DOCSLIB.ORG

A Chart for the Separation of Natural and Synthetic Diamonds

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
A Chart for the Separation of Natural and Synthetic Diamonds OF NATURALAND By James E. Shigley, Emmanuel Fritsch, Ilene Reinitz, and Thomas M. Moses A chart is provided that describes those ow that small numbers of gem-quality synthetic dia- gemological properties thai are key to the monds have begun to appear in the jewelry industry, it separation of gem-quality yellow, blue, and has become critical that the professional jeweler/gen~ologist near-colorless (to colorless) natural dia- have the skills not only to quality grade a diamond, but also monds from synthetic diamonds. This for- to identify that it is a natural, untreated stone. This article mat was designed to give jewelers and accompanies a chart that describes the distinctive geinologi- gemologists a ready reference to identify synthetic diamonds as they enter the jewel- cal properties of natural as compared to synthetic gem dia- ry trade. Magnification and luminescence monds (figure l).In particular, the chart was designed to bring are the most important testing techniques together in summary form those characteristics of gein-quali- currently available to jewelers and gemolo- ty synthetic diamonds that will enable jewelers and gemolo- gists. The most distinctive features of syn- gists to readily distinguish them from natural diamonds. This thetic diamonds include color zoning, article describes the information contained in the chart, how graining, metallic inclusions (often n~aking it is organized, how it can be used m a standard gem identifi- the stone magnetic), and uneven ultraviolet cation procedure, and how the diagnostic gemological fea- fluorescence. tures can be resolved or recognized using standard gem-test- ing equipment. Some additional data, obtained through advanced techniques such as energy-dispersive X-ray fluores- cence chemical analysis, infrared spectroscopy, and cathodo- luminescence, are also cited because they provide useful information that the well-equipped gem-testing laboratory can use to support a conclusion. With this chart, jewelers and gemologists alilze have the means to identify the variety of gem-quality synthetic diamonds available at this time (see Box A). BACKGROUND Over the past several years, various gemological researchers have published information on gem-quality synthetic dia- monds and their practical gemological identification. Important articles include those by Crowningshield (1971), ems & Gpotogy, Vol. 3 1, No. 4, tSS5, Koivula and Fryer (19841, Shigley et al. (1986, 1987, 1993a, '). ,256-264 1995), Ponahlo (1992))Rooney et al. (19931, Moses et al. (1993a), Scarratt et al. (1994),Kanda and Lawson (1995).and Sunagawa 256 Diamond Chart GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 1995 Figure 1. Shown here are some of the synthetic diamonds examined by GIA researchers to date (clockwise from top photo): (1) three faceted (0.39 ct yellow, 0.31 ct grayish blue, and 0.30 ct near-colorless) synthetic diamonds and one crystal (0.73 ct near-colorless) grown experimentally by General Electric; (2)three Sumitorno yellow crys- tals (top, 0.63-1.07 ct) and four yellow synthetic faceted stones (0.16-0.24 ct); (3) a 0.14 ct synthetic diamond with a dark red color caused by treatment; (4)De Beers experimental yellow synthetic diamonds-0.30 ct (left), 0.27 ct (right), and a 1.03 ct crystal (top); (5)a 0.42 ct near-colorless crystal produced in Russia; (6) two yellow Russian us-grown crystals (left, 0.78 ct; right, 0.88 ct), plus three as-grown (0.18-0.51 ct) and two treated (0.14-0.21 ct) faceted synthetic diamonds. Photos are by, ogain clockwise from top, Tino Hammid (first two), Shane F. McClure, Tino Hammid, Shane F. McClure, and Robert Weldon. Diamond Chart GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 1995 25 7 Box A: A PRACTICALGUIDE FOR SEPARATING NATURALFROM SYNTHETICDIAMONDS Synthetic diamonds have a number of gemological to confirm a preliminary identification made on the properties by which they can be identified reliably. basis of internal features, you would look next at the However, this requires that jewelers look at diamonds reaction to long- and short-wave ultraviolet (UV)radia- more carefully, and document more properties than tion. In most instances, there will be some distinguish- they traditionally have documented. The following is a ing fluorescence features present. In the past, the fluo- step-by-step procedure, to be used in conjunction with rescence reactions