historical-context addressing activity of and Czochralski, minor least especially at whensome of were terms in years empty totally necessarily research not those that [2] from coming hope certain a [1]. source internet the with accord in (0 zeros four at looking when inactive, less or more as remaining body,were text years 9 witnessed by both Table 1 and Figure remaining 1 included within the present the activity,research his of years 4 while and counterpart, Polish its under administration, research German under years research active 24 of 15 performed Czochralski that respected in assumed Tab.contents), (see, 1 context geopolitical and historical juxtaposed and achievements appropriate an well-known within them placing the below,upon provided Table1 Czochralski, the Jan by researcher, achievements research research [2,5]. acoustic wave reception by the investigatior performing the type of in changes the detecting of means by roughness its determining of [5]. ideas basic microscopy atomic-force and scanning-tunelling apparently future uncovering itself device the radiomicroscope, invented on-his-own research, especially the one performed around 1925 with the aid of of Czochralski’s activity concerns the metal-surface science original area third The [4]. outcome material polycrystalline final a of size phase diagrams, depicted in terms of strain- temperature and grain recrystallization the adopting research, involving metallic-systems likes [2]. The second subdiscipline appears to be the phase-change, microelectronic circuits, microprocessors, theintegratedmemory circuits, and the involving high-technology, modern the influencing hasbeen continuously considered This as his [3]. greatest achievement, melt so much a from crystals metallic selected the pulling of determination the and crystallization, metal be to going inevitably belong. clearly might he which to of physicochemical in at subdisciplines success three least intense self-teaching[2]. such of advantage practical direct taking of capable then was and himself, teach to educated, strongly not formally being able, was say,an to used it has actually been done by a “freshman”, or as the German people an exceptional and unique scientific attempt of those times because thereafter until 1940 [1]. The research done by Czochralski [2] was of record the research performed quite his more than one hudred years ago andby researcher a to explained be to is (1885–1953) Some preliminaryaddress Adam Gadomski, e-mail:[email protected] Corresponding author: h am f h atce s o hd toog lgt n the on light thorough a shed to is article the of aim The scientific formal a achieved who person a was Czochralski Jan Czochralski Jan Professor of story life comprehensive The Please citeas:CHEMIK2014,68,5,500–504 Adam Czochralski whilecelebratinghisYear 2013inPoland? when basedonsomeilluminatingexampleofJan science wins over chemistry (or, vice versa) A semianalyticstudyon:To whatextentmetal of Technology andLifeSciences,, – Gadomski* -values) provided by the middle column of Tableof column middle the by provided -values) 1, , namely a gifted and skilful person who person skilful and gifted a namely , Autodidakt t served to scan the metal-piece surface in terms in surface metal-piece the scan to served It nr 5/2014 •tom 68 epartment of Physics, of Department e f hs sbicpie is subdisciplines those of One n addition, there remains there addition, In nstitute of Institute at theturnof1940sand1950s [2,7].) enterprise called Bion was created by him in his birth place in view, also indicating before-dying episode of him, when a pharmacy of point historical early very form right be may they – community (There addressed. pharmaceutical of member a as subject-matter Czochralski classify that some are the on right be some to not of seem devoid also they and physicist, technical a as even him describe researchers nowadays’ of minority a crystallographer; a as him about speak some researcher,whereas metal-science a as many since pose to him describe others while chemist as Czochralski legitimate discover people is question The belong? ultimately researchCzochralski’s did topic main which to as answered, be to and negativeinfluence[2,6,7]. interrupted by the World War been finally has activity Czochralski’s since unanswered, general, in remains, question The Poland. in working while achievemenets publishing greatest the by substantiated being latter the ground, he but value worked really research successfully as to plant the of former success into Polish terms Germany, in in more while succeeded that Czochralski author present the to seems it Frankly, worthy more Germany Warsaw?to coming after performed in that than value its of terms in while research Czochralski’s is words, greatest reception by the scientific community of interest. In other than those of that period research achievements are the ones of the othermostly why