Robyn Charlotte Spice Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport The University of Stirling Strong is the New Slim: A Study of the Body and Gender Amongst Female Free Weights Users Supervisor: Dr Irene A. Reid Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy August 2016 1 Declaration I confirm that this thesis is my own work and I have read and fully understood the University of Stirling’s research postgraduate regulations. The thesis has not been published nor been presented to another examination board. 2 Acknowledgements Firstly, I offer my sincerest thanks to my first supervisor, Dr Irene A. Reid who has offered me continual guidance and support to help nurture me as a researcher. Dr Reid has been patient throughout this entire process; without her knowledge, encouragement and feedback this thesis would not have been completed to the same standard. I also would like to thank my second supervisor Dr Alison Jasper whose enthusiasm and encouragement has also been invaluable. An inexplicable amount of gratitude goes to the twenty women interviewed for the project as well as the two women interviewed during the pilot stage. Their willingness to take part and discuss the different topic areas has given me the opportunity to give a real insight into the female free weights community at the chosen facility. I would also like to thank the facility manager at the sports centre, where this study took place, for allowing me to use the fitness facility, as well as for providing images of the gym layout. I would like to thank the Faculty of Health Science and Sport at the University of Stirling and the Sports Development Service for giving me the opportunity to develop both as a researcher and as a fitness professional. I am extremely grateful to have had the support of Nikki Redfern over the past three years. Without her continued belief and guidance, I would not be at the point I am today. I have also had the pleasure of working alongside colleagues such as Josh Walsh, Kelli Sharp, Kevin Walker, Emma Lyons and Raleigh Gowrie. All of whom have been extremely encouraging throughout the past two years. I would also like to thank my family for providing encouragement and support when needed. My parents and sisters have continually believed in me and have constantly encouraged me to believe in myself; they never fail to inspire me. A special and sincere thank you goes to Dr Nicola Spice and Professor Roy Cordon, the most incredible sister and brother-in-law I could wish for. Both have experienced every word with me and their patience, knowledge and rational thinking has been invaluable. I will never be able to express the gratitude I feel after all of their support. Lastly I would like to thank the friends who have constantly been at my side throughout this research project. The friendship of Meri Salokannel, Alexa Ball, Kirsty Gilbert and Sarah Murdoch has been paramount to me in handing in this 3 thesis as well as the fun I have had over the past six years at University. Finally, to the person who has stayed by side at every point over the past two years, to my best friend and supportive other half Carolyn Reid your patience, humour and love throughout this entire process is what has got me through smiling. 4 Abstract This research explored the importance of the ideal female body and gender stereotypes amongst a group of female free weights users in a fitness facility in Scotland. Utilising principles of ethnography, information was initially gathered through working as a participant-as-observer to identify different female free weights users within the facility. From this, as well as using a gatekeeper and snowball sampling, twenty women took part in one-to-one interviews. Different groups of women were interviewed including: those training in the free weights areas to aid their sporting performance, for health or aesthetic reasons and those preparing for physique competitions. Interviews focused on the women’s use of the free weights areas, perceptions of their own bodies and their opinions on the ideal female body as well as their interpretations of the concepts femininity, masculinity and muscularity. The unique narrative of each woman was critically analysed with reference to social construction feminism. Whilst interviews were the main data collection technique for this research, participant observation and informal conversations within the free weights areas also informed the findings of this study. The motivations behind women taking part in weight training are presented. Interviewees’ definitions of the ideal female body are explored and the significance of this body is discussed. Factors influencing the women’s definitions of the ideal body are also examined. The impact of social media on participants’ use of the free weights areas is analysed. The women’s perceptions of the terms masculinity, femininity and muscularity are considered alongside how these perceptions affected their training within the free weights areas. 