of diamonds were not perceived as the information and illustrations on the chart, by which key identifying features by the jeweler or gemologist, synthetic diamonds can be identified by any trained who was solely concerned with grading concepts such gemologist using standard gemological equipment. as the strength and color of the reaction to long-wave UV radiation. For grading purposes, the diamond is MAGNIFICATION placed table down under a long-wave UV light source in The first step in grading, appraising, or purchasing a dia- partial darkness. For identification purposes, it is prefer- mond is to examine the stone with n~agnification,prefer- able to view the stone from all directions, under both ably with a gemologi~almicroscope. This procedure, in wavelengths of UV light, in total darkness. In the latter which the observer determines such important informa- case, the pattern (or zoning) of the fluorescence is often tion as the clarity and other grading parameters, is also more important than the fluorescence color. critical to detenliirung whether the diamond is natural A natural diamond typically fluoresces blue to or synthetic. long-wave UV (LWUV) radiation, with a weaker and Careful observation of the inclusions present often usually yellow reaction to short-wave UV (SWUV).This reveals the identification of the diamond conclusively. fluorescence is usually evenly distributed, but it may be For example, an included crystal of a transparent guest planar. Conversely, synthetic diamonds typically fluo- mineral such as garnet, enstatite, or diopside-or of resce yellow to yellowish green to both LWW and another diamond-identifies the diamond as natural. SWUV, with the reaction often noticeably stronger to Conversely, if you see a dark, opaque inclusion, you short-wave than long-wave. In addition, the internal would want to look at it very carefully using such light- growth sectors of a synthetic diamond generally pro- ing methods as fiber-optic illumination to determine if duce a cross-shaped, octagonal (or similar geometric) its luster is reflective and metallic (figure A-1). If so, it pattern of fluorescence to either or both wavelengths. might be a piece of metallic flux, in which case testing I11 some cases, fluorescence may be stronger to for magnetism (see below) would be sufficient to prove LWUV than to SWUV, or the reaction to both wave- that it is a synthetic. lengths may be similar in strength, unlike the notice- In situations where the diamond is of higher clarity able difference in intensity usually present in natural and no diagnostic inclusions are present, close examina- diamonds. Low magnification can be useful to observe tion of growth features may aid in identification. any zoning of the fluorescence reaction. (AnOptivisor is "Hourglass" graining, which is usually visible through well-suited for this purpose; if a microscope is adapted the pavilion, is related to the octahedral and cubic inter- for this use, precautions should be taken to shield the nal growth sectors of synthetic diamonds. Consequently, operator's eyes from the short-wave UV radiation.) the presence of hourglass graining is proof that the dia- Ultraviolet fluorescence is a test con~monlyused by mond is synthetic. Any graining (colorless, colored, jewelers and gen~ologists,and simple observations such whitish, green, or even surface graining) following the as these may identify the diamond conclusively. In addi- octahedral planes throughout the stone would indicate tion, an entire parcel of stones can be tested at one time. that the diamond is natural. Likewise, phantom graining along the octahedral directions would also serve to iden- SPECTROSCOPY tify a diamond as natural. To date, most of the gem-quality synthetic diamonds In a colored diamond, any color zoning observed can encountered in the trade have been yellow to brownish be useful for making the identification; examination with yellow in body color; they have been identified as syn- diffused transmitted light is very helpful in this regard. thetic during the testing procedure used to determine Natural diamonds may show planar bands of color or a their "origin of color." Observation of the spectniin- roiled effect, but only synthetic diamonds would show with a prism or diffraction-grating [hand-held or desk- patterns related to the internal growth sectors. model) spectroscope-is a routine test for colored dia- monds. The spectra of most natural diamonds, whether ULTRAVIOLET FLUORESCENCE of natural or treated color, differ from those seen in syn- If no diagnostic features are