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Universal Pragmatics: a Critical Approach to Image Ethics DOCUMENT RESUME ED 370 555 IR 055 008 AUTHOR Craig, Robert L. TITLE Universal Pragmatics: A Critical Approach to Image Ethics. PUB DATE 93 NOTE 14p.; In: Visual Literacy in the Digital Age: Selected Readings from the Annual Conference of the International Visual Literacy Association (25th, Rochester, New York, October 13-17, 1993); see IR 055 055. PUB TYPE Viewpoints (Opinion/Position Papers, Essays, etc.) (120) Speeches/Conference Papers (150) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Criticism; *Ethics; Mass Media; *Nonverbal Communication; Photographs; Photography; *Photojournalism; *Pragmatics; Visual Literacy; *Visual Perception IDENTIFIERS Visual Journalism ABSTRACT Visual criticism is a major component of the new visual communication. Visual communication has changed through the advent of new technology which allows images to be combined and manipulated with relative ease. Visual criticism analyzes the forms and practices of image production and examines the roles of images in society creating a new dialogue concerning image ethics. Through a study of the works of Paul Grice and Jurgen Habermas, the relevance of pragmatic universalists to media ethics will be seen. When used in conjunction with these principles, visual criticism can set standards for visual communication in society. (JLB) *********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. *********************************************************************** U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educahonal Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERICI o Ms document has been reproduced as recerveo from the person or organaatron ongrnatrng 0 Melo, changes nave been made to Improve MWMuCt.OnouWity Pontt. Of view of op.monsstatedsnItusdocu. ment do not necessardy represent offrmal OERI posMon or pohcy Universal Pragmatics: A Critical Approach to Image Ethics by Robert Craig Newhouse School Syracuse University 215 1 Tniversity Place Syracuse, NY 13244-2100 "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY PEST COPY AVAILABLE Alice Walker 2 TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." Universal Pragmatics: A Critical Approachto Image Ethics Robert L. Craig Introduction: Visual Criticism photographer's ability to create the Visual communication has come pretty, persuasive and heavily-conno- under intense intellectual scrutiny tated pictures advertisers demand. during the last twenty years as schol- What all this points to, of course, is ars have sought to understandthe that a photograph is not just a photo- role photographs, graphics and illus- graph. trations play in modern communica- Different genres of photography tion. The value of studying visual have different visual, aesthetic, and communication has been heightened narrative forms that distinguish, say, by the development of inexpensive, news photography fromfine arts or easily operated, digital imaging hard- advertising photography. If we need ware and software, which isaltering further evidence of the differences in the face of the visual professions. photographic genres, a very good Besides changing the way image- piece is that they have different codes makers work, the new technology puts of ethics: The kind of photographic the power to combine and manipulate manipulation that helps win an award images into the hands of those who for an advertising photographer gets heretofore lacked the finances or the a news photographerfired.I handicraft skills needed to accom- One journalistic reaction to the plish these tasks with such seeming new imaging technologyhas been to naturalism. extend existing codes of ethics, which Reaction to the new technology address set ups and alterations, to varies. In newsrooms, where the credi- digital technology. Tony Kelly notes bility of the photographic image that the San Francisco Examiner takes underscores the objectivity of news, the position that it does "not permit some argue that such technologyhas anything to be done to a photo elec- a limited role, if any atall. tronically that could not be done in a Advertising photographers, of traditional darkroom."2 course, welcome new technical In discussing journalists' reactions advances because they extend the to digital alteration at a Poynter 3 Institute conference on photojournal- film, exposures and lighting; framing ism ethics, Kelly notes thatsome jour- the subject; positioning and holding nalists felt that even darkroom tech- the camera; deciding upon chemistry niques are being overused and that and developing and enlarging times; allowing such manipulationswas "let- burning and dodging; re-touching; ting the camel get hisnose under the editing through scaling and cropping; tent," and making it difficult to deter- choosing among multiple shots; scan- mine where to draw the line. ning; layout and juxtaposition; color According to Kelly, the overriding separations; color correction; strip- concern among journalists was the ping; platemaking; and printing. fear that the credibility of journalism From this perspective, the capacity might be eroded by digital imagemak- of the new digital technology to easily ing. The protocol these journalists manipulate images has only made came up with to deal with the ethics of more visible the constructed nature of photo manipulation reflected this all images. concern: In the case of news photography, Manipulation of (documentary and Dona Schwartz argues that focusing news) photographs, whkh alters the on technology misses the fact that content or context is unacceptable. becoming a news photographer Electronic or manual methods means learning to recreate a limited should be used only toassure the stock of conventional news narratives.4 highest reproduction quality of the In toto, these approaches grind toa photograph. Photo illustrationsare halt when they are pitted againstone conceptual images and should be another. Journalists, who believe that (easily) distinguishable from docu- the truth, objectivity and credibility of mentary photography.3 the press are at stake, attempt to hold the fortress against a new technology The term photo-illustrationwas that could undermine these values. coined to cue readers to the fact thata The critics argue that the fortress is photograph had been heavilycon- built in a flood plane. structed, set up, doctoredor altered, Journalists develop situation ethicsto that is, that it is a montage. help them grapple with the ethical A more academic reaction isto issues that arise in everyday work. point out the ideoiogical limits of this Although situation ethics fall short debate by challenging itsparameters- when situations arise for whichan eth- to manipulate or not to manipulate. ical code hasn't been written, and they These parametersare incorrectly don't address philosophical issues premised on the false (and hidden) such as the ontology of photographic assumption that there is some purely meaning, they do clarify something of mimetic or realistic core to images the communication practices in which whereby they directly transcribeor journalists believe theyare engaged, reflect reality. such as, their commitmentto truth. Every photograph is constructed, This value is important becauseeven manipulated, doctored, edited,etc. in the face of devastating critiquesof through selectingcameras, lenses, universal truth, a commitmentto 4 truth remains a principled position. must raise the issue of media'ssocial Journalistic concern over credibility responsibility. As for ethics, visual crit- cuts both ways. It is quiteimportant icism would be quite helpful, if it pro- for readers to believe th ia. journalists vided a way to discuss ethical situa- are giving them thebest information tions without proscribing solutions. available, but it is not good for society when readers are too credulous. The Visual as Human Communication The recogmition that all images are Visual criticism began by recogniz- constructed and have an ideological ing that vision and imagemaking are character cannot be denied. The as integral andfundamental to apparent objectivity or naturalnessof humanity as language, thus the term photographic representation hides a visualcommunication.However, rhetorical form which implies and because language has held a special persuades us of its own credibility. place in scholars' estimation, it has Photos thereby serve the ideology of been the subject of more intensive press objectivity. To the extentthat inquiry than visual communication. As photography's mimetic quality a result, much has beenlearned about obscures the fact that all news is language, and although much of it is framed, it becomes a powerful ideo- specific to language, some of it has logical tool. had important implications for the Still, are we to conclude that eve, y study of visual communication. photograph should be labeled a Since the mid-1950s, when increas- photo-illustration or a montage? ing numbers of scholars shifted their And, do we extend this logic to con- attention from high culture to the clude that any manipulation of any study of popular culture and mass image is thereby acceptable? media, semiotic analysis of bur- While both perspectives have geoned. Some important semioticians strengths and weaknesses, they leave are Roland Barthes, StuartHall, us at an impasse, thoughvisual criti- James Monaco, John Hartley, Robert cism may break this impasse. Visual Hodge, Gunther Kress, John Fiske, criticism is a major component
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