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Towards a Sustainable, Participatory and Inclusive Wild Meat Sector

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Towards a Sustainable, Participatory and Inclusive Wild Meat Sector Towards a sustainable, participatory and inclusive wild meat sector Lauren Coad, John E. Fa, Katharine Abernethy, Nathalie van Vliet, Catalina Santamaria, David Wilkie, Hani R. El Bizri, Daniel J. Ingram, Donna-Mareè Cawthorn and Robert Nasi CIFOR Towards a sustainable, participatory and inclusive wild meat sector Lauren Coad Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) John E. Fa Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU) Katharine Abernethy University of Stirling Nathalie van Vliet Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) Catalina Santamaria Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) David Wilkie Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Hani R. El Bizri Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU) Instituto de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Mamirauá (IDSM) Daniel J. Ingram University College London (UCL) Donna-Mareè Cawthorn University of Salford Robert Nasi Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) © 2019 by the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). All rights reserved. DOI: 10.17528/cifor/007046 ISBN: 978-602-387-083-7 Content in this publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0), http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Coad L, Fa JE, Abernethy K, van Vliet N, Santamaria C, Wilkie D, El Bizri HR, Ingram DJ, Cawthorn DM and Nasi R. 2019. Towards a sustainable, participatory and inclusive wild meat sector. Bogor, Indonesia: CIFOR. Photo credits: Chapter 1. Wild meat being sold along the road from Yaounde to Sangmelima, Cameroon (Photo by Amanda Bennett) Chapter 2. Hunters return with their catch, Nyanga Gabon (Photo by Christopher Orbell/ Panthera) Chapter 3 Wild pig meat drying in the sun. Cardamom mountains, Cambodia (Photo by Lauren Coad) Chapter 4. Logging truck and road, Ebolowa, Cameroon (Photo by Ollivier Girard/CIFOR) Chapter 5. Leopard caught by camera trap, between Ivindo and Mwagna National Parks, Gabon (Photo by Christopher Orbell/Panthera) Chapter 6. Wild meat for sale in a Guyanan town (Photo by Manuel Lopez) Chapter 7 Arapaima management in the Mamirauá reserve, Brazil (Photo by Amanda Lelis) Chapter 8. Village hunter sets a cable snare for arboreal species, Central Gabon (Photo by Lauren Coad) Chapter 9. Going to the market with a rooster, Chiana, Ghana (Photo by Axel Fassio/CIFOR) Chapter 10. Training in Maroantsetra, Madagascar using Kobocollect on the Basic Necessities Survey to measure well-being levels amongst villages bordering Makira Natural Park (Photo by M Wieland/WCS) Chapter 11. Hunting in the forest, Yangambi, DRC. The main animals that are hunted are warthogs, monkeys and Gambia rats. (Photo by Axel Fassio/CIFOR) For this report, where photographs focused on one or a few people to the extent where individuals could be recognized, we decided to only use photos where the subject had given consent for the photograph to be used for this report. This cautious approach was adopted due to the illegality of hunting, or the ambiguity of hunting laws in many tropical countries. CIFOR Jl. CIFOR, Situ Gede Bogor Barat 16115 Indonesia T +62 (251) 8622-622 F +62 (251) 8622-100 E [email protected] cifor.org We would like to thank all donors who supported this work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: https://www.cgiar.org/funders/ Any views expressed in this publication are those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of CIFOR, the editors, the authors’ institutions, the financial sponsors or the reviewers. Contents Executive summary vi Abbreviations x Acknowledgments xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The need to consider the sustainability of wild meat harvesting 1 1.2 The need to develop sustainable wildlife management practices 2 1.3 Call for technical guidance on wild meat 5 1.4 Aim and contents of this report 6 1.5 Definitions 7 PART 1: The characteristics of wild meat use, and the drivers and impacts of unsustainable hunting 2 Describing the wild meat harvest 11 2.1 Hunted species 11 2.2 Hunter characteristics 16 2.3 Hunting methods 18 2.4 Harvest rates 19 3 Wild meat consumption and trade 25 3.1 Consumption rates 25 3.2 Food for hunter families 27 3.3 Hunting for income 29 3.4 Wild meat consumption in the context of economic theory 33 4 Drivers of wild meat overexploitation 37 4.1 Low-productivity ecosystems 37 4.2 Increased access to new lands 38 4.3 Human demographic and economic change 40 4.4 Current governance issues in curbing overexploitation 45 5 Impacts of wild meat overexploitation 47 5.1 Impacts on wildlife populations 47 5.2 Impacts on wildlife distribution across the landscape 49 5.3 Impacts on ecosystem function 51 5.4 Impacts on human livelihoods 52 PART 2: Managing the supply of, and reducing the