seen with magnification, or thetic diamonds. The most common spectral features 258 Diamond Chart GEMS & GEMOLOGY Winter 1995 seen in natural diamonds are the "Cape" lines at 415 nnl and at 452, 465, and 478 nm. On the basis of the samples we have examined to date, we believe that the presence of a 415 nm line in a colorless to light yellow diamond can be considered proof that the stone is natural. Treated-color natural diamonds may show addi- tional absorptions at 496, 503, 595, or 637 nm. Such spectral features suggest that the diamond is natural (even if the color is treated). Absence of the 415 nm he would not prove that the diamond is synthetic, but it would make it necessary to test the stone further. Some synthetic diamonds show a number of absorption lines between 470 and 700 run (see chart], which are due to the nickel used in the flux. Observation of several of these lines would indicate a synthetic. However, most colored synthetic diamonds are predominantly type Ib, so no sharp absorption fea- tures are expected in the visible spectrum.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Graphene – Diamond Nanomaterials: a Status Quo Review
    Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 29 July 2021 doi:10.20944/preprints202107.0647.v1 Article Graphene – diamond nanomaterials: a status quo review 1 Jana Vejpravová ,* 1 Department of Condensed Matter Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University, Ke Karlovu 5, 121 16 Prague 2, Czech Republic. * Correspondence: JV, [email protected] Abstract: Carbon nanomaterials with a different character of the chemical bond – graphene (sp2) and nanodiamond (sp3) are the building bricks for a new class of all-carbon hybrid nanomaterials, where the two different carbon networks with the sp3 and sp2 hybridization coexist, interact and even transform into one another. The unique electronic, mechanical, and chemical properties of the two border nanoallotropes of carbon ensure the immense application potential and versatility of these all-carbon graphene – diamond nanomaterials. The review gives an overview of the current state of the art of graphene – diamond nanomaterials, including their composites, heterojunctions, and other hybrids for sensing, electronic, energy storage, and other applications. Also, the graphene- to-diamond and diamond-to-graphene transformations at the nanoscale, essential for innovative fabrication, and stability and chemical reactivity assessment are discussed based on extensive theo- retical, computational, and experimental studies. Keywords: graphene; diamond; nanodiamond; diamane; graphene-diamond nanomaterials; all car- bon materials; electrochemistry; mechanochemistry; sensor; supercapacitor;
    [Show full text]
  • X-Ray Topographic Investigation of Diamond Anvils for High Pressure Generation - Correlation Between Defects and Early Failure
    X-ray topographic investigation of diamond anvils for high pressure generation - Correlation between defects and early failure Dewaele A. and Loubeyre P. CEA/DPTA, BP12, 91680 Bruyères le Châtel The diamond anvil cell technique revolutionized high pressure physics some 25 years ago. This device takes advantage of the unusual mechanical properties of the diamond. A metallic gasket with a hole in it to confine the sample is compressed between two diamond anvils. This device allows the generation of pressures that reach 300 GPa (3 millions times atmospheric pressure), pressure at which the diamond exhibits large elastic strain [1]. The pressure reached in diamond anvil cells is very often limited by the failure of a diamond anvil. In order to prevent this phenomenon, anvils are selected on the basis of their chemical purity, and their internal strains. However, the chemical purity does not guarantee the resistance of diamond anvils under high pressure operation. In particular, when the diamonds are used in contact with H2 or Helium samples, species which diffuse in diamond. Unfortunately, helium is known to be the best pressure transmitting medium, and is often loaded for that use in diamonds anvil cells [2]. A better understanding of early breakdown of diamond anvils and an a priori diagnostic of their resistance would thus constitute a major improvement for high pressure techniques. X-ray topography helps to establish this anvils quality diagnostic, because this method evidences intrinsic crystallographic defects of the anvils. These defects are likely to influence the mechanical properties of the anvil [3]. However, the liability of x-ray topography diagnostic had to be proven.
