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Benzodiazepines and Disinhibition

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Benzodiazepines and Disinhibition Paton Benzodiazepines and disinhibition drug information quarterly Psychiatric Bulletin (2002), 26,460^462 CAROL PATON Benzodiazepines and disinhibition: a review AIMS AND METHODS with impulse control problems, when these drugs are administered To describe and attempt to neurological disorders, learning to patients known to be at quantify the incidence of disabilities, the under 18s and risk. In patients who have disinhibitory reactions to the over 65s are at significant experienced behavioural benzodiazepines and to identify risk. disinhibition with benzodiazepines, those at risk. Medline search, antipsychotic drugs should be used CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS 1966-January 2002. to modify behaviour in any future It is important to be aware of the emergencies. RESULTS ability of benzodiazepines to cause The overall incidence of disinhibitory behavioural disinhibition and to reactions is small, but those maintain a high degree of vigilance Some psychiatric disorders are associated with patho- underlying characteristics of the person who consumes it. logical anger and aggression. These include psychotic Amphetamines, methylphenidate, benzodiazepines and disorders, depression, bipolar disorder and various alcohol are examples. In the majority of recipients, personality disorders (Fava, 1997). Benzodiazepines have benzodiazepines have a calming effect but in a minority been widely used in the management of this behavioural they can cause paradoxical reactions (also called disinhi- disturbance (Pilowsky et al, 1992). However, no single bitory reactions) characterised by acute excitement and drug produces totally predictable sedation in all patients an altered mental state: increased anxiety, vivid dreams, (Van der Bijl & Roelofse, 1991) and a paradoxical increase hyperactivity, sexual disinhibition, hostility and rage. in hostility and aggression can occur after the adminis- Other sedatives that bind at the GABAA receptor, such as tration of benzodiazepines. This is obviously problematic alcohol, are robustly linked with aggressive behaviour. when the benzodiazepine is administered to control Acute alcohol consumption is known to increase feelings behavioural disturbance. So, how common is this adverse of hostility and competitive and retaliatory behaviour, and effect, who is at risk and why? epidemiological data show that alcohol is involved in over 50% of acts of violence (Miczek et al, 1997). Mechanism of action of benzodiazepines Prevalence of paradoxical reactions Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the most abundant neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS) and Although the first reports of paradoxical reactions to GABA receptors are widely distributed throughout the benzodiazepines date back over 40 years (Boyle & Tobin, brain, with high concentrations in the cortex and limbic 1961), the incidence of this adverse effect remains uncertain. Some small studies in well-defined homo- system. Benzodiazepines bind to the GABAA receptor, reducing the quantity of GABA required to open the geneous patient groups report high rates of paradoxical chloride channel, hyperpolarise the neuron and inhibit reactions. In a placebo-controlled study of alprazolam in neurotransmission. In contrast with drugs, such as barbi- the treatment of panic disorder, 13.7% of patients randomised to alprazolam experienced paradoxical turates, that bind at other sites on the GABAA receptor, benzodiazepines cannot directly open the chloride reactions compared with none given placebo (O’Sullivan channel, rendering them safer in overdose (Nutt & et al, 1994). In a further study of the efficacy of Malizia, 2001). alprazolam in borderline personality disorder, 58% of patients randomised to alprazolam experienced paradoxical reactions compared with 8% with placebo Paradoxical reactions (Gardner & Cowdrey,1985). While these studies, numerous case reports and A drug can have the potential to both decrease and published case series suggest that paradoxical reactions increase aggressive behaviour depending on the are common, large studies and systematic reviews have 460 Paton Benzodiazepines and disinhibition generally found them to be rare. For example, published to, and indeed can, increase the severity of this reaction case series report that disinhibition occurs in 10^20% of (Medawarn & Rassaby, 1991). Several randomised patients treated with alprazolam but Cassano et al (19 94) placebo-controlled clinical studies provide support for the drug found no difference in the incidence of aggressive above: Blair & Curran (1999) found that when diazepam information behaviour between imipramine and alprazolam in 1168 was administered to healthy volunteers, it selectively quarterly