y Publicaciones U.N.R.C. 1999 ISBN: 950-665-109-4 ISBN: 950-665-110 (Obra completa) Queda hecho el depósito que marca la ley 11.723 Impreso en Argentina - Printed in Argentina Queda prohibida la reproducción total o parcial del texto de la presente obra en cualquiera de sus formas, electrónica o mecánica, sin el consentimiento previo y escrito del autor y del Editor. 2 (*) Lillian Frioni es Profesora Titular de Microbiología en la Facultad de Agronomía (Universidad de la República del Uruguay). Trabajó por más de 10 años en la Facultad de Agronomía y Veterinaria de la Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto y en la de Rosario, Santa Fe. Colaboró también con la Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas de la Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, en la Argentina. Realizó estudios en la Universidad de la República de Uruguay, en la Universidad de Orsay (París), en el Centro de Pedología Biológica de Nancy (Francia), en el Instituto Pasteur de París y en el Laboratorio de Sistemas Simbióticos Fijadores de Nitrógeno Tropicales de Nogent sur Marne, Francia. Procesos Microbianos es su segundo libro. El primero: Ecología Microbiana del Suelos fue editado en diciembre de 1990 por la Universidad de la República del Uruguay, luego de obtener un premio de la Colección Reencuentro (Universidad-Banco de la República Oriental del Uruguay). Procesos Microbianos fue editado por la Fundación de la Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto (Argentina) en 1999. Como la edición se encuentra agotada, se decidió brindar la presente versión electrónica, mientras se edita el próximo texto: Microbiología, versión ampliada y corregida del anterior, prevista para el 2005. Dirección: Laboratorio de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Vegetal, Facultad de Agronomía, Av. Garzón 780, Montevideo, Uruguay Correo electrónico: [email protected] FAX: 598 2 3590436 1 Indice Prólogo Los microorganismos 1) Caracteres generales de los microorganismos, célularas procariota y eucariota y su presencia en los microorganismos. Los virus. Transferencia de material genético en procariotas 2) Estrategias nutritivas y bioenergéticas en los microorganismos. Fotosíntesis, respiraciones y fermentaciones en procariotas y eucariotas. Efecto del ambiente: temperatura, pH, presión osmótica, gases, sustancias químicas 3) Los protistas inferiores: bacterias tipicas, actinomicetes y cianobacterias, las arqueobacterias. Criterios taxonómicos, efecto del ambiente, principales funciones en la naturaleza 4) Los protistas superiores: algas, hongos, protozoos. relaciones evolutivas, características nutricionales, efecto del ambiente y funciones en ecosistemas naturales Ecología microbiana 5) Nociones de jerarquía ecológica. Ambientes microbianos: acuáticos, terrestres. Métodos de estudio en ecología microbiana: actividad biológica global, enzimática, metabólica. Grupos fisiológicos. Biomasa microbiana. Reconocimiento de los microorganismos por técnicas moleculares Procesos microbianos en la conservación y producción de alimentos 6) Fermentaciones láctica y alcohólica. Aplicaciones biotecnológicas: leche y derivados, ensilados. Uso de las levaduras, producción de etanol. Los microorganismos como fuentes de proteínas Procesos microbianos en los ciclos biogeoquímicos 7) Transformaciones de la materia orgánica y mineral por procesos microbianos de: mineralización-inmovilización, oxido-reducción, solubilización-precipitación, fijación-volatilización. Características de los ciclos del carbono y del nitrogéno 8) Degradación de la materia orgánica. Glúcidos simples, polímeros de reserva y de pared vegetal: almidón, celulosa, sustancias pécticas. Sustancias aromáticas: fenoles y derivados, lignina, taninos. Los hidrocarburos. Humificación: procesos de humificación y deshumificación 9) Mineralización-inmovilización del nitrógeno: Amonificación y nitrificación. Microoganismos, ecología y rol para los vegetales y el ambiente. Ciclo interno del nitrógeno, biomasa microbiana. Pérdidas de nitrógeno, desnitrificación 10) Ciclos de otros elementos; azufre, fósforo, hierro: Procesos microbianos, microrganismos y ecología Los microorganismos y los animales 11) Microorganismos del rumen: métodos de estudio, bacterias, protozoos y hongos. Actividad biológica y asociaciones microbianas. Procesos microbianos en las interacciones con los vegetales 12) La rizosfera, filosfera, espermatosfera, mantillos. Métodos de estudio. Compuestos liberados por las raíces y metabolitos microbianos. Efectos rizosférico sobre grupos microbianos. Ecología 2 13) Interacciones biológicas entre microorganismos. Neutralismo. Sinergismo: comensalismo, protocooperación o simbiosis nutricional, simbiosis. Antagonismo: competencia, amensalismo, predación, parasitismo. Funciones en los ecosistemas 14) Fijación biológica del nitrógeno (FBN) por diazotrofos en vida libre y en la rizosfera. Bioquímica de la FBN, la nitrogenasa. Protección frente al oxígeno. Fijación por autotrófos: bacterias fotosintéticas anoxigénicas, cianobacterias. Por heterótrofos: Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Clostridium. 