    [Show full text]
  • Ecological Comparison of Synthetic Versus Mined Diamonds
    Ecological Comparison of Synthetic versus Mined Diamonds Saleem H. Ali Working Paper, Institute for Environmental Diplomacy and Security University of Vermont, January, 2011 http://www.uvm.edu/ieds Abstract The energy usage and emissions in mined versus lab-created diamonds was evaluated, based on industrial data, since these two factors are often a general indicator of environmental impact that can be useful in product comparisons. Depending on the process and the location of the mine, the data can be highly divergent and cannot be used as a singular measure of environmental impact. There is a need to develop life cycle analysis techniques from industrial ecology to conduct a detailed comparison of synthetic versus mined stones. Introduction Synthetic diamonds have come of age, and the year 2010 will be remembered as a landmark year in this regard since for the first time labs of the Gemological Institute of America (GIA) in New York were able to grade a gem quality near-colorless synthetic diamond (formed by chemical vapor deposition) , greater than 1 carat. The history of synthetic diamonds at the industrial level, goes back to patents for super-abrasives at General Electric can be traced back to several decades (Hazen, 1996). However, gem quality synthetic diamonds have only risen to prominence in the last decade with the rise of a few key companies who are taking on this growing market in concert with boutique jewelry brands. As jewelers consider environmental social responsibility more seriously in marketing their gemstone products, energy usage in mined versus lab-created gems can be an important factor in determining comparative environmental impact.
    [Show full text]
  • OF SYNTHETIC DIAMONDS. Introduction
    PI ^ AU9817130 IONOLUMINESCENCE (IL) OF SYNTHETIC DIAMONDS. A. A. Bettiol, K. W. Nugent, D. N. Jamieson and S. Prawer School of Physics, Microanalytical Research Centre, University of Melbourne, Parkville, 3052, AUSTRALIA. Introduction The optical properties of natural and synthetic diamonds have been extensively characterized in the past by absorption and luminescence. The use of such techniques as cathodoluminescence, photoluminescence, photoluminescence excitation and electron spin and paramagnetic resonance has resulted in the identification of many impurity and defect related optical centres in diamond [1-2]. Of the impurities found in diamond, nitrogen is by far the most abundant and hence responsible for most of the optical properties [3]. The development of diamond synthesis methods has resulted in the discovery of a number of a new optically active impurities and defects which are introduced during the growth process. These include Si, O, Ni and B [1-2]. In this study we identify a number of defect and impurity related centres in two commercially produced synthetic diamond samples by using the novel technique of ionoluminescence (IL) [4]. The first sample characterized is a Norton polycrystalline diamond detector. Signal produced in any charged particle detector is degraded if recombination of the electrons and holes occurs before the charge can be swept out by the electric field in the detector. In diamonds where the radiative recombination cross-section can be quite high, signal degradation can occur depending on the optical centres present and their lifetimes. Recombination centres with lifetimes much longer than the sweep out time will potentially saturate hence only cause a degradation of signal.
    [Show full text]
  • DIAMOND Natural Colorless Type Iab Diamond with Silicon-Vacancy
    Editors Thomas M. Moses | Shane F. McClure DIAMOND logical and spectroscopic features con- Natural Colorless Type IaB firmed the diamond’s natural origin, – Diamond with Silicon-Vacancy despite the occurrence of [Si-V] emis- Defect Center sions. No treatment was detected. Examination of this stone indicated The silicon-vacancy defect, or [Si-V]–, that the [Si-V]– defect can occur, albeit is one of the most important features rarely, in multiple types of natural dia- in identifying CVD synthetic dia- monds. Therefore, all properties should monds. It can be effectively detected be carefully examined in reaching a using laser photoluminescence tech- conclusion when [Si-V]– is present. nology to reveal sharp doublet emis- sions at 736.6 and 736.9 nm. This Carmen “Wai Kar” Lo defect is extremely rare in natural dia- monds (C.M. Breeding and W. Wang, “Occurrence of the Si-V defect center Figure 1. Emissions from the Screening of Small Yellow Melee for in natural colorless gem diamonds,” silicon-vacancy defect at 736.6 and Treatment and Synthetics Diamond and Related Materials, Vol. 736.9 nm were detected in this Diamond treatment and synthesis 17, No. 7–10, pp. 1335–1344) and has 0.40 ct type IaB natural diamond. have undergone significant develop- been detected in very few natural type ments in the last decade. During this IIa and IaAB diamonds over the past showed blue fluorescence with natural time, the trade has grown increasingly several years. diamond growth patterns. These gemo- concerned about the mixing of treated Recently, a 0.40 ct round brilliant diamond with D color and VS2 clarity (figure 1) was submitted to the Hong Figure 2.
