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How Does Venus Lose Heat?

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How Does Venus Lose Heat? JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 100, NO. E8, PAGES 16,931-16,940, AUGUST 25, 1995 How does Venus lose heat? Donald L. Turcotte Departmentof GeologicalSciences, Cornell University,Ithaca, New York Abstract. The tectonicsand volcanismof the terrestrialplanets are controlledby the loss of heat from the planetaryinterior. On the Earth, about 70% of the heat flow throughthe mantle is attributed to the subductionof cold lithosphere.In order to understandthe tectonicand volcanicprocesses on Venus it is necessaryto understandhow heat is transportedthrough its mantle.In this paper, three alternativeend-member hypotheses are considered.The first is the steadystate lossof heat throughthe mantle to the surface in analogyto the Earth. However,without plate tectonicsand subductionon Venus, a steadystate requireseither a very high plume flux or very rapid rates of lithospheric delamination.The requiredplume flux would be equivalentto about 80 plumeswith the strengthof the Hawaiian plume. The required delaminationflux impliesa 50% delaminationof the entire Venus lithosphereevery 10 m.y. Neither appearspossible, so that it is concludedthat Venus cannottransport heat throughits mantle to its surfaceon a steadystate basis.The secondhypothesis is that there has been a strongupward concentrationof the heat-producingelements into the crustof Venus; the heat generated is then lost by conduction.Surface measurements of the concentrationsof the heat- producingelements place constraintson this model. If everythingis favorablethis hypothesismight be marginallyacceptable, but it is consideredto be highlyunlikely. The third hypothesisis that heat is lost by episodicglobal subductionevents followed by long periodsof surfacequiescence. The near-randomdistribution of craterssuggests that the last subductionevent occurredabout 500 Ma. This model impliesa thick thermal lithosphere(•-300 km) at the presenttime, whichis consistentwith a varietyof surface observations.Lava lakes on the Earth are consideredas analogiesto plate tectonics;they also exhibit episodicsubduction events. Introduction Mountain belts on the Earth are generallyassociated with plate tectonicprocesses. The global mid-oceanridge system Studiesof the surfaceof Venus duringthe Magellanmission stands--•2.5 km above the oceanbasins. This topographyis have provided a wealth of data on its tectonic and volcanic attributedto the thermalcompensation of oceaniclithosphere. processes[Solomon et al., 1992].The radar imagesof the sur- Mountain belts associatedwith subductionzones (e.g., the face are complementedby global topography and gravity Andes) and with continentalcollisions (e.g., the Alps and Hi- anomalydata. It is now clearthat plate tectonics,as it is known malayas)are associatedwith crystalthickening and Airy com- on the Earth, doesnot occuron Venus.At the presenttime, pensation.Volcanism on the Earth is associatedwith zonesof Venus is a one-plateplanet. Nevertheless,there are tectonic plate accretion(mid-ocean ridges), plate destruction(island featureson Venus that certainlyresemble major tectonicfea- arcs), and hot spots(mantle plumes).Magma generationat tures on the Earth. Beta Regio has many of the featuresof a both ocean ridgesand hot spotsis attributed to pressurere- continentalrift on this planet. It has a domalstructure with a leasemelting; magma generation at island arcsis still poorly diameterof about 2000 km and a swell amplitudeof about 2 understood.Clearly, any comprehensiveunderstanding of tec- km. It hasa well-definedcentral rift valleywith a depth of 1-2 tonismand volcanismon Venus requiresan understandingof km, and there is some evidencefor a three-armedplanform how heat is transportedin the absenceof plate tectonics. (allocogen).Alta, Eistla, and Bell Regioneshave similarrift On the Earth some 70% of the heat transfer through the zone characteristics[Senske et al., 1992; Grimm and Phillips, mantle is attributed to the subduction of the cold oceanic 1992]. Aphrodite Terra, with a length of some 1500 km, is reminiscentof major continentalcollision zones on thisplanet, lithosphereat oceantrenches. The remainderis primarily at- suchas the mountainbelt that extendsfrom the Alps to the tributed to the ascent of hot mantle plumes with a minor Himalayas.Ishtar Terra is a regionof elevatedtopography with contributionfrom the partial subduction(delamination) of the a horizontalscale of 2000-3000 km. A major featureis Lakshni lower continentallithosphere. Without activeplate tectonics Planum,which is an elevatedplateau similar to Tibet with a the evolutionof Venus is significantlydifferent than the Earth. mean elevationof about4 km. This plateauis surroundedby Three end-membermodels have been proposed, each