DOCSLIB.ORG

To What Extent Metal Science Wins Over Chemistry

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
To What Extent Metal Science Wins Over Chemistry A semianalytic study on: To what extent metal science wins over chemistry (or, vice versa) when based on some illuminating example of Jan science Czochralski while celebrating his Year 2013 in Poland? Adam GADOMSKI* – Department of Physics, Institute of Mathematics and Physics, University of Technology and Life Sciences, Bydgoszcz, Poland Please cite as: CHEMIK 2014, 68, 5, 500–504 Some preliminary address the time interval of the world’s economic crisis in the beginning of The comprehensive life story of Professor Jan Czochralski the 1930s has to be indicated [2], and rediscovered within Table 1. (1885–1953) is to be explained to a researcher by his record of the research performed quite more than one hudred years ago and Brief descritption of main Czochralski’s achievements with thereafter until 1940 [1]. The research done by Czochralski [2] was their discussion an exceptional and unique scientific attempt of those times because Let us take for granted that we are in a position to uncover the it has actually been done by a “freshman”, or as the German people main-subject of Czochralski’s research when embarking on the data used to say, an Autodidakt, namely a gifted and skilful person who provided by Table 1, and complemented by Figure 1 provided. was able, being formally not strongly educated, to teach himself, Of course, Table 1 contains much more data than Figure 1 and was then capable of taking direct practical advantage of such because it is designed as to reveal properly the basic historical and intense self-teaching [2]. immersed-personal context associated with Jan Czochralski during Jan Czochralski was a person who achieved a formal scientific the time span of 1913–1940. success in at least three subdisciplines of physicochemical metallurgy First of all, the time span was full of decisive facts and many to which he might clearly belong. One of those subdisciplines is breathtaking historical events, being full of huge reprecussions inevitably going to be metal crystallization, and the determination on one’s destination in life. As can be inferred from Table 1 such of pulling the selected metallic crystals from a melt [3]. This has a property is assigned to Czochralski’s life addressing history, been continuously considered as his greatest achievement, so much with very complex impact on him and his family, even until the influencing the modern high-technology, involving the integrated present time [6-8]. microelectronic circuits, microprocessors, memory circuits, and the Secondly, when looking at both graphical sources involved, one likes [2]. The second subdiscipline appears to be the phase-change, may infer from them that there is a publishing-irregularity (and metallic-systems involving research, adopting the recrystallization slight repetition-bearing) matter involved in the Table 1, so well phase diagrams, depicted in terms of strain- temperature and grain graphically unravelled by Figure 1, where the peek of Czochralski’s size of a final polycrystalline material outcome [4]. The third area research activity goes toward the narrow interval of 1936–37. It of Czochralski’s activity concerns the metal-surface science original remains a solid but separate topic to be debated why mostly other research, especially the one performed around 1925 with the aid of than those of that period research achievements are the ones of the on-his-own invented radiomicroscope, the device itself apparently greatest reception by the scientific community of interest. In other uncovering future scanning-tunelling and atomic-force microscopy words, is Czochralski’s research while in Germany more worthy basic ideas [5]. It served to scan the metal-piece surface in terms in terms of its value than that performed after coming to Warsaw? of determining its roughness by means of detecting the changes in Frankly, it seems to the present author that while in Germany, acoustic wave reception by the investigatior performing the type of Czochralski succeeded more in terms of research value but he research [2, 5]. worked really successfully as to plant the former success into Polish The aim of the article is to shed a thorough light on the ground, the latter being substantiated by the greatest publishing research achievements by the well-known and respected achievemenets while working in Poland. The question remains, in researcher, Jan Czochralski, the achievements juxtaposed in general, unanswered, since Czochralski’s activity has finally been Table 1 provided below, upon placing them within an appropriate interrupted by the World War II (cf., WWII in Tab. 1) overwhelming historical and geopolitical context (see, Tab. 1 contents), assumed and negative influence [2, 6, 7]. that Czochralski performed 15 of 24 active research years under Thirdly, there remains a principal question of the present study German research administration, and the remaining 9 years to be answered, as to which main topic did Czochralski’s research under its Polish counterpart, while 4 years of his research activity, ultimately belong? The question is legitimate to pose since many witnessed by both Table 1 and Figure 1 included within the present people discover Czochralski as chemist while others describe him text body, were remaining as more or less inactive, when looking as a metal-science researcher, whereas some speak about him as at four zeros (0-values) provided by the middle column of Table 1, a crystallographer; a minority of nowadays’ researchers describe in accord with the internet source [1]. In addition, there remains him even as a technical physicist, and they also seem not to be a certain hope coming from [2] that those research years were devoid of some right on