    [Show full text]
  • De Beers Natural Versus Synthetic Diamond Verification Instruments
    DE BEERSNATURAL VERSUS By Christopher M.Welbourn, Martin Cooper, and Paul M,Spear Twoinstruments have been developed at he subject of cuttable-quality synthetic diamonds De Beers DTC Research Centre, has been receiving much attention in the gem trade Maidenhead, to distinguish synthetic dia- recently. Yellow to yellow-brown synthetic diamonds grown monds from natural diamonds. The in Russia have been offered for sde at a number of recent DiainondSureTMenables the rapid exami- gem and jewelry trade shows (Shor and Weldon, 1996; nation of large numbers of polished dia- monds, both loose and set in jewehy. Reinitz, 1996; Johnson and Koivula, 1996))and a small num- Automatically and with high sensitivity, ber of synthetic diamonds have been submitted to gem grad- this instrument detects the presence of the ing laboratories for identification reports (Fryer, 1987; 415 nm optical absorption line, which is Reinitz, 1996; Moses et al., 1993a and b; Emms, 1994; found in the vast majority of natural dia- Kammerling et al., 1993, 1995; Kammerling and McClure, monds but not in synthetic diamonds. 1995). Particular concern was expressed following recent Those stones in which this line is detected announcements of the production and planned marketing of are "passed" by the instrument, and those near-colorless synthetic diamonds (Koivula et al., 1994; in which it is not detected are "referredfor "Upfront," 1995). further tests." The DiamondViewTRfpro- Synthetic diamonds of cuttable size and quality, and the duces a fluorescence image of the surface of technology to produce them, are not new. In 1971, researchers a polished diamond, from which the growth structure of the stone may be deter- at the General Electric Company published the results of mined.
    [Show full text]
  • Large Man-Made Diamond Single Crystals: Manufacture, Properties and Application
    Large man-made diamond single crystals: manufacture, properties and application Dr. Sergey A.Terentjev , the head of Department of Single Crystal Growth. Technological Institute for Superhard and Novel Carbon Materials ( ТISN СМ ) E-mail: Diamond is a material possessing a unique complex of physical and chemical properties which potentially allow using it, besides traditional application in the processing industry, in Hi- Tech branches also. Such use of diamond restrains by insufficient quantity of natural perfect raw material of so-called "device" quality. Single crystals of diamond grown up in laboratory conditions differ from natural, first of all, in high reproducibility of physical properties (impurities level, an optical transparency, heat conductivity, specific electric resistance, etc.). Creation of technologies for cultivation a high purity «nitrogen free» (IIa type) and semi- conductor (IIb type) large diamond single crystals, which are extremely rare among natural diamonds and very expensive, is of the great interest and simultaneously of the greatest difficulty. Technologies for manufacture of both IIa and IIb diamond single crystals 0.5 to 5.0 carat in weight (characteristic size 3÷8 mm) from solvent/catalyst melt of transitive metals at high static pressures and temperatures (based on a temperature gradient growth technique) have been developed by Dr. Terentiev’s research team some years ago and successfully introduced in industrial department of ТISN СМ . Man-made IIa type single crystals are characterized by an optical transparency in a less than 25 µm wave lengths region and have fundamental absorption edge at 225 nanometers. Their thermal conductivity reaches 2000 Wt/m• К. Nitrogen concentration (a basic impurity element) level does not exceed 2 рр m (usually less than 1 рр m).
