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Mobile communication and the protection of children Ong, R.Y.C. Citation Ong, R. Y. C. (2010, April 22). Mobile communication and the protection of children. Meijers-reeks. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/15349 Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown) Licence agreement concerning inclusion of doctoral thesis in the License: Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/15349 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). Mobile Communication and the Protection of Children dissertation series no 2010-10 The research reported in this thesis has been carried out under the auspicies of SIKS, the Dutch Research School for Information and Knowledge Systems. Lay-out: Anne-Marie Krens – Tekstbeeld – Oegstgeest © R.Y.C. Ong / Leiden University Press, 2010 ISBN 978 90 8728 080 2 Behoudens de in of krachtens de Auteurswet van 1912 gestelde uitzonderingen mag niets uit deze uitgave worden verveelvoudigd, opgeslagen in een geautomatiseerd gegevensbestand, of openbaar gemaakt, in enige vorm of op enige wijze, hetzij elektronisch, mechanisch, door fotokopieën, opnamen of enige andere manier, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de uitgever. Voorzover het maken van reprografische verveelvoudigingen uit deze uitgave is toegestaan op grond van artikel 16h Auteurswet 1912 dient men de daarvoor wettelijk verschuldigde vergoedingen te voldoen aan de Stichting Reprorecht (Postbus 3051, 2130 KB Hoofddorp, www.reprorecht.nl). Voor het overnemen van (een) gedeelte(n) uit deze uitgave in bloemlezingen, readers en andere compilatiewerken (art. 16 Auteurswet 1912) kan men zich wenden tot de Stichting PRO (Stichting Publicatie- en Reproductierechten Organisatie, Postbus 3060, 2130 KB Hoofddorp, www.cedar.nl/pro). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm or any other means without written permission from the publisher. Mobile Communication and the Protection of Children PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. mr. P.F. van der Heijden, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op donderdag 22 april 2010 klokke 11.15 uur door Rebecca Ong Yoke Chan geboren te Maleisië in 1961 Promotiecommissie: Promotor: prof. dr. H.J. van den Herik Co-promoter: mr. dr. B.W. Schermer Overige leden: prof. mr. A.W. Hins prof. mr. A.H.J. Schmidt prof. dr. F.M.T. Brazier (Technische Universiteit Delft) prof. mr. drs. C. Stuurman (Universiteit van Tilburg) prof. dr. P.M. Valkenburg (Universiteit van Amsterdam) mr. dr. G.J. Zwenne Preface “How is your Phd going?” and “When do you finish?” are two stressful questions a PhD student faces and dreads. There are times when I am sure a PhD student will ask himself why he1 is putting himself through such an ‘ordeal’. For me, the primary objective for writing a thesis arose from the observa- tion of the transformative trends in communicative practices amongst the younger generation. This is due in no small part to the development of new communication technology and its accompanying devices and applications. In recent years there has been a rise in the up-take of mobile phones. Amongst the younger generation, a contributing factor to the rise and rapid diffusion is the mobile phone’s personal and liberating qualities in addition to its varied communicative expressive applications. While this has breathed fresh dimensions to the social structure and independence of these youngsters, we are well aware that the technology can be used for purposes that are different from those purposes that were originally intended. Thus, it is neces- sary to appreciate and understand the impact of mobile communication technology on children and young people. There is also an urgent need for the regulators, civic society and the relevant stakeholders to respond responsibly to the challenges that arise as a result of the use and abuse of mobile communication technology. I wish to record my sincere appreciation to the following people persons who supported me throughout. My supervisor, Professor H. Jaap van den Herik has patiently and meticulously read, questioned, commented, the text many times. He ensured that the text is continuously improved. I am grateful for his support, guidance, and advice. Moreover, I acknowledge Dr. Bart Schermer, my co-supervisor, for his invaluable comments. A special mention also goes out to Bni. Yung-ven, Shanthi Sabapathy, Tasha and Ashton for their continuing love, patience, and support. Finally, I would like to show my deepest gratitude and love to my mentor and Guru, Paramahansa Yogananda without whom this project would have never been remotely possible. Rebecca Ong Hong Kong/Leiden, February 2010 1 For brevity, I use ‘he’ and ‘his’ whenever ‘he’ or ‘she’ and ‘his’ and ‘her’ are meant. Table of contents LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS XV LIST OF FIGURES XIX 1MOBILE COMMUNICATION AND THE PROTECTION OF CHILDREN 1 1.1 Two challenges of new generation mobile devices 2 1.2 The Internet as a modern form of communication 3 1.2.1 The first network 4 1.2.2 The Internet 4 Open-network architecture 5 The protocols and the World Wide Web 7 A collection of communities 9 1.2.3 Expanded communities 9 1.3 The mobile Internet 11 1.3.1 The benefits of mobile Internet 12 1.3.2 The risks of mobile Internet 12 1.3.3 Controlling the Internet 13 1.4 A broad range of beneficial activities 14 1.4.1 Unfavourable activities 15 1.4.2 The World Summit on Information Society (WSIS) 15 1.4.3 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) (and four other organisations) 17 1.4.4 The undefined rules of the Internet 18 1.4.5 Limitations of direct state intervention 19 1.5 Problem statement 19 1.5.1 The Internet: the apex of modern day communication 19 1.5.2 The continuous transformation 20 1.5.3 The protection of children on-line 21 1.5.4 Economic issues versus moral issues 22 1.5.5 Possible regulatory issues 23 1.5.6 A two-folded problem statement 24 1.6 Research questions 24 1.7 Research methodology 25 1.8 The structure of the thesis 25 VIII Table of contents 2MOBILE TELEPHONY 27 2.1 The development of mobile technology 28 Three major generations 28 Emphasis in on applications 29 Experience of new technologies 29 2.2 Telecommunication infrastructure in Hong Kong 30 2.2.1 The infrastructure: mobile phone services 30 2.2.2 The players 31 A: Mobile network operators (MNOs) 31 B: Mobile virtual network operators (MVNOs) 31 2.2.3 Open access strategy 33 2.3 Mobile content as new revenue 34 2.4 Platforms for delivery of content 34 2.4.1 Content produced by MNO 35 2.4.2 Content produced by third party in partnership with MNO 35 2.5 Chapter conclusion 36 3CONVERGENCE OF TECHNOLOGIES 37 3.1 What is convergence? 37 3.2 Five factors that fuel convergence 39 3.3 Objectives of government policies in the communication sector 41 3.4 Convergence: its benefits and concerns 42 3.4.1 Benefits 42 3.4.2 Concerns 43 3.5 Regulatory challenges to convergence 44 3.6 A regulator’s responsibilities and the position of Hong Kong 45 3.6.1 Three-fold responsibilities 45 3.6.2 Telecommunication in Hong Kong 46 3.7 Regulatory convergence in Hong Kong 47 3.7.1 A unified regulator of other jurisdictions 47 A: The United Kingdom 48 B: Australia 48 C: Malaysia 49 3.7.2 Hong Kong’s proposed Communication Authority 49 3.8 Responding to the challenges 51 3.8.1 The general position 51 3.8.2 The position in Hong Kong 52 3.8.3 Our position 53 3.8.4 Society’s moral watchdog 56 3.8.5 The Green Dam Youth Escort 56 3.9 Chapter conclusion 57 Table of contents IX 4MOBILE COMMUNICATION AND POTENTIAL HAZARDS 59 4.1 Diffusion of mobile telephony 62 4.1.1 Anytime, anywhere 63 4.1.2 Staying in perpetual contact 64 4.1.3 Safety and security 65 4.1.4 Section conclusion 66 4.2 The younger generation and mobile telephony 66 4.2.1 Personal expression 68 4.2.2 Independence 70 4.2.3 Social networking and relationships 70 4.2.4 Common youth traits 71 4.3 New communication technology – the potential hazards 72 4.3.1 The positive effects 72 4.3.2 A multitude of hazards 72 4.3.3 Two main hazards for end users 74 4.3.4 The greatest hazard is not quantifiable 75 4.4 Child protection concerns 76 4.5 Content 77 4.5.1 Two expressions of content 78 A: Illegal content 78 B: Harmful material 79 4.5.2 A matter of grave concern 80 4.5.3 Inappropriate materials 80 4.5.4 Appetite for adult material 80 4.5.5 Pornography 81 4.5.6 Incidence of exposure to pornography 82 A: Involuntary and accidental visits 82 B: Unwanted exposure 83 C: Significance of studies 84 4.5.7 Mobile gaming 85 4.6 Contact 86 4.6.1 Sourcing children and grooming 87 A: Anonymity 87 B: Interactivity 88 4.6.2 Unwanted sexual solicitation 88 4.6.3 Purpose of paedophiles’ activities 89 4.6.4 Cyber-bullying 90 4.7 Commercialism 92 4.7.1 Spam 93 4.7.2 Premium-rate services 94 4.7.3 Younger generations as target market 95 4.8 Chapter conclusion 97 X Table of contents 5MOBILE COMMUNICATION: ITS IMPACT ON CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE 99 5.1 Impact of the use of mobile technology 99 5.1.1 The lack of research and publications 100 5.1.2 Three definitions 101 5.2 Exposure to pornography 101 5.2.1 The consequences 103 5.2.2 A comparison with old observations 105 5.2.3 Conclusions for the on-line world 106 5.3 Violence in mobile gaming 107 5.4 The power of cyber-bullying and unwanted sexual solicitation 110 5.4.1 The seven effects of bullying 111 5.4.2 On-line bullying 112 5.4.3 Tragic incidents and suicide 113 5.4.4

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