the subject-matter addressed. (There not necessarily totally empty in terms of some at least minor and are some that classify Czochralski as a member of pharmaceutical historical-context addressing activity of Czochralski, especially when community – they may be right form very early historical point of view, also indicating before-dying episode of him, when a pharmacy Corresponding author: enterprise called Bion was created by him in his birth place in Kcynia Adam GADOMSKI, e-mail: [email protected] at the turn of the 1940s and 1950s [2, 7].) nr 5/2014 • tom 68 • 501 Summing up in part, when looking at Table 1, one can see of-consequences (thus, really complex) historical-geopolitical that all invoking properly Czochralski’s research interest and contexts, fully approve for arguing the overall matter in such way. activity may be right. This is confirmed by the column headed as It is, however, worth to note unequivocally that the most ‘Main Subject or Area of Research’. From its contents it follows informative part of this section is built in the Table 1, and its contents that Czochralski’s research can be most appropriately, according (thus, to be analyzed by the reader on her/his own), also graphically science to the present author’s knowledge, assigned to the physicochemical emphasized by Figure 1, as far as the publication matter analysis of metallurgy, presumed that mechanical properties of metals and Czochralski’s achievements has been concerned. Then, the reader their alloys (and/or, composites) belong to specific, though well- is able to discover for her- or himself the answer to the question established, physical properties of the system under consideration involved in the article’s title. Anyway, the author’s answer has been [6]. By the way, the main fruitful time period (1936–37) of his provided for comparative reasons. The answer is included in the research activity, when working in Poland, confirms in full a quite following, and it might be taken as not really unique, though being interdisciplinary-in-nature descriptive statement. In our opinion, the of more interdisciplinary nature, which is really the case advocated contents of Table 1, being, in fact, a collection of Czochralski’s life by the present author. Namely, none of the sciences mentioned in milestones, also corroborated by Figure 1 in terms of its adequate the title wins readily but rather both, as an entirely interdisciplinary graphical depiction, immersed within those colorful and pleanty- science, are actually the winners. Table 1 The so-prepared collection of events and data, containing 28 rows and 5 columns, is going to express semi-quantitatively the scientifically most productive life span of Jan Czochralski (1885–1953), who was born in Kcynia, and died unexpectedly (after former Polish secret service action while at home [2, 7]) in Poznań, both of the towns located in central part of Poland, namely in Greater Poland; Czochralski was born Kcynia in 1885 when the small town belonged to the German part of the occupied Polish territory. Some specific notation applied to the Table 1 ought to be explained to a reader – they are mainly contained in parentheses, and indicated by italic. First, they may indicate that the number (#) of Czochralski’s publications should increase by one. Second, they may show some repetitive matter in his publications because it has been customary to publish the same matter at least twice within the same year due to its very novel character or large practical consequences. And third, the patents (co)authored by Czochralski, thanks to which he might be taken as a relatively rich person (especially, when invoking the metal B, and the bearings used then by railway national companies [2, 4, 7]), have been indicated in the italic mode in fifth column, and within the round parentheses. It is entitled
Load more

Recommended publications
  • EUI Working Papers
    ROBERT SCHUMAN CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES EUI Working Papers RSCAS 2009/41 ROBERT SCHUMAN CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES THE LIMITS AND MERITS OF INTERNATIONALISM. EXPERTS, THE STATE AND THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY IN POLAND IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Katrin Steffen and Martin Kohlrausch EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE, FLORENCE ROBERT SCHUMAN CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES The Limits and Merits of Internationalism. Experts, the State and the International Community in Poland in the First Half of the Twentieth Century KATRIN STEFFEN and MARTIN KOHLRAUSCH EUI Working Paper RSCAS 2009/41 This text may be downloaded only for personal research purposes. Additional reproduction for other purposes, whether in hard copies or electronically, requires the consent of the author(s), editor(s). If cited or quoted, reference should be made to the full name of the author(s), editor(s), the title, the working paper, or other series, the year and the publisher. The author(s)/editor(s) should inform the Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies at the EUI if the paper will be published elsewhere and also take responsibility for any consequential obligation(s). ISSN 1028-3625 © 2009 Katrin Steffen and Martin Kohlrausch Printed in Italy, August 2009 European University Institute Badia Fiesolana I – 50014 San Domenico di Fiesole (FI) Italy www.eui.eu/RSCAS/Publications/ www.eui.eu cadmus.eui.eu Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies The Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies (RSCAS), directed by Stefano Bartolini since September 2006, is home to a large post-doctoral programme. Created in 1992, it aims to develop inter-disciplinary and comparative research and to promote work on the major issues facing the process of integration and European society.