    [Show full text]
  • Method of Making Synthetic Diamond Film
    Europaisches Patentamt European Patent Office © Publication number: 0 597 445 A2 Office europeen des brevets EUROPEAN PATENT APPLICATION © Application number: 93118150.7 int. Ci.5; C23C 16/00, C23C 16/26 @ Date of filing: 09.11.93 ® Priority: 10.11.92 US 973994 32 Cornell Street Arlington, MA 02174(US) @ Date of publication of application: Inventor: Frey, Robert M. 18.05.94 Bulletin 94/20 77 Santa Isabel Nr.2-14 Laguna Vista, Texas 78578(US) © Designated Contracting States: DE FR GB 0 Representative: Diehl, Hermann, Dr. © Applicant: NORTON COMPANY Dipl.-Phys. et al 1 New Bond Street DIEHL, GLASER, HILTL & PARTNER Worcester, MA 01615-0008(US) Patentanwalte Fluggenstrasse 13 @ Inventor: Simpson, Matthew D-80639 Munchen (DE) © Method of making synthetic diamond film. © The invention describes a method for making a free-standing synthetic diamond film of desired thickness, comprising the steps of: no SELECT TARGET providing a substrate; X THICKNESS OF DIAMOND selecting a target thickness of diamond to be TO BE PRODUCED produced, said target thickness being in the range 200 urn to 1000 urn; finishing a surface of the substrate to a rough- 1 20 finish surface of ness, RA that is a function of the target thickness, substrate to prescribed said roughness being determined from ra Roughness 0.38t/600 urn ^ Ra = 0.50 urn 200 urn < t ^ 600 urn 0.38 urn ^ Ra = 0.50 urn 600 urn < t < 1000 1 30, urn DEPOSIT INTERLAYER where t is the target thickness; said the inter- CM depositing an interlayer on substrate, layer having a thickness in the range 1 to 20 urn; depositing synthetic diamond on said interlayer, by I40.
    [Show full text]
  • CVD Synthetic Diamond Identifed in the GIT-GTL
    Lab Update CVD Synthetic Diamond Identified in the GIT-GTL Supparat Promwongnan, Thanong Leelawatanasuk, Thanapong Lhuaamporn of the GIT-Gem Testing Laboratory Keywords: CVD, HPHT, Synthetic, Diamond, Color enhancement, spectroscopy, treatment Figure 1. A total of 27 faceted slightly tinted yellow CVD-grown synthetic diamonds were sent to the GIT-GTL for diamond grading reports, as of natural origin. The samples selected have an average weight of 0.40 ct. Photo by S. Promwongnan. Introduction – infrared absorption spectra showing the of these samples ranged from VVS2 to SI1. During the past decade, a large number of presence of trace amounts of nitrogen The colour grade of the diamonds is slightly gem-quality synthetic diamonds have entered defect at 1344 cm−1; tinted yellow. All samples were further the diamond industry with a wide range of – photoluminescence spectra showing strong tested with the D-Screen which is a portable quality in terms of size, colour and clarity. emissions from N-V centres and distinct diamond screening device. The internal Consequently, there have been reports of cases doublet peaks at 736.6 nm and 736.9 nm, features were observed under a gemmologi- of fraud in the diamond business, for example: related to the Si-related defect; cal microscope. Furthermore between crossed intentionally selling synthetic diamond as – the lamellar growth patterns seen with the polarizers, strain patterns and interference natural diamond or intentionally mixing a DiamondView imaging system. colours could be seen. All photomicrographs were collected by a Canon EOS 7D Photo- natural diamond parcel with a synthetic one. All these characteristics can be used to sepa- microscope.
    [Show full text]
  • The Element Six Cvd Diamond Handbook
    THE ELEMENT SIX CVD DIAMOND HANDBOOK Contact Element Six Technologies at [email protected] CONTENTS INTRODUCING DIAMOND 3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 4 DIAMOND CLASSIFICATION 5 DIAMOND SYNTHESIS 6 TYPES OF CVD DIAMOND 7 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 8 MECHANICAL STRENGTH 9 POLISHING OF DIAMOND 10 DIAMOND SURFACES 11 PROPERTIES OPTICAL PROPERTIES 12 OPTICAL CONSTANTS 13 RAMAN SCATTERING 14 SINGLE CRYSTAL OPTICS 15 POLYCRYSTALLINE OPTICS 16 EMISSIVITY AND RF WINDOWS 17 PRECISION COMPONENTS 18 Advances in the synthesis and processing THERMAL PROPERTIES 19 technology for CVD diamond has resulted ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES 20 in materials with exceptional diamond properties in practical components. ELECTROCHEMICAL PROPERTIES 21 Engineered single crystal CVD diamond, with ultra low absorption and birefringence DATASHEETS combined with long optical path lengths, ELECTRONIC GRADES 22 has made Monolithic Diamond Raman OPTICAL AND RF GRADES 23 Lasers a practical reality. MECHANICAL GRADES 24 THERMAL GRADES 25 ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADE 26 FURTHER READING 27 The Element Six CVD Diamond Handbook 2 INTRODUCING DIAMOND Diamond is characterised by its exceptional hardness, robustness and its optical and thermal properties; pre-eminent as a gemstone and an industrial tool. Natural diamond has an inherent variability and scarcity that limits its use in engineering applications. Developments in synthesis processes have enabled the production of consistently engineered synthetic diamond; firstly in the 1950s using high pressure and high temperature and later using chemical vapour deposition in the 1980s to produce the IT IS ALL IN THE STRUCTURE exceptional covalent crystal diamond. Diamond’s properties derive from its The modern industrial world consumes structure; tetrahedral covalent bonds approximately 800 tonnes of synthetic between its four nearest neighbours, diamond, around 150 times the amount of linked in a cubic lattice.
