International Circulation and Local Retaliation: East Asian Television Drama and Its Asian Connotations

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Glynn, Basil ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5880-6486 and Kim, Jeongmee (2013) International circulation and local retaliation: East Asian television drama and its Asian connotations. In: Reading Asian Television Drama: Crossing Borders and Breaking Boundaries. Kim, Jeongmee, ed. Reading Contemporary Television . I.B. Tauris, London, pp. 27-46. pbk-ISBN 9781845118600, e-ISBN 9780755697274. [Book Section] (doi:10.5040/9780755697274.ch-001)

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Jeongmee Kim

00a ReadingAsian-prelim-i-viii.indd 3 01/11/2013 12:23 For Kim Moon-woo, my father, who I miss every day

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Copyright Individual Chapters © 2014 Md Azlanshah, Robert L. Cagle, Brenda Chan, Maimuna Dali Islam, Anthony Fung, Basil Glynn, Hilaria Gössmann, Chris Hudson, Jeongmee Kim, Griseldis Kirsch and Ming-Yeh T. Rawnsley.

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Reading Contemporary Television

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00a ReadingAsian-prelim-i-viii.indd 4 01/11/2013 12:23 Contents

Notes on Contributors vii Acknowledgements xi Editorial Notes xii Introduction: East Asian Television Drama: A Story of Booms, Fevers and Waves 1 Jeongmee Kim

Part I. East Asian Television Drama: Borders and Boundaries 1 International Circulation and Local Retaliation: East Asian Television Drama and its Asian Connotations 27 Basil Glynn and Jeongmee Kim 2 Approximating Cultural Proximity and Accentuating Cultural Di!erence: Cross-Border Transformations in Asian Television Drama 47 Basil Glynn 3 ‘I rili lyke dis’: Forum Culture and the Cosmopolitan Spacing of Asian Television Online 75 Maimuna Dali Islam

00a ReadingAsian-prelim-i-viii.indd 5 01/11/2013 12:23 00a ReadingAsian-prelim-i-viii.indd 6

vi READING ASIAN TELEVISION DRAMA 10 9 8 Part III.KoreanTelevisionDrama:TheLatestWave 7 6 5 Part II.AsianTelevision DramaandWomen 4

Jeongmee Kim Korean WaveDrama Say Ming-Yeh T. Rawnsley Geum of IdentitiesandFood inKorean TVDrama, ‘Korean Wave’ inTaiwan: TheCulturalRepresentation L.Cagle Robert Korean TelevisionDrama ‘Don’t Forget’: TheMusicalDimensionsofSouth Brenda Chan in theKorean TVDrama andGenderRelations ‘Like Sex,Marriage aVirgin’: Hilaria GössmannandGriseldisKirsch Japanese TVDrama Crossing Borders,BuildingBridges:‘AsianStars’in HudsonandMdAzalanshah Chris Transnational Pleasure andModernity Women andTelevision inMalaysia: Soaps, Anthony Y. H.Fung Market withPolitics A New EraofHongKongTelevision: Juxtaposing the Index Bibliography Hallyu

, WaveGoodbye:TheRiseandFallof

Wedding

Dae Jang

305 263 125 101 239 215 193 169 147 01/11/2013 12:23

1 International Circulation and Local Retaliation: East Asian Television Drama and its Asian Connotations Basil Glynn and Jeongmee Kim

In the late 1970s the cultural theorist Jeremy Tunstall pessimistically described how, as a result of cultural imperialism, ‘authentic, traditional and local culture in many parts of the world’ was ‘being battered out of existence by the indiscriminate dumping of large quantities of slick commercial and media products, mainly from the United States’ (1977: 57). However, in contrast to the bleak picture predicted for media rivals of the US, East Asian television production, rather than being pummelled into extinction, is today thriving instead and manufacturing globally popular slick commercial entertainment of its own. Rather than just being a purchasing market for western programmes as a result of a one-way West-to-East ﬂow of programming, East Asia is today producing contraﬂows from east to west in the format trade,1 while its products have been leading, according to some cultural observers, to ‘the declining status of American TV programmes on East Asian TV schedule[s]’ (Lim 2008: 36). This increase in international and

01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 27 01/11/2013 12:25 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 28

28 READING ASIAN TELEVISION DRAMA out of Asia into non-Asian countries and into the homes, hearts hearts homes, the into and countries non-Asian into Asia of breaking out been recently has drama Asian East exchange. transnational cultural in playing is drama television Asian contemporary is rolethe of presented pan-Asianism been hitherto has picture incomplete an that and distinctiveness regional on focus scholarly the EastAsianculturalscene. critical interrogation and evaluation of what has been happening on the forefrontof the at been has that – western than rather work– academic Asia-based and Asian been has it addition, In borders. havenational crossedthat fictions television Asian East to relation in meanings and discourses of construction and consumption the in practices haveand studies invaluablethemes been identifying in Swaziland, Iran, Peru, and Morocco’ (Kim 2011: 126–7). Emphasis ‘Paraguay,as afield viewersnon-Asian of far minds as and places in n sae Esen aus s poe t Wsen ones. Western to opposed as values Eastern shared and pan-Asianism, of aspects femininity,Asian shared as aspirations sharedissues such various exploring to relation in have andthese viewers discussed Asian East and countries Asian East between scholarly works have displayed a tendency to identify commonalities Asia. focusing Primarily on East Asian audiences, a number of these East on success this of impact the contemplated have that insightful studies and important numerous of composition the inspired recently has Asia East within drama television Asian East of story English language’ (Keane et al. 2007: 20), the contemporary success the in least at – Asia in television on published research little was and ofbeingAsian. Asia to belonging awaremorenowof are Asians that say to fair is it drama, television Asian of popularity widespread the of because part in but, 98–9), (Waterman1994: Rogers region and Asian the ‘Hollywood’to relativelybeen in time long a unimportant for had pride in and their confidence own increased culture(s). and Asian cultural countries, products other as an to alternative access cultural greater with Asians many provided has trade cultural inter-Asian oee, hs hpe wl age ht dabc o such of drawback a that argue will chapter this However, In contrast to to the ‘prior the period 1990’s … [when] … there 2 Such 01/11/2013 12:25 INTERNATIONAL CIRCULATION AND LOCAL RETALIATION 29