debated be to topic separate but solid a remains 1936–37. of interval narrow the toward goes activity research graphically unravelled by Figure 1, wellwhere the peek of Czochralski’s so 1, Table the in (and involved publishing-irregularity matter repetition-bearing) a slight is there that them from infer may the until even family,present time[6-8]. his history, and addressing him on life impact complex Czochralski’s very with to assigned is property a such Table1 from reprecussionsinferred be can As huge life. in destination of one’s on full being events, historical breathtaking the timespanof1913–1940. duringCzochralski Jan with associated context immersed-personal andhistorical basic the properly reveal to as designed is it because provided byTable 1,andcomplementedbyFigure1provided. main-subject of Czochralski’s research when embarking on the data their discussion with achievements Czochralski’s main of descritption Brief the 1930s has to be indicated [2], and rediscovered within Table 1. ofbeginning the in crisis economic world’s the of interval time the Thirdly, there remains a principal question of the present study study present the of question principal a remains there Thirdly, Secondly, when looking at both graphical sources involved, one many and facts decisive of full was span time the all, of First 1 Figure than data more much contains 1 Table course, Of Let us take for granted that we are in a position to uncover the athematics and Physics, University Physics, and Mathematics II (cf., WWII in Tab. 1) overwhelming • 501 K cynia It

science science 502 • rpia dpcin imre wti toe oofl n pleanty- and colorful those within immersed depiction, graphical adequate its of terms in 1 Figure by corroborated also milestones, life Czochralski’s of collection a Tablefact, of in contents being, 1, interdisciplinary-in-nature descriptive statement. his of quite a full (1936–37) in confirms Poland, period in working activity,when time research fruitful main the way, the By [6]. consideration under system the of properties physical established, well- though specific, to belong composites) (and/or, and alloys metals their of properties mechanical that presumed metallurgy, to the present author’s knowledge, assigned to the accordingphysicochemical appropriately, most be can research Czochralski’s that and ‘Main as interest headed column the by research confirmed is This right. Czochralski’s be may activity properly invoking all that The so-prepared collection ofeventsanddata,containing28rows5columns,isgoingtoexpressThe so-prepared semi-quantitativelythescientifically service actionwhileathome[2,7])inPoznań, bothofthetownslocatedincentralpartPoland, namelyinGreaterPoland; Czochralski been indicatedintheitalicmodefifthcolumn,andwithintheroundparentheses.Itisentitledby‘Remarks ontheSystemProperties, a relativelyrichperson(especially, wheninvokingthemetalB,and bearings usedthenbyrailwaynationalcompanies[2,4,7]),have i=1,...,28 series(i may indicatethatthenumber(#)ofCzochralski’spublicationsshouldincreasebyone.Second,theyshowsomerepetitivematter applied totheTable 1oughttobeexplained toareader–theyaremainlycontainedinparentheses,andindicatedbyitalic.First, in hispublicationsbecauseithasbeencustomarytopublishthesamematteratleasttwicewithinyeardueitsverynovel character orlargepracticalconsequences.Andthird,thepatents(co)authoredbyCzochralski,thankstowhichhemightbetakenas most productivelifespanofJanCzochralski(1885–1953),whowasborninKcynia, anddiedunexpectedly (afterformerPolish secret Year was bornKcynia in1885whenthesmalltownbelongedtoGermanpartofoccupiedPolish territory. Somespecificnotation mig p n at we loig t al 1 oe a see can one 1, Table at looking when part, in up Summing 10 6 9 5 2 7 3 1 8 4 bet r ra f eerh. rm t cnet i follows it contents its From Research’. of Area or Subject ), ), Vistula riverclosetoWarsaw bytheArmyofPolish invented inAugust1916whileworkingforA.E.G.) (first book by Czochralski on bearing metals, 1920 (firstbookbyCzochralskionbearingmetals, from BerlintoFrankfurt amMainbyCzochralski (three years after marriage, and almost ten 1913 (threeyearsaftermarriage,andalmostten offensive ofRussian ArmyonPoland, stoppedat with hisfamily, workingthenforMetallbankund (nothing special happened, abbreviated as 1915 (nothingspecialhappened,abbreviatedas 1918 (endofWWI;independencethePolish tate, and appearence of Czochralski’s major State, andappearenceofCzochralski’smajor Independent State,conductedbyJ.Pilsudski) published withaBelgianengineer, G.Welter; 1917 (OctoberRevolution inRussia; moving achievement as finally published [3], though achievement asfinallypublished[3],though Publication Year, withaRecognition of years after coming to , and working years aftercomingtoBerlin,andworking Important EventsAssociated 1914 (beginningofWWI) Metallgeselschaft) then forA.E.G.) n.s.h. hereafter) 1922 (n.s.h.) 1921 (n.s.h.) 1919 (n.s.h.) 1916 (n.s.h.)