15) Fijación de nitrógeno por la simbiosis rhizobio-leguminosa. Las leguminosas. La bacteria: taxonomía, requerimientos nutritivos. Nodulación y estructura nodular. Genética y factores limitantes de la FBN: físicos, nutrientes, el N-combinado, otros microorganismos. Inoculación. 16) Simbiosis fijadoras de nitrógeno en no-leguminosas. Nódulos tipo Cycas, tipo Parasponia. Asociaciones con Frankia (actinorrizas). Especies noduladas, distribución y usos. Aislamiento y cultivo del endofito. Nodulación, fijaciónde nitrógeno, perspectivas. 17) Las micorrizas. Tipos más importantes: ectomicorrizas y endomicorrizas del tipo arbuscular. Interacción entre los hongos y las raíces. Hongos simbióticos, posibilidades de cultivo y formulación de inoculantes. Ecología y manejo de estas simbiosis. Procesos microbianos promotores del crecimiento vegetal 18) Promoción del crecimiento vegetal por mecanismos directos: liberación de sustancias probióticas, fitohormonas, mineralización, solubilización de nutrientes Por mecanismos indirectos: Control biológico de microorganismo fitopatógenos. Selección de antagonistas (bacterias, hongos), evaluación de efectos. Formulaciones comerciales. Procesos microbianos en la protección ambiental 19) Biodegradación de restos orgánicos. En aerobiosis: residuos líquidos (piletas y reactores), sólidos: compostaje: fases del msmo, microflora, productos finales y aplicaciones. En anaerobiosis: metanogénesis, etapas del proceso, metanobacterias. Aplicaciones del biogás y del biofertilizante. 20) Biodegradación de xenobióticos. Inorgánicos: metales pesados, orgánicos: pesticidas, moléculas recalcitrantes. Biorremediación de suelos: procesos microbianos en la degradación de sustancias sólidas. 21) Anexo Práctico Indicadores biológicos de la calidad del suelo: actividades respiratorias, enzimáticas, biomasa microbiana (Fumigación-inoculación, Fumigación-extracción. Recuentos microbianos: microflora heterotrófa total, actinomicetes, hongos, algas, protozoos, Ciclo biológico del carbono: celulolíticos, amilolíticos Ciclo biológico del nitrógeno: FB por organismos en vida libre y en la rizosfera: aislamientos y recuentos, efectos rizosféricos (R/S), actividad nitrogenasa. Simbiosis fijadoras de N2: selección de cepas de rhizobio, reconocimiento y recuentos: totales, viables en caja, en planta. Inoculación de leguminosas. Aislamiento de Frankia, medios de cultivo, inoculación. Mineralización del N y pérdidas: amonificación, nitrificación, desnitrificación. Técnicas ecológicas. Ciclo biológico del azufre: aislamiento de sulfooxidantes y sulfatorreductores, recuentos. Ciclo biológico del fósforo: aislamiento de mineralizantes del P-orgánico, solubilizadores del P- insoluble. Técnica ecológica. Asociaciones micorríticas: ectomicorrizas: aislamiento y cultivo de hongos, endomicorrizas arbusculares, producción de inoculantes en plantas trampa. Compostaje y vermicompostaje: parámetros de evaluación del grado de madurez: C/N, pH, amonio y nitratos, hidratos de carbono 3 Prólogo El objetivo de este libro es despertar inquietudes en los estudiosos de diferentes disciplinas como Microbiología, Ciencias de la Tierra, Biología y en todos aquellos interesados en aspectos relacionados a procesos microbianos que contribuyen a la dinámica de los ecosistemas naturales. Las transformaciones de materiales orgánicos de muy diferente origen que se depositan en la biosfera, como los restos vegetales, animales y productos de la actividad del hombre, son de origen biológico. La polución consiguiente provocada por la acumulación de numerosos productos, preocupa a la comunidad científica que busca soluciones para mejorar la calidad de la vida. Los procesos de óxido-reducción que alteran la disponibilidad de importantes nutrientes vegetales, como el N, P, S, P, Fe, Mn, etc. son realizados por equipos enzimáticos contenidos en los microorganismos. Un capítulo especial de este libro está dedicado a procesos fermentativos responsables de la conservación de alimentos para el hombre y los animales (ensilados). La promoción del crecimiento vegetal por los microorganismos que se realiza por mecanismos directos: producción de sustancias probióticas, aumento de la disponibilidad de nutrientes por procesos de
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