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METHOD SELECTION - a NUMERICAL APPROACH Chapter 4 David E METHOD SELECTION - A NUMERICAL APPROACH Chapter 4 David E. Nicholas Vice-President Call & Nicholas, Inc. Tucson, Arizona INTRODUCTION mechanics prop~rties, mining method selection should be at least a two-stage process. In this paper, a numerical process for selecting a mining method, with the emphasis In Stage 1, the deposit is described in on underground mass mining techniques, such terms of geometry, grade distribution, and ns caving, induced caving, and stoping, is rock mechanics properties. Using these param­ proposed. eters, the mining methods can be ranked to determine which are most applicable; they can In the past, selection of a mining method then be considered in general terms of mining for a new property was based primarily on and capitalization cost, mining rate, type operating experience at similar type deposits and availability of personnel, environmental and on methods already in use in the district concerns, and other site-specific considera­ of the deposit. Then, the chosen method was tions. modified during the early years of mining as ground conditions and ore character were bet­ In Stage 2, the most likely mining methods ter understood. Today, however, the large are costed out, based on a general mine plan. capital investment required to open a new mine Mining and capitalization costs are used to or change an existing mining system make it determine a cut-off grade from which a minable imperative that the mining methods examined reserve can be calculated; economic comparisons during the feasibility studies and the method can then be made to determine the optimum min­ actually selected have a high probability of ing method and economic feasibility. attaining the projected production rates. During the mine planning phase of Stage 2, Although experience and engineering judgment rock mechanics information would be used to still provide major input into the selection of provide realistic estimates of underground a mining method, subtle differences in the opening size, amount of support, orientation characteristics of each deposit, which may of openings, and caving characteristics, and affect the method chosen or the mine design_, open pit slope angles. If ground control or can usually be perceived only through analysis operational problems should be encountered with of measured characteristics. the methods being considered, modifications could be made. Although planning on paper The parameters that must be examined when extends start-up time, it is cheaper to err choosing a mining method include: on paper than to find the error after mining 1) geometry and grade distribution of the has begun. deposit; 2) rock mass strength for the ore zoneJ the METHOD SELECTION - STAGE 1 hanging wall, and the footwall; 3) mining costs and capitalization require- The main purpose of Stage 1 is to select ments; those mining methods which should be considered 4) mining rate; in greater detail. The simplest way to do this 5) type and availability of labor; is by defining those characteristics required 6) environmental concerns; and for each mining method and then determining 7) other site-specific considerations. whether the characteristics of the deposit are This paper encompasses a detailed look at the suitable. However, no one mining method is so first two parameters since they, plus mining restrictive that it can be used for only one costs, have the greatest impact on the selec­ set of characteristics, as indicated by the tion of a mining method. classification system proposed by Boshkov and Wright (1973). In the mining method selection The proposed method selection process is proposed, geometry, grade distribution, and for a project where drilling has defined suf­ rock mechanics character~stics are ranked ficient geologic reserves, but little or no according to their acceptability for ten underground development has been done. general mining methods. Since each deposit has its own characteris­ tic geometry/grade distribution, and rock 39 40 DESIGN AND OPERATION OF CAVING AND SUBLEVEL STOPING MINES Data Required Table 1: Definition of Deposit Geometry and Grade Distribution The most important data required for selec­ Geometry of Deposit tion of a mining method and initial mine layout are geologic sections and level maps, a grade 1) General shape model of the deposit, and rock mechanics char­ acteristics of the deposit, footwall, and hang­ equi-dimensional: all dimensions are on the ing wall. Much of this data can be obtained same order of magnitude from drill core, and, if it is not collected platey - tabular: two dimensions are many during the initial core logging or assaying, times the thickness, it will be lost. which does not usually exceed 100 m (325 ft) Geology. Basic geology interpretation is of major importance in any mineral evaluation. irregular: dimensions vary over Geologic sections and level maps which show short distances major rock types, alteration zones, and major structures, such as faults, veins, and