    [Show full text]
  • THE-POLISH-TRACE-Ebook.Pdf
    8 THE POLISH TRACE COMPOSED FROM COMMONLY AVAILABLE SOURCES BY LECH POLKOWSKI FOR IJCRS2017 FOREWORD It is a desire of many participants of conferences to learn as much as possible about the history and culture of he visited country and place and organizers try to satisfy this desire by providing excursions into attractive places and sites. IJCRS2017 also tries to take participants to historic sites of Warmia and Mazury and to show elements of local culture. As an innovation, we propose a booklet showing some achievements of Polish scientists and cryptographers, no doubt many of them are known universally, but some probably not. What bounds all personages described here is that they all suffered due to world wars, th efirst and the second. These wars ruined their homes, made them refugees and exiles, destroyed their archives and libraries, they lost many colleagues, friends and students but were lucky enough to save lives and in some cases to begin the career overseas. We begin with the person of Jan Czochralski, world famous metallurgist, discoverer of the technique of producing metal monocrystals `the Czochralski methode’ and inventor of duraluminum and the `bahnalloy’ who started his career and obtained its heights in Germany, later returned to Poland, became a professor at the Warsaw Polytechnical, played an important role in cultural life of Warsaw, lived in Warsaw through the second world war and the Warsaw Uprising of August-September 1944 and after the war was accused of cooperating ith occupying German forces and though judged innocent was literally erased from the public life and any information about him obliterated.
    [Show full text]
  • Jan Czochralski – Historia Człowieka Niezwykłego1
    POLSKA AKADEMIA UMIEJĘTNOŚCI Tom XIII PRACE KOMISJI HISTORII NAUKI PAU 2014 Paweł E. TOMASZEWSKI Instytut Niskich Temperatur i Badań Strukturalnych PAN (Wrocław) [email protected] JAN CZOCHRALSKI – HISTORIA CZŁOWIEKA NIEZWYKŁEGO1 Streszczenie W artykule przedstawione zostały wybrane obrazki z życia i twórczości prof. Jana Czochralskiego (1885–1953), wybitnego polskiego chemika, metaloznawcy i krystalografa oraz mecenasa sztuki, poety i pisarza. Z bogatego dorobku naukowego naszkicowane zostały trzy najważniejsze jego osiągnięcia: radiomikroskop, który można uważać za pierwowzór skaningo- wego mikroskopu analizującego (SPM) nagrodzonego Nagrodą Nobla w 1986 r., stop do łożysk kolejowych znany jako „metal B”, który przyniósł Czochralskiemu sławę i bogactwo, oraz tz w. metoda Czochralskiego otrzymywania monokryszta- łów, dzięki której nazwano uczonego „ojcem współczesnej elektroniki”. Nie bez znaczenia są inne jego wynalazki, takie jak płyn do trwałej ondulacji czy „proszek od kataru z Gołąbkiem”. 1 Tekst referatu wygłoszonego na posiedzeniu Komisji Historii Nauki PAU w dniu 18 grudnia 2013 roku; opracowanie redakcyjne – Michał Kokowski. Pełna biografi a znajdu- je się w książce Powrót. Rzecz o Janie Czochralskim, wydanej w 2012 r., i w nieco zmienionej wersji angielskiej – w 2013 r. Tam też można znaleźć odpowiednie odsyłacze do źródeł. Publikacja jest udostępniona na licencji Creative Commons (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0 PL) 58 PAWEŁ E. TOMASZEWSKI Mimo takich osiągnięć, nazwisko Jana Czochralskiego było w Polsce objęte infamią za rzekomą kolaborację z Niemcami w czasie II wojny światowej. Jednak, po ostatecznym udowodnieniu wiosną 2011 roku faktu jego współpracy z Armią Krajową, przywrócono mu dobre imię na Politechnice Warszawskiej. Słusznie więc rok 2013 został przez Sejm RP ogłoszony Rokiem Jana Czo- chralskiego.