of which will be discussed in turn. linear mountainbelts, Akna, Danu, Freyja, and Maxwell mon- The first model is the uniformatarian model. In this model tes,reaching elevations of 10 km, similarin scaleand elevation to the Himalayas. the transportof heat throughthe mantle and lithosphereof Venusis in a near steadystate balance with the heat generated Copyright1995 by the AmericanGeophysical Union. by the heat-producingelements and the secularcooling of the Paper number 95JE01621. planet. This requiresa relativelythin, stablelithosphere with 0148-0227/95/95 JE-01621 $05.00 heat transportto its baseby mantleconvection. Heat transport 16,931 16,932 TURCOTrE: HEAT LOSS ON VENUS through the lithospheremust be conductionor another un- with plumeshave been carriedout by Davies[1988] and Sleep specifiedmechanism. [1990].These studies relate the rate of creationof plumeswells The secondmodel is the catastrophicmodel. In this model to the mantleheat flux.Davies [1988] estimates that the mantle the present loss of heat to the surfaceof Venus is not in fluxdue to plumesisQp = 2.5 x l0 •2 W, andSleep [1990] balancewith its internal heat generation.The global lithos- estimatesthe value to beQp = 2.3 x l0 •2 W. Sleep[1990] phere stabilizedabout 500 Ma, and the interior of the planet considered37 plumesfrom both the oceansand the continents. has been heating up since then. Heat is lost in episodesof The heatflux associated with the Hawaiianplume is QpH = global subductionof the thickenedlithosphere. 0.36 x 10•2 W, 15%of thetotal plume flux and twice as large The third model is the differentiatedplanet. In this model as any other plume. the heat-producingelements have been almost entirely frac- Taking the mean of the two estimatesgiven above, the tionated into the crust,and the heat generatedis lost by con- plumeflux is Qp = 2.4 x 10•2 W. However,this is only 26% duction to the surface. of the mantleheat flux of Qm -- 0.92 x l0 •3 W that is attributedto processesother than subduction.An important questionis the processor processesthat contributethe other Uniformatarian Model 74%.Of course,the original estimate of Qm = 9.2 x 10•2 W Before consideringa uniformatarianmodel for Venus, a couldbe in error. However,it is difficultto acceptthat it is a brief discussionof how heat is transportedthrough the mantle factor of 4 too large. There are three possiblesources for the of the Earth will be given.A comprehensivereview has been discrepancy: givenby Turcotteand Schubert[1982]. The total heatloss at the The first possiblesource is plumes that do not generate surfaceof theEarth is closeto Q•r = 3.55 x 10•3 W withan well-definedvolcanic hot spotsand swells.The smallesthot estimated error of less than 5%. With a total surface area of spotsconsidered by Sleep [1990] have a heatflux of aboutQp = •1œ= 5.1 X 10s km2 the meansurface heat flow is q•r = 10• oW sothat we would require some 700 of theseto makeup 70 mW m-2. The originof thisheat is the decayof theradio- themissing flux of Q? = 6.8 x l0 •2 W. It shouldbe noted, active isotypesof uranium, thorium, and potassiumand the however, that the lack of subsidence in continental cratons secularcooling of the planet. The Urey number Ur is defined indicatesheating from beloweven without surfaceevidence for to be the ratio of radioactiveheat generationto the total heat plumes.McKenzie [1984] hasproposed that epeirogenicuplift loss; 1 - Ur is the fraction attributed to secular cooling. is due to intrusive volcanism near the base of the continental Estimatesfor the Urey numberfor the Earth fall in the range crust without surfacevolcanics. Thus the studiesby Davies 0.6 < Ur < 0.8. [1988] and Sleep[1990] may representonly a fractionof the Heat transport in the ocean basinsis dominatedby plate actualmantle plume flux. tectonics,whereas heat is lost conductivelythrough the stable The secondpossible source is delaminationof the continen- continentallithosphere. The oceansand marginalbasins have tal lithosphere.The continentallithosphere is gravitationally an areaA o = 3.1 x l0 s km2 (60%) anda heatloss Qo = stable, and there is no evidence that it can be subducted as a 2.42 x 10•3 W (68%). Of thistotal, $clater et al. [1980] whole.However, the mantleportion is gravitationallyunstable, attribute 90% to the subductionof the conductivelycooled and there is considerableevidence that the mantle lithosphere lithosphere(Qos = 2.18 x 10• 3 W) and10% to basalheating andlower crust separate from the uppercrust and descend into (Qorn= 0.24 x 10•3 W). The coolingof theoceanic litho- the mantle [Bird, 1979].This is delamination,and it will con- spheregenerally follows a half-spacecooling model to agesof tributeto the mantleheat flux in the sameway that subduction about 100 Ma; the subsequentflattening of topographyis at- of the oceaniclithosphere does. There is observationalevi-
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