fold 2) Ore thickness axes, should be prepared. It may be advisable narrow: <10 m (<30 ft) to define the alteration zones on a separate set of maps, which can then be overlain onto intermediate: 10 m - 30 m (30 ft - 100 ft) the rock type geology maps. These geologic thick: 30 m - 100 m (100 ft - 325 ft) sections and level maps should be prepared at the same scale as will be used for mine plan­ very thick: >100 m (>325 ft) ning. Sections should be drawn to true scale, without any vertical exaggeration, because it 3) Plunge makes it easier to visualize the relative lay­ flat: <20° out of mine workings. The area included on the maps should extend horizontally in all intermediate: 20° - 55• directions 1.75 times the depth beyond the steep: >55° limit of the orebody. Although an area this size may seem excessive, it will ensure that 4) Depth below surface there is sufficient information for evaluating the limit of ground surface movement due to provide actual depth mining: this information is needed to locate shafts, adits, and buildings, etc. 5) Grade distribution uniform The importance of a complete set of inter­ preted sections and level maps cannot be over­ the grade at any point in the deposit does stated. They are necessary for defining grade not vary signficantly from the mean grade distribution, as well as units of similar rock for that deposit mechanics characteristics. gradational Geometry of Deposit and Grade Distribution. grade values have zonal characteristics, During Stage 1 of the method selection process, and the grades change gradually from one geometry and grade distribution are defined. to another The geometry of the deposit is defined in terms erratic of general shape, ore thickness, plunge, and depth (Table 1). Grade distribution is defined grade values change radically over short as uniform, gradational, or erratic {Table 1). distances and do not exhibit any discern­ ible pattern in their changes Defining the geometry and grade distribution of a deposit requires development of a grade Rock Mechanics Characterization. In Stage 1 model. The type of model constructed will de­ the rock properties need to be classified so pend on the complexity of the geology and how that an overall rock mechanics picture of the well it is understood, as well as on the drill deposit is provided. A number of classifica­ hole spacing. The grade model should be put on tion systems have been presented (Deere, 1968; sections and level maps at the same scale as Coates., 1970; Bieniawski, 1973; Barton et al., the geology maps and should be contoured by 1974; and Laubscher, 1977). All these systems grade, or the blocks should be colored by grade include the basic measurements of rock sub­ categories. These contoured or colored grade stance (intact rock) strength, some measure­ sections and level maps, when overlain onto ment of the fracture intensity, and some meas­ the geologic sections and level maps, will urement of the fracture strength. The classi­ indicate the dominant rock types, as well as fication systems of Bieniawski, Barton et al., their spatial relationships to the orebody. and Laubscher use individual parameters to calculate an overall rock mass quality. The METHOD SELECTION - A NUMERICAL APPROACH 41 definition of rock substance strength, fracture strength. These maps, when overlain onto the spacing, and fracture shear strength used in geology and grade outline, will spatially de­ the method selection is presented in Table 2. fine rock mechanics characteristics. Table 2: Rock Mechanics Characteristics The use of any of the existing classifica­ tion systems will also provide the data to 1) Rock Substance Strength determine the classes defined in Table 2. {uniaxial strength[Pa]/overburden pressure [Pa]) Method Selection Process weak: <s Ten basic mining methods, not including moderate: 15 8 - hydraulic or solution mining, should be con­ strong: >15 sidered in any selection process: 2) Fracture Spacing 1) Open pit - a method where mining starts at the surface and waste is removed to Fractures/m (ft) % RQD uncover the ore; includes strip mining very close: >16 (>5) 0 20 and quarrying. close: 10 - 16 (3 - 5) 20 - 40 2) Block caving - a method in which columns wide: 3 - 10 (1 - 3) 40 - 70 of rock are undercut and cave under their very wide: 3 (<1) 70 - 100 own weight; the roof material is expected to cave as well; includes panel and con­ Shear Strength 3) Fracture tinuous caving. weak: clean joint with a smooth surface 3) Sublevel stoping - a method of stoping in or fill with material whose which the ore is blasted by benching, strength is less than rock sub­ ring drilling, or long hole; most of the stance strength ore is drawn off as it is blasted, leav­ ing an open stope. moderate: clean joint with a rough surface 4) Sublevel caving - an induced caving strong: joint is filled with a material method in which the ore is blasted by that is equal to or stronger ring drilling from drifts; overlying than rock substance strength rock is expected to cave as the ore is drawn.
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