    [Show full text]
  • Semiconductor Technology - Script - Page 1
    Jan Czochralski While everybody in the semiconductor world knows the "Czochralski grown crystals", (almost) nobody knows Jan Czochralski. He was born 1885 in Kcynia, a small town in Western Poland, which then was part of Prussia; i.e. the German Advanced empire. Around 1900 he moved to Berlin, 1907 he worked as an engineer for the "Allgemeine Elektrizitäts Gesellschaft (AEG), a formerly large and famous company, defunct since about 1980 (the last remnants were swallowed by Daimler-Benz). During this time he also studied Chemistry and Metallurgy at the "Charlottenburg Technical University" and Fine arts at the Berlin university. 1917 he organized the well-equipped research laboratory of "Metallbank und Metallurgische Gesellschaft"; and he was the director of that institution until 1928. 1929 he moved back to Poland to become a Professor of Metallurgy and Metal Research in in the Chemistry Department of the Technical University in Warsaw. All the time he was involved in metallurgical research, active in many scientific organizations and advising companies and other professional entities. The second world war put an end to all this - J. Czochralski was active in supporting his co-workers and the polish underground army. After the war he returned to his native town of Kcynia were he run a small drug firm. He died in 1953 and is buried in the family tomb in Kcynia. He was quite well-known for many contributions in metallurgy, especially for this studies of the velocity of metal crystallization, and, of course, for his method of monocrystalline growth, published in 1916. "Czochralski grown crystals" are a cornerstone of modern material science, and J.
    [Show full text]
  • PROFESSOR JAN CZOCHRALSKI from KCYNIA of Prof
    Towards rehabilitation and promotion Kcynia promotional activities Kcynia promotional activities 2013 – YEAR OF JAN CZOCHRALSKI PROFESSOR JAN CZOCHRALSKI FROM KCYNIA of Prof. Jan Czochralski RESOLUTION OF THE SEJM OF THE REPUBLIC OF POLAND CREATOR OF THE METHOD OF GROWING SINGLE CRYSTALS Already in 1986, a special dater was de- For years, Kcynia has been promot- Resolution no XXXVIII/301/2005 of the ing Prof. Czochralski and his achieve- Kcynia Town Council of 29 December the scheme of the Czochralski method 2005 on the change of the Statute of of 7 December 2012 on 2013 signed and used in Wrocław. It shows- was given to the square on the corner Kcynia introduced the regulation that th ments. In 1990, Jan Czochralski’s name the Council may award people of merit On the 60 death– YEAR anniversary OF JAN CZOCHRALSKIof Jan Czochralski, the Sejm of 1948and the for dater’s the Exhibition axis is Wrocław’s of the Recov land- is located between two houses con- to the gmina with the medal “Person of the Republic of Poland has decided to pay a tribute to one of the eredmark Territories. – the famous Iglica, erected in of Szewska and Poznańska. The square Merit to Kcynia”. The medal was de- greatest scientists in modern technology, whose breakthrough was born and the other one where he signed by a medallist from Warsaw, discoveries contributed to world advancement of science. His dis- livednected until with his Czochralski; death. one where he Medal ”Person of Merit to Kcynia” - covery, the method of growing single crystals, was ahead of its th One side of it depicts Prof.