5 Contents Page Title Page 1 Declaration 2 Acknowledgements 3 Abstract 5 Contents Page 6 Introduction 9 Organisation of Thesis 12 Chapter 1 – The Social Construction of the Body and Gender 16 1.1 Introduction 16 1.2 The Fitness Industry 16 1.3 The Importance of the Body 17 1.4 The Body as a Social Construction 19 1.5 Social Norms, Gender, Masculinity and Femininity 21 1.6 Norms and Stereotypes Within Sport and Physical Activity 23 1.7 Sexuality and the Athletic Body 25 1.8 The Power of Social Media 27 1.9 Transgressive Femininity 29 1.10 Female Bodybuilders, Physique Competitors and Weight Trainers 30 1.11 Control and Obsession: Exercise, Diet and Pain 32 1.12 Summary 33 Chapter 2 – Methodology 35 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2 Research Paradigms 35 2.3 Qualitative Approach, Ethnography and Remaining Detached 39 2.4 Developing the Research Project and Research Timeline 42 2.5 Recruiting Participants 44 2.6 Interviews and Transcriptions 46 2.7 Analysis 50 2.8 Ethical Considerations 51 2.9 Summary 52 6 Chapter 3 - The Environment, Motivation and Empowerment 53 3.1 Introduction 53 3.2 Gym Layout 53 3.3 First Experiences in the Free Weights Areas 55 3.4 A Male Dominated Environment 58 3.5 The Female Gaze 65 3.6 Motivation to Weight Train 67 3.7 Empowerment 74 3.8 Summary 77 Chapter 4 – The Ideal Female Body? 79 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 A Slim Toned Body 80 4.3 Celebrity Figure and Popular Culture 82 4.4 Femininity, Masculinity and Muscularity 84 4.5 The Female Athlete 89 4.6 Physique Competitions, Female Bodybuilding and Drug Use 91 4.7 The Consequences of Being Muscular 96 4.8 Obsession 99 4.9 Summary 102 Chapter 5 – The Influence of Social Media 105 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 The Accessibility of #fitspiration 105 5.3 The Negative Side of Social Media 108 5.4 The Influence of Social Media on Young Girls 119 5.5 Summary 120 Chapter 6 – Conclusions and the Future 122 Bibliography 130 Appendices 172 Appendix 1 – Glossary 172 Appendix 2 – Men’s Health and Women’s Health Website Screenshots 177 Appendix 3 – Sample of Field Notes 179 Appendix 4 – Interview Profile Summary 181 Appendix 5 – Participant Information Sheet 186 Appendix 6 – Consent Form 188 Appendix 7 – Interview Script 189 Appendix 8 – Images Shown to Participants 194 Appendix 9 – Sample Transcript – Lola 201 7 Appendix 10 – Instagram Images Sent from Penny 204 List of Figures Figure 3.1 – The entrance to the gym and the machines in this area 54 Figure 3.2 – The main section of the gym leading into the free weights 54 areas Figure 3.3 – The upstairs free weights area layout 55 Figure 3.4 – The downstairs free weights area layout 55 Figure 5.1 – From the website Libero Network 117 8 Introduction Weight training has historically been viewed as a masculine activity because of its association with strength and muscularity. It is currently an activity growing in popularity amongst females, reflected by increased attention in the mainstream media. In a recent Times Magazine article, celebrity personal trainer Lacey Stone was credited with reshaping the ideal female body through weight training. Her arms were described as “aspirational” as they were “lean and toned and tanned but not too bulky. Tight triceps. Perfectly curved biceps, a look lusted after by many but sported by few” (Day, 2016, p. 24). The article communicated the growing popularity of a more muscular look amongst some females. The piece continued by urging the reader to, “Lift weights. The heavier the better” (Day, 2016, p. 24). Similarly, The Daily Mail presented an online article entitled, “Women who lift weights now seen as attractive by men – and fitness fanatics Cameron Diaz and Millie Mackintosh are leading the athletic trend” (London, 2014); whilst Women’s Fitness Magazine led with, “Weight training is the perfect way to boost your metabolism and torch fat, so it’s no wonder strong is the new slim” (Khouv, 2014). This increased attention can also be found on social media. Facebook, Twitter and Instagram are spaces where information regarding the body, health and fitness can be shared (Tiggerman and Zaccarado, 2015). The focus of women’s participation in physical activity and its relationship with the female body has not only been apparent in the media but also within academic research (Tate, 1999; Bunsell, 2013; Hargreaves, 1994). Previous research has highlighted that historically, athletic and muscular female forms were not seen as desirable because in achieving them, women transgressed the social norms of femininity (Bunsell, 2013; Douglas, 1966; Hargreaves, 1994; Tate, 1999).