In our opinion, the and OtherAdditionalInformations’. No. ofPublica- tions Accord- ing to[1] 5 1 3 5 0 5 5 2 2 1 Phase-change properties of doped Phase-change propertiesofdoped Physicochemical metallurgy (grain Physicochemical metallurgy(grain metallic systems, and their alloys, metallic systems,andtheiralloys, systems under phase-change and systems underphase-changeand echanochemical propeties of Mechanochemical propetiesof Chemistry of crystallization of Chemistry ofcrystallization etal mechanics and physical Metal mechanicsandphysical Chemistry of doped metallic Chemistry ofdopedmetallic Physical chemistryofmetals a physicochemicalapproach As above (toward physical As above(towardphysical Main Subject or Area Main SubjectorArea metal (poly)crystals Physical metallurgy science, areactuallythewinners. interdisciplinary entirely an as both, rather but readily wins title the in mentioned author.sciences present the the Namely,of by none of more interdisciplinary nature, which is really the case advocated being though unique, really not as taken be might it and following, the in included is answer The reasons. comparative for provided involved in the article’s title. Anyway, the answer author’s has been question the to answer the himself or her- for discover to able is readerthe Then, concerned. been has achievements Czochralski’s ofanalysis matter publication the as far as 1, Figure by emphasized graphically also own), her/his on reader the by analyzed be to (thus, informative part of this section is built in the Table 1, and its contents historical-geopolitical complex) way.such in matter overall the arguing for approve fully contexts, really (thus, of-consequences external influence Metal mechanics purification [2]) of Research chemistry) metallurgy i, oee, ot t nt ueuvcly ht h most the that unequivocally note to worth however, is, It metals

relation between durability and internal structure of cast iron Structural translation viz straining as a cause of metal ductility alloy; phase diagram bearing metals;blacknessofAldish;Znalloy;phasediagram as transitions inmetalsandtheiralloys;metallographyofSnas etching, a metallographic means as applied to metals; black etching, ametallographicmeansasappliedtometals;black Sb/ As / Sb/ As Procedure ofmeasuringthecrystallizationratemetals; Pulling-out as a method of shaping and nobelizing metals; asamethodofshapingandnobelizingmetals; Pulling-out Bi influencingbronzeproperties;solubilityof gasesinAl; Technologial meansofcrystallizingmetals;chemical degree of graininess as a property of metals; phase degree ofgraininessasapropertymetals;phase Liveliness of metals; their thermal treatment; Liveliness ofmetals;theirthermaltreatment; Change of grain size and structure in metals Change ofgrainsizeandstructureinmetals applied tochangingshapesofductilemetals influencing bronze properties; light alloys; phase Pb influencingbronzeproperties;lightalloys; phase Small Remarks ontheSystemProperties, and Other Additional Informations (#Publication =1,cf. [2],p.195.) ; Al contributioneffectonthebrassII; Polycrystal’s grainpurification (#Repetition =1.) diagrams foralloys nr 5/2014 •tom 68 examination ofAl applications ofAl of Pb-Basystem colors ofAl

Table 1

14 21 26 13 17 23 28 27 15 22 20 18 19 11 16 12 24 25 1928 (unexpectedly finishing the job by Czochralski the Warsaw occupantsforW.U.T. administrationto a metallurgical department at the Warsaw University score in terms 1936 (thegreatestCzochralskietal.scoreinterms materials research and development; Czochralski’s materials researchanddevelopment;Czochralski’s 1927 (metalBpatentedinPoland; beingadirector of publicationnumber, entirelypublishedinPolish, (increasing the real property by Czochralski, 1935 (increasingtherealpropertybyCzochralski, book on theory and practice of metal science [4], book ontheoryandpracticeofmetalscience[4], (Czochralski’s radiomicroscope constructed 1925 (Czochralski’sradiomicroscopeconstructed (real end of the world’s