demand for, wild meat 6 Four common scenarios of wild meat use, and potential management strategies 59 6.1 Scenario 1: Rural communities 59 6.2 Scenario 2: Newly urbanizing populations 60 6.3 Scenario 3: Populations of large metropolitan areas 61 6.4 Scenario 4: International consumers 62 iv | Towards a sustainable, participatory and inclusive wild meat sector 7 Creating an enabling environment 65 7.1 International governance 67 7.2 Regional governance related to the wild meat sector 72 7.3 Voluntary intergovernmental and multi-stakeholder initiatives 75 7.4 National governance 79 7.5 Community governance and customary hunting systems 83 7.6 Suggested steps to improve the enabling environment for the wild meat sector 86 8 Improving the sustainability of the supply of wild meat 89 8.1 Managing hunting in collaboration with local communities 90 8.2 Examples of community-based approaches for managing wildlife 92 8.3 Defining and measuring sustainable harvesting levels for wild meat species 102 8.4 The role of law enforcement in regulating wild meat supply 112 8.5 Legalization and taxation of the trade in wild meat products 114 8.6 Regulation of supply destined for an international market 115 8.7 Suggested steps for improving the sustainability of wild meat supply 115 9 Reducing the demand for wild meat 117 9.1 Increasing the supply and decreasing the price of wild meat substitutes 118 9.2 Increasing the price and/or reducing the availability of wild meat 125 9.3 Influencing the non-price determinants of demand 125 9.4 Suggested steps for reducing demand for wild meat 127 10 Designing and applying interventions 131 10.1 Participation, equity, and consent 131 10.2 Understanding the context 135 10.3 Choosing complementary interventions, suited to the context 137 10.4 Applying a theory of change 138 10.5 Monitoring and Evaluation 138 11 Conclusions 143 Appendices 147 References 153 Towards a sustainable, participatory and inclusive wild meat sector | v List of figures, tables and boxes Figures 1 The 20 most frequently hunted terrestrial vertebrates (in terms of number) in Central Africa 12 2 The 20 most frequently hunted terrestrial vertebrates (in terms of number) in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon 13 3 An example of a wild meat commodity chain (tortoise and turtle meat) 17 4 A Kuznets curve 34 5 Historic and projected increases in global urban populations (Holden et al. 2014) 40 6 Relationships between primate body mass and population biomass density at 166 Amazonian forest sites surveyed to date, showing the extirpation or population collapse of large-bodied monkeys in heavily hunted sites 49 7 Modeled depletion levels of (A) white-lipped peccary, Tayassu pecari, (B) woolly monkeys, Lagothrix spp., (C) tapir, Tapirus terrestris, and (D) red brocket deer, Mazama americana, around settlements, rivers and roads in Amazonas State 50 8 Emissions from beef and poultry production in the United States 119 9 Global meat production, trends and forecast, in millions of tons 120 10 Criteria that have to be met for wildlife farming to be suitable as a conservation tool 123 11 Steps for the free, prior and informed consent process 135 Tables 1 Estimates of annual terrestrial vertebrate harvests in Central Africa and South America 21 2 The estimated sustainability and decline in population densities of mammals due to hunting 22 3 The percentage of wild meat sold for income and the proportion of household incomes this represents, for sites studied in Africa, South America and Asia 30 4 The percentage of household income attributed to wild meat sales for sites studied in Africa, Latin America and Asia 32 5 Some of the most common measures and indicators for setting sustainable offtake levels 107 6 Different levels of community participation, from passive to active 132 Boxes 1 Sustainable Development Reserves in Brazil 93 2 Two examples of community hunting zones around protected areas 95 3 Examples of PES projects 97 4 Certification of peccary pelts in Peru 99 5 Management of hunting within industrial concessions 101 6 The participatory creation of local hunting rules 103 7 Understanding offtake, depletion, sustainable use and recovery 104 8 Reducing disease prevalence in poultry 120 9 Providing alternatives to wild meat 122 10 Behavior-change interventions for reducing demand for wild meat 127 11 Designing behavior change interventions in DRC: Identifying key drivers of wild meat consumption 137 12 Using a Theory of Change approach in project design (1) 139 13 Using a Theory of Change approach in project design (2) 140 14 Examples of Monitoring and Evaluation systems 141 Executive summary In this document, we use the term ‘wild meat’ to refer to terrestrial animal wildlife used for food in all parts of the world. The meat of wild animals has historically been, and still is, an essential source of protein and income for millions of indigenous peoples and local communities in tropical and subtropical regions.
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