01/11/2013 12:25 3 Jewel in the in Jewel ( Dae Jang Geum Jang Dae East Asian Pop Dae Jang Geum Jang Dae “close” a!nity “close” between the

, Chua and Iwabuchi discuss , the Chua and Iwabuchi , MBC 2003–4) in several East Asian countries. They point Chosun dynasty [during which time the drama was set] and Chinese and set] was drama the time which [during dynasty Chosun a trueto hold well may explanation this Whilst 6). (2008b: history’ success in East Asian great extent when accounting for the drama’s majoritypopulation, or Chinese large ethnic a countrieshave that Culture: Analysing the Culture: Korean Analysing Wave drama Korean the of success exceptional Palace out that historical costume drama is not typically a popular genre in inter-Asian cultural but exchange, attribute the main reason for this particular success drama’s to the ‘ East Asian Television Drama and Pan-Asian-ness East Asian Television A number of critics have tried to identify Asian-specific reasons for the success of East Asian television example, drama within in Asia. the For introduction to the anthology In addition, it will be asserted that an excessive concentration on pan-Asian aspects and the socially positive impacts of divisive and East desirable socially less the of Asian many obscured have drama nationalistic discourses that have surrounded transmission. border inter-Asian cross- on the Asian-ness of Asian television drama, it will be proposed, has resulted in neglect of aspects of the dramas that are appealing to broad non-Asianbroad very into fit not do who but audiences. drama Asian East watch ardently Further, large audiences who definitions of what it means to be Asian have been marginalized. Corporation the drama, and it that broadcast (ZBC), the company autographed of prizesconsisted that three for essays 1,600 attracted was so was popular in the Middle East and Africa where a much lesser degree of cultural proximity exists in relation to China or Korea. The drama itself clearly had an appeal that transcended its Asian cultural specificity when it was essay- an instance, very for Zimbabwe, In Egypt. well-received and Zimbabwe in as such countries writing competition was held by the Zimbabwe Broadcasting it carries little relevance when tryingclarify when to why carries it relevance little 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 29 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 30

30 READING ASIAN TELEVISION DRAMA countries as a primary reason for the greater success that Korean that success greater the for reason primary a as countries Western popular culture into that a form is palatable to other Asian via Western plots’ (Cho2011:396). (Confucianism, family bonds, patriarchy, pure love, filial piety, etc.) throughstates, ‘shrewdCho valuesas representationstraditional of seen to absorb and indigenize Western dramatic output, in its case, been Yanghas that nation haveanother Korea(2006) as identified and Son and (2005) Shin (2009), Ryoo (2008), KeehyeungLee, (2006), Kim H.-K. (2011), Cho (2005), Cho (2005), Baik as such between Western ‘translator and such Asian’ one popular is culture Japan (Iwabuchi that 2002b: 161). suggested Scholars been has It consumption. Asian for them re-encoding and formats television western-encoded translating at adept become have they because nations in East Asia have only become as successful as they are today have already suggested that some of the larger television-producing scholars Several Asian-ness. unambiguous its for argue to di!cult very problematicis it context, global because,a looked in when at often sidelined. are there, nor here specifically neither are they because precisely are not. Therefore, areas of common (or global) appeal and interest, some and Asian are some because reasons separate for so doing be viewersof arewho watching enjoyingand showssame the have to for entirely di"erent reasons. Such logic dictates that diverse countries groups non-Asian in popular be only consequently can drama the example), for values, Confucian (shared Asian distinctively identified as been have be that to reasons for deemed countries is Asian in drama popular East television of a If success drama. the television for Asian accounting in aspects pan-Asian upon focus exclusive an in inherentproblems key the of one highlights by explanationswhichfocusonAsian-specificfeatures. drama the border-crossing ability of which cannot be accounted for Young-ae( Lee star, the of posters Jung-Sun Park (2006) sees Korea’s superior ability to interpret interpret to ability Korea’s superior sees (2006) Park Jung-Sun also is drama Asian East of Asian-ness the on focus The of popularity The Dae Jang Geum Jang Dae Donga-Ilbo in countries like Zimbabwe like countries in 2008). Here was a was Here 2008). 01/11/2013 12:25 INTERNATIONAL CIRCULATION AND LOCAL RETALIATION 31 01/11/2013 12:25 A Winter have been have

‘became the

in 2004 and Vietnamese viewers and Vietnamese viewers di"erences to addition In Dae Jang-geum

], Winter Sonata ’ (2009: 139). (2009: ’ Autumn in Autumn My Heart [aka Lovers in Paris in Lovers has been the most popular genre whereas has in been China, the K-pop whereas most popular genre

In spite of such scholarly observations that there are evident cult to establish the Asian-ness of Asian television television Asian of Asian-ness the establish to di!cult is it as Just erences di"erences between Asian audiences in terms of what East Asian as various assertions(as well like that Western they popular culture country to country