    [Show full text]
  • Czochralski Method of Crystal Growth in the Scientific Literature: an Informetric Study
    Vol. 124 (2013) ACTA PHYSICA POLONICA A No. 2 Special Anniversary Issue: Professor Jan Czochralski Year 2013 Invited Paper Czochralski Method of Crystal Growth in the Scientic Literature: An Informetric Study K. Sangwal∗ Department of Applied Physics, Lublin University of Technology Nadbystrzycka 38, 20-618 Lublin, Poland Bibliometric data on the growth dynamics of papers devoted to the Czochralski method of crystal growth and citations to these papers published in the scientic literature are analyzed using mathematical functions based on progressive nucleation mechanism and power-law approaches. It is shown that the basic concepts of progressive nucleation mechanism originally developed for crystal growth can satisfactorily be applied to explain the citation behavior of papers published on the Czochralski method of crystal growth. It is also found that: (1) cumulative number N(t) of papers and cumulative number L(t) of citations to them at time t are mutually related, and (2) as determined by the plot of the parameter L(t)=t2 against the number ∆N(t) of papers published per year, the citation behavior of papers published on the Czochralski method follows three distinct periods: 19541988, 1988 2001 and 20012012, which are related to the dependence of the number ∆N(t) of papers published per year on publication time t. DOI: 10.12693/APhysPolA.124.173 PACS: 81.10.Aj, 89.20.−a, 89.90.+n 1. Introduction determination and vision, he became a renowned metal- lurgist in Germany and during 19241929 was president Early fties of the 20th century witnessed the publica- of the German Society for Metals Science.
    [Show full text]
  • Jan Czochralski – Pionier Światowej Elektroniki I Inżynierii Materiałowej
    Dzieje Najnowsze, Rocznik LII – 2020, 2 PL ISSN 0419–8824 STUDIA I ARTYKUŁ Y Marek Jakubiak https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7087-393X Wydział Administracji i Nauk Społecznych Politechniki Warszawskiej Jan Czochralski – pionier światowej elektroniki i inżynierii materiałowej Abstrakt: Artykuł ma na celu przedstawienie sylwetki Jana Czochralskiego, światowej sławy naukowca XX w. Jego głównym osiągnięciem było wynalezienie metody uzyskiwania monokryształów, do dziś stosowanej w produkcji układów scalonych wielkiej skali integracji. Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej Czochralski całkowicie bezpostawnie został oskarżony o kolaborację z Niemcami. W 2019 r. the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers przyznał metodzie Czochralskiego najwyższej rangi miano Milestone (Kamień Milowy). S ł owa kluczowe: biografi a, odkrycia naukowe, elektronika, inżynieria materiałowa, mo- nokryształy, kolaboracja. Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to present a biography of Jan Czochralski – one of the world famous scientist of the twentieth century. His main discovery was a method of obtain- ing single crystals or monocrystalline; the method is nowadays used for production of VLSI/ ULSI circuits. After the Second World War, Czochralski was accused of collaboration with the Germans. The accusation was groundless. In 2019, the Czochralski Method received the IEEE Milestone Award. Keywords: biography, discovery, electronics, materials engineering, single crystals, collab- oration. Wprowadzenie W historii polskiej nauki jest niewiele postaci, których odkrycia weszły do kanonu światowych osiągnięć w zakresie techniki. Do tego grona z pewno- ścią należy prof. Jan Czochralski. Obdarzony niezwykłą intuicją badawczą http://dx.doi.org/10.12775/DN.2020.2.01 http://rcin.org.pl 6 Marek Jakubiak i talentem wynalazczym dokonał sto lat temu odkrycia, które jest powszech- nie uznawane za przełomowe w rozwoju technologii elektronowej, a sam wynalazca określany mianem jednego z ojców rewolucji cyfrowej.