patients treated for panic disorder. Similarly, when impaired the ability of subjects to recognise angry facial Greenblatt et al (1984) reviewed 45 controlled trials, expressions. Recognition of other emotions was not they found no difference in the incidence of behavioural impaired. The authors suggested that failure to recognise disinhibition between patients given triazolam, anger could lead to failure to moderate behaviour to flurazepam and placebo. In a review of this subject, conform to social rules. Weisman et al (19 98) repor ted Dietch & Jennings (1988) conclude that, in the general that healthy volunteers who had taken diazepam 10 mg population, the incidence of aggressive dyscontrol after were more likely to behave aggressively under low levels administration of a benzodiazepine is less than 1%, similar of provocation than those who had taken clorazepate, to the incidence with placebo, and because overt rage oxazepam or placebo. All were equally aggressive when reactions are rare, they are difficult to quantify. These subject to a high level of provocation. Bond et al (19 95) apparently contradictory findings may be explained by found that patients who received alprazolam were more the differences in the populations exposed (see below). likely to respond to provocation than those who received placebo. The alprazolam group rated themselves as more tolerant and friendly, the same dissociation between Who is most at risk? behaviour and feelings that is found after alcohol Genetic factors may be important. Short et al (1987) consumption. reported similar disinhibitory reactions to benzodiaze- DÔderman & Lidberg (1999) reported that, in a pines in monozygotic twins and Dietch & Jennings (1988) population of young violent offenders, flunitrazepam- reported that a mother and daughter both experienced abuse led to self-reported feelings of power, over- behavioural disinhibition with temazepam. whelming self-esteem and increased suggestibility. Mood and environment may also contribute, as may Rickert & Wiemann (1998) reported that flunitrazepam the presence of neurological disorders, being young (Rohypnol), particularly when used with alcohol, renders (Litchfield, 1980; Hawkridge & Stein, 1998) or over women more likely to be victims of sexual assault due to 65 or having a learning disability or CNS degenerative diminished ability to respond to social cues. disease (Bond, 1998). Perhaps the single most important Antisocial personality disorder is associated with a factor is underlying personality, as those with a history of high prevalence of aggressive behaviour, possibly aggression and poor impulse control may be more prone mediated through underactivity of serotonin (5HT) to experiencing paradoxical reactions to benzodiazepines. neurotransmission (Fava, 1997). Benzodiazepines can This association has been demonstrated with alprazolam reduce 5HT neurotransmission, which may in turn in borderline personality disorder (Gardner & Cowdrey, precipitate aggressive behaviour. It therefore follows that 1985) and flunitrazepam in subjects with high scores on people with antisocial personality disorder may be at boredom susceptibility and verbal aggression (DÔderman increased risk of paradoxical reactions to benzodiaze- & Lidberg, 1999). Animal studies also provide support for pines (Bond, 1998). There is evidence that acetylcholine this association. Chlordiazepoxide has been shown to (Ach) is involved in the paradoxical excitement seen in increase aggressive behaviour in pre-selected aggressive some patients. The cholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine male mice but not in control mice (Ferrari et al, 1997). has been used to reverse benzodiazepine-induced delirium (Van der Bijl & Roelofse, 1991). A similar reversal has been reported with flumazenil, a benzodiazepine Mechanism of paradoxical reactions antagonist (Soderpalm & Svensson, 1999; Fulton & The mechanism by which paradoxical reactions occur is Mullen, 2000). not completely understood, but several theories exist. Dose is also likely to be important. The majority of The most likely explanation is that the anxiolytic and case reports of behavioural disinhibition are in patients amnesic effects of benzodiazepines lead to a loss of the treated with high doses of high-potency benzodiaze- restraint that governs normal social behaviour and a pines, such as alprazolam, clonazepam, flunitrazepam and reduced ability to concentrate on the external social cues triazolam (Bond, 1998), particularly when they are that guide appropriate behaviour. This is supported by the administered intravenously or intranasally. There is also an observation that children and those with learning increased risk from drugs with a short half-life. Very high disabilities are at increased risk of disinhibitory reactions. and/or rapidly fluctuating plasma levels may be These
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