big economic crisis) 1934 (realendoftheworld’sbigeconomiccrisis) (end of Czochralski’s activity in terms of his 1940 (endofCzochralski’sactivityintermshis (real beginning of the world’s big economic 1930 (realbeginningoftheworld’sbigeconomic diagrams of metals [4], drawn in terms of strain-, diagrams ofmetals[4],drawnintermsstrain-, publishing accomplishments; no permission from publishing accomplishments;nopermission from (Czochralski’s proposal on recrystallization 1923 (Czochralski’sproposalonrecrystallization and making some investments, necessary for his and makingsomeinvestments,necessaryforhis to awell-establishedPolish professionaljournal, 1929 (comingtoWarsaw ontheinvitationof Mechanical Review -aftertranslatingthename grain-size andtemperatureconditionsapplied) grain-size of a big exhibition in Berlin on achievements in of abigexhibitioninBerlinonachievements publication ; a huge disruption of 1939 (beginningofWWII;ahugedisruption etroit on invitation of Henry trip totheUSA/DetroitoninvitationofHenry of Technology/W.U.T., afterreceivinghonorary Polish President, IgnacyMoscicki,andheading mecenate; accepting the position of an editor mecenate; acceptingthepositionofaneditor et al. last column,asthegreatestCzochralskietal. (metal B patented in Germany; second 1924 (metalBpatentedinGermany;second (as in 1936, thus, almost repeated, see 1937 (asin1936,thus,almostrepeated,see very oftenwithforeign-languageabstracts) doctorate, becomingaprofessorofW.U.T.) published byCzochralskiassingleauthor) prolong any normal activity of University) prolong anynormalactivity ofUniversity) research andscientificactivityin W.U.T.) nr 5/2014 •tom 68 at MetallbankundMetallgeselschaft) in Frankfurt amMain[5]) score, with the only one paper not score, withtheonlyonepapernot published inPolish) 1938 (n.s.h.) 1933 (n.s.h.) 1932 (n.s.h.) 1931 (n.s.h.) 1926 (n.s.h.) from Polish) crisis) Ford)

16 16 10 6 6 0 6 8 0 5 0 1 1 4 2 1 7 1 metallurgy, includingAl researchin echanochemistry of metals, and Mechanochemistry ofmetals,and Physical andchemistry-involving Physical andchemistry-involving echanochemical propeties of Mechanochemical propetiesof etal science and engineering Metal scienceandengineering Physical chemistry of metallic Physical chemistryofmetallic (editorial noteonmetals[2]) metals asrevaealedbyX Chemistry ofmetalalloys systems with nonmetallic systems withnonmetallic Chemistry ofmetals Mechanics ofmetals mechanochemistry) Physical metallurgy History oftechnics As above (toward As above(toward Surface science Engineering their alloys application metallurgy Poland [2] inclusions As above As above As above As above As above As above -ray -ray brass corrosioninN Breaking upadurablepieceofmetal;X recrystallization; recrystallization diagramofAlbronzes;Agrecrystallization; recrystallization; steel corrosion and influence of inclusions recrystallization; steelcorrosionandinfluenceofinclusions Metal Basappliedtobearings;hardnessofanisotropicZn oxygen; electrolyticrafinationofAlinmoltenchlorides;Cd component influenceonPballoystructurewithFe orientation ofmetalliccrystals;thermalself-recovery, and properties; elasticity of metals; bearing alloys; practical Al properties;elasticityofmetals;bearingalloys;practical recrystallization; nobelizing od silumin by alkali metals; Bi recrystallization;nobelizingodsiluminbyalkalimetals; from Purification ofAlalloys;electrolyticextractionfrom crystallization rate, and its corrosion; third high-purity Alcrystallizationrate,anditscorrosion;third Metal strainingbyX-ray examination;SiandFe bronzes; Alkali versus itsrate;recrystallizationofZn;Pbbronzes;Alkali crystallization; atomic heat of crystallization crystals; Nacrystallization;atomicheatofcrystallization ; brasses and bronzes devoid of dissolution inmoltenCu;brassesandbronzesdevoidof Co; Sbrecrystallization;inclusionsinsteel;thermalself- recovery ofAlalloys;Hgaffectedcorrosionalloys Al-Si alloys;X nobelizing theAl-Si Dislocated reflection on metal surface; metal