    [Show full text]
  • Historical Development of Czochralski Process and Single Crystal Growth
    UCTEA Chamber of Metallurgical & Materials Engineers’s Training Center Proceedings Book Historical Development of Czochralski Process and Single Crystal Growth Ayberk Yenice, Necip Ünlü Istanbul Technical University, Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey Abstract silicon is about 250.000 t/year [1, 2]. Since the technological developments, single crystals with Single crystal growth that invented by Jan Czochralski, diameters up to 450 mm and weights of more than 300 kg was essentially used in AEG laboratory in 1916. Further can be industrially manufactured by the Czochralski development was about obtaining bulk crystals according process today [1]. Aim of this study is to emphasize the to matching of the crystallization velocity and pulling importance of the Czochralski process via presenting a rate. Gomperz improved the Czochralski process by comprehensive overview. changing die, crucible, and cooling system in 1922. One year later, Goens and Gruneisen applied different method 2. Historical Development of Czochralski Process to obtain crystal having certain orientation. Henry Walter In the 19th and 20th centuries, the developments in from Bells Laboratory designed a new furnace and thermodynamics, nucleation and growth theories provided succeeded about crystal rotation, producing non-metallic the basic aspects of crystal growth technology [2]. and enhancing dimensions. After the WWII with Although it has been accepted that the first inventor of invention of contact-transistors, importance of the crystal growth is J. Czochralski, according to Scheel [2], Czochralski method significantly increased. Using the founder of industrial crystal growth is A. Verneuil microprocessors provided automatic control of crystal [2,4]. Czochralski discovered his process through a growing process.
    [Show full text]
  • 90Th Anniversary of Czochralski Pulling Method
    90th90th anniversaryanniversary ofof CzochralskiCzochralski methodmethod 1885-1953 UŚ In 2006 we celebrate the 90th anniversary of Czochralski pulling UŚ method. Professor Jan Czochralski invented this method during the investigations of the crystallization rate of metals. In the fifties of the twentieth century his method was adopted for growing large single crystals of semiconductors on an industrial scale. Moreover, a large group of applicable oxides are grown using Czochralski method. Also the number of single crystals of intermetallic compounds is quickly growing thanks to this method. The Institute of Electronic Materials Technology (ITME) GdCa4O(BO3)3 Fe2.25V0.75Al Arms of Kcynia •Professor Jan Czochralski was born on October 23, 1885 in Kcynia, in part of Poland at that time under the Prussian domination, as the eighth child of the Polish craftsmen Franciszek Czochralski and Marta from the Suchomski family. The Czochralskis were carpenters for many generations. •Jan completed teachers' seminar in Kcynia according to the wish of his father. He was already interested in chemistry during his school days. However, he did not accept his matriculation certificate due to poor grades. •Lack of this certificate unabled him to continue his education. For some time he worked in Krotoszyn in a drugstore. Bydgoszcz Berlin •At the end of 1904 he went to Berlin and began to work in the drugstore of Dr. A. Herbrand in Altglienicke, the districts of Berlin. •Later he worked for a short period in the laboratory of Kunheim and Co. in Niederschönweide near Berlin and then in Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft (AEG). The job in Kabelwerk Oberspree and the two years spent in their research laboratories prepared him to become head of the laboratory of steel and iron research.
    [Show full text]
  • HISTORIE Yearbook of the Center for Historical Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Berlin Volume 6 2012/2013 Economic History
    HISTORIE Yearbook of the Center for Historical Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Berlin Volume 6 2012/2013 Economic history English abstracts: Wolf Lepenies East and West. North and South. The European cardinal points controversy (pp. 13-24) In his lecture Wolf Lepenies examines the relation between Germany, Poland and France in comparison to the conflict between Northern and Southern Europe in current European affairs. He explains how the tension between the Eastern and Western bloc during the Cold War could transform into this new – in geographical respects – vertically oriented dispute. Lepenies shows that the North-South-conflict has deeper historical causes and proposes the formation of a new ”Weimar triangle” (ger. ”Weimarer Dreieck”) to solve current and future challenges in European policy. Maciej Salamon The Second International Congress of Polish History in Cracow, 2012 (pp. 27-33) The Second International Congress of Polish History took place in Cracow from September 12th to 15th, 2012. It was organized by the Polish Historical Society (pl. Polskie Towarzystwo Historyczne) and other historical societies of the Visegrád Group. Over 1000 researchers from Europe, Asia and both Americas attended the event. In contrary to the first congress, which focused on the current state of foreign research on Polish History, the lectures during the second congress addressed predominantly the problem of Poland’s role in Central Europe. Michał Galas Award of the prize Pro Historia Polonorum to Prof. Antony Polonsky (pp. 34-38) During the Second International Congress of Polish History in 2012, Antony Polonsky was honoured with the Pro Historia Polonorum Prize for his work The Jews in Poland and Russia, consisting of three volumes.