    [Show full text]
  • Graphene-Diamond Heterostructures
    Graphene-Diamond Heterostructures Fang Zhao This thesis is submitted for the degree Doctor of Philosophy. Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering University College London November 2014 Declaration The work in this thesis is the result of research carried out at University College London, London Centre for Nanotechnology, Diamond Electronics Group. I declare it to be my own work unless referenced to the contrary in the text. Copyright © 2014 by Fang Zhao ―The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotations from it should be published without the author‘s prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged‖. 1 Acknowledgements First and foremost I want to thank my advisor Professor Richard Jackman. It has been an honor to be his PhD student. I appreciate all his contributions of time and ideas to make my PhD experience productive and stimulating. The joy and enthusiasm he has for life and work were contagious me. The members of the Diamond group have contributed immensely to my personal and research time at UCL. I am especially grateful for the fun and friendly group of original Diamond group members when I started my PhD: Aysha Chaudhary, Niall Tumilty, Mose Bevilacqua, Joseph Welch, Ana Carolina Parada, and Robert Edgington. I am very appreciated their enthusiasm, patience, willingness to help me learn all the instruments and give good advice and collaboration. I also want to thank you for the current Diamond group members for enjoyable moments: Mohammad Golsharifi, Alice Taylor, Suguru Amakubo, Alex Pakpour-Tabrizi, Thuong Thuong Nguyen, Adbulkareem Afandi, and Ralph Moors.
    [Show full text]
  • Graphene-On-Diamond Devices with Enhanced Current-Carrying Capacity
    Graphene-on-Diamond: Carbon sp2-on-sp3 Technology, UCR and ANL, Nano Letters (2012) Graphene-on-Diamond Devices with Enhanced Current-Carrying Capacity: Carbon sp2-on-sp3 Technology Jie Yu1,x, Guanxiong Liu1,x, Anirudha V. Sumant2,*, Vivek Goyal1, and Alexander A. Balandin1,* 1Nano-Device Laboratory, Department of Electrical Engineering and Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California, Riverside, California 92521 USA 2Center for Nanoscale Materials, Argonne National Laboratory, Illinois, 60439 USA xThese authors contributed equally to this work *Corresponding authors: E-mail addresses: A.A.B. ([email protected]) and A.V.S. ([email protected]) Nano Letters, 2012 Keywords: graphene, graphene-on-diamond; breakdown current; UNCD; graphene transistors 1 Graphene-on-Diamond: Carbon sp2-on-sp3 Technology, UCR and ANL, Nano Letters (2012) Images for the Table of Context 2 Graphene-on-Diamond: Carbon sp2-on-sp3 Technology, UCR and ANL, Nano Letters (2012) Abstract Graphene demonstrated potential for practical applications owing to its excellent electronic and thermal properties. Typical graphene field-effect transistors and interconnects built on conventional SiO2/Si substrates reveal the breakdown current density on the order of 1 A/nm2 (i.e. 108 A/cm2) which is ~100× larger than the fundamental limit for the metals but still smaller than the maximum achieved in carbon nanotubes. We show that by replacing SiO2 with synthetic diamond one can substantially increase the current-carrying capacity of graphene to as high as ~18 A/nm2 even at ambient conditions. Our results indicate that graphene’s current-induced breakdown is thermally activated. We also found that the current carrying capacity of graphene can be improved not only on the single-crystal diamond substrates but also on an inexpensive ultrananocrystalline diamond, which can be produced in a process compatible with a conventional Si technology.
    [Show full text]