surface Dislocated reflectiononmetalsurface;surface Nonmetallic inclusionsinmetal;Fe Al research(inPoland andabroad),itsresults properties affecttheirmechanicalcounterpart Recrystallization; Nobelizing;Pb-Lialloys Technics museainPoland andabroad molten chlorides;Carecrystallization Principles ofstrengtheningmetals; ( ( Economic crisis and engineering Economic crisisandengineering #Publication =1,cf. [2],p.202) #Publication =1,cf. [2],p.200) None moreastheonesabove and that of thermal treatment and thatofthermaltreatment Nothing morethanabove Nothing morethanabove Nothing morethanabove metals versus silumin; metals versussilumin; metallurgy asawhole -containing atmosphere; crystallographic -containing atmosphere;crystallographic (#Repetition =3) radiomicroscopy Metal structure Noble bronzes (Patent(#1) (Patent(#1) (Patent(#1) (Patent(#3) its theory straining straining -ray examination of metal -ray examinationofmetal -ray research; fatigue -ray research;fatigue , MnandFe-Mn effect on effecton and , Niand • 503

science science 504 • Table 1.) The plot includes on the vertical axis the number of Czochralski’s osaoy kyeim rynwna yóne js wyjątkowo jest wyróżnień przyznawania kryterium Podstawowym kandydatów.konkursie w ocenionych najwyżej dla wyróżnienia cjalne kości 28tys.PLN,któremożeprzeznaczyć nadowolnycel. cji na rzecz Nauki Polskiej. Każdy z nich otrzyma stypendium w wyso robkiem naukowym nagrodzono w 22. edycji programu Dokończenie zestrony499 small gapsinhispublicationrecord(see,Tab. 1)thelatterbeinginevitably publications didlikelynotexceed one,anattitudenotwellacceptedinreally to 1913,oneanticipatesverysuccessfulandquiteabitlongerthaninPoland time period of Jan Czochralski’s activity expressed very fruitfully in Germany time periodofJanCzochralski’sactivityexpressed veryfruitfullyinGermany Table 1,andassociatedwithCzochralski’soverwhelmingresearchactivity (denoted bythehorizontalaxisbeneathD while based on [1], amounts to a bare number of 119; it might, however, hard-to-survive present publication efforts in modern science and research presentpublicationeffortsinmodernscienceandresearch hard-to-survive of Series), pointing to the year 1929, started readily Czochralski’s research of Series),pointingtotheyear1929,startedreadilyCzochralski’sresearch arrow, reflectingthistendency).Notethatbothyears1936and1937were [1–7]. (The total record of publications (co)authored by Jan Czochralski, chralski’s Also notethatthereareafewyearsinwhichthenumberofCzochralski’s be eitherslightlylessorabove[2]thevalueset,cf. someinformationin sector, describablebyHirschindex, andthelikes.Byway, Czochralski Fig. 1.Research activityofthe„freshman”JanCzochralski,pioneer related with the corresponding historical events, listed consecutively in related withthecorrespondinghistoricalevents,listedconsecutivelyin is commonly mentioned to be one of the best recognized, also most cited is commonlymentionedtobeoneofthebestrecognized,alsomostcited the corresponding years within the (year) span of 1913–1940 are marked the correspondingyearswithin(year)spanof1913–1940aremarked of 16 items per year), likely associated with what has been offered to him of 16itemsperyear),likelyassociatedwithwhathasbeenofferedtohim the years of immense publication activity of Czochralski (notice the value the yearsofimmensepublicationactivityCzochralski(noticevalue activity inPoland (PL)uponfinishingitin1940(mindthehorizontalright also involvestheinformationthataverticalbar(Serie17;cf. r.h.s. legend in suitablecolors,seether.h.s. legendattached.Thehorizontal(sub)axis of crystalresearch[6],lastedoverca.28years,expressing somereally by thePolish stateofthattimeperiod,cf. Table 1.Since1928,andback (co)authored publications per year [1], whereas on the horizontal axis rmc syedu SAT udca rynł rwiż spe- również przyznała Fundacja START stypendium ramach W do własnym się pochwalić mogą którzy uczonych, młodych 136 Stypendia naSTART KONKURSY, STYPENDIA,STAŻE News fromtheCompanies Aktualności zfirm persons ever, representingthePolish scienceasawhole[2] , following by left-hand arrow). , followingbyleft-handarrow). Start – Funda- . - -

nowe wartościwnauce.(em) różnymi dziedzinami nauki, otwierają perspektywy badawcze i tworzą pomiędzy granic przekraczaniem odważnym się wyróżniają ocenione, wysoko bardzo zostały START stypendium o konkursie w stawione bary Skargi – osobie której dorobek naukowy i plany badawcze, przed- nych-otrzyma-stypendia-na-start.html, 5.05.2014r.)nych-otrzyma-stypendia-na-start.html, 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. Technology,Warsawof the University from available address, internet 1. Literature in-results, veryprominentinvestigations[1–7]. rich- and successful his by comprehend, and address, both to able was he that systems practical truly as well as complex very of discipline a metallurgy,specifically, mechanochemical and physicochemical, within Events Associated’ (Tab. 1), did his research of as Recognition Year,extremely a ‘Publication well-immersed with the by headed cf.column personality, context historical twentieth-century by touched deeply and talented very a Czochralski, Jan that show to attempted Summary zostaną podwyższonedo36tys.PLN. laureatów wyróżnionych Stypendia wybitną. za konkursu re- cenzentów przez uznana kandydatów, naukowego dorobku jakość wysoka University ofBelfastasadistinguishedvisitingfellow. Queen’s at research the led 2003-2004 during and Berlin, in University of term. 2014-2017 access). He is a member of the Board of the Polish Physical editor the currently is (open Physics Computational section He Physics, in Frontiers Journal: the of 2008). in - Biosystems 2002; in - C Physics 1999; in - A (Physica journals of issues special three of editor character.the popularizing was a He of those and chapters in monographs, scientific articles, including both the maintenance (non) Also He is the author ones. of more than 100 systems.publications non-metallic in these the in field,occurring includingtransformations books,thermodynamic other equilibrium and (bio)polymers assemblies, viscoelastic (non)linear including thermodynamic as well as properties, colligative and aggregation includes interests of field His Insitute. the of the at Processes Physicochemical of Modeling Life and in the ine (rz, n 9619 h ws n coasi a Humboldt at scholarship on was he 1996-1997 in (Graz), Sciences to Recognition].Wydawnictwo Pejzaz, K P.:Prusak Gadomski A.:EurophysicsNews42,22(2011). Gadomski A.:Chemik57/1,26(2004). 263 (1925). Czochralski J.: Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie Julius Springer. Berlin,1024(inGerman). J.: Czochralski Czochralski J.:ZeitschriftfürphysikalischeChemie92,219(1918). INTiBS PAN. Wrocław, 2012(inPolish). from Polish as: Jan Czochralski. Restored]. Oficyna Wydawnicza ATUT & Tomaszewski P.: content?id=3410&dirids=1. at article, the writing of day the on By performing a study of the type proposed herein, it has been been has it herein, proposed type the of study a performing By

Adam Gadomski - Ph.D., D.Sc., (Eng.), Professor in the field of physics

(http://www.naukawpolsce.pap.pl/aktualnosci/news,400198,136-mlodych-uczo W tym roku po raz pierwszy przyznano także Stypendium im. Bar Institute of ciences in Bydgoszcz, Poland, and the leader of the Group of Group the of leader the and Poland, Bydgoszcz, in Sciences ryrcn Pmei fel tasae fo Pls a: o Back Got as: Polish from translated [freely Pamieci Przywrócony Mathematics and Physics at the University of Technology n 1993-1994 he was granted by the Austrian AcademyAustrian the by granted was he 1993-1994 In . Verlag von Verlag Praxis. und Theorie in Metallkunde Moderne ort Rez Jne Czochralskim Janie o Rzecz Powrót. http://bcpw.bg.pw.edu.pl/dlibra/doc- nr 5/2014 •tom 68 nternational Journal of Journal International cynia-Bydgoszcz, 2013(inPolish). Dokończenie nastronie 509 prmn o Physics on Department fel translated [freely Society in the mportant Important Modern 144, - -