    [Show full text]
  • Jan Czochralski and His Method of Pulling Crystals
    www.mrs.org/publications/bulletin HISTORICAL NOTE Jan Czochralski and His Method of Pulling Crystals The most advanced factories, or “fabs,” Main (which in due course became the in which integrated circuits are made use leading German metallurgical firm), and circular slices of silicon 300 mm in diame- 1939, when his research came to an end. ter. They are sliced from huge single crys- He worked in Frankfurt until 1929, and tals that are drawn from a molten silicon among other achievements, he played a bath; these massive crystal ingots are major role in creating the Zeitschrift für rotated as they are slowly raised in syn- Metallkunde and later, the scientific society chrony with their growth rate, and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Metallkunde. process has been perfected to the point Throughout his years as a researcher and where the dislocation population is about research director, Czochralski mixed a million times lower than in a normal crystal. This procedure was initially devel- oped by Gordon Teal and his colleagues at Bell Laboratories and then at Texas Instruments, from 1948 to 1952. However, the process was by no means entirely new. The scientist who discovered the process on which this modern procedure was based was Jan Czochralski (1885– Jan Czochralski 1953). According to one of his nephews, Czochralski (pronounced cho-HRAL- skee) based his experiment upon an acci- dental incident. One day, after melting Physical chemist and philosopher some tin in a small dish with the intention Michael Polanyi, in 1921–1922, also in of performing an experiment with it, Berlin, improved the method by floating Czochralski interrupted his work to write on the melt a sheet of mica with a small some notes.
    [Show full text]
  • MONIKA ADAMCZYK-GARBOWSKA Is Full Professor of American And
    MONIKA ADAMCZYK-GARBOWSKA is full professor of American and Comparative Literature and head of the Center for Jewish Culture and History, Institute of Cultural Studies, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin. She is also a translator of English and Yiddish literature, editor of Akcent and member of the editorial board of Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry. She has written: Polska Isaaca Bashevisa Singera – rozstanie i powrót (1994), Contemporary Jewish Writing in Poland: An Anthology (with Antony Polonsky) (2001), Odcienie tożsamości. Literatura żydowska jako zjawisko wielojęzyczne (2004), Kazimierz vel Kuzmir. Miasteczko różnych snów (2006), Następstwa zagłady Żydów. Polska 1944-2010 (co-edited with Feliks Tych) (2011). Laureate of the Jan Karski & Pola Nirenska Prize (2011). JOLANTA AMBROSEWICZ-JACOBS, PhD, is Director of the Center for Holocaust Studies at the Jagiellonian University (JU) in Kraków and teaches at the UNESCO Chair for Education about the Holocaust at the Institute for European Studies, JU. In 2011/2012 she was an Ina Levine Invitational Scholar at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, and earlier a Pew Fellow at the Center for the Study of Human Rights, Columbia University. Her publications include: Me – Us – Them. Ethnic Prejudices and Alternative Methods of Education: The Case of Poland (2003); Tolerancja. Jak uczyć siebie i innych [Tolerance. How to Teach Ourselves and Others] (2003, 2004); The Holocaust. Voices of Scholars (editor) (2009), Pamięć. Świadomość. Odpowiedzialność. Remembrance. Awareness. Responsibility (co-edited with K. Oleksy) (2008), Why Should We Teach about the Holocaust? (co-editor with L. Hońdo) (2003, 2004, 2005). DAVID ASSAF is full professor of modern Jewish History and Head of the Department of Jewish History at Tel Aviv University, Sir Isaac Wolfson Chair of Jewish Studies, and Director of the Institute for the History of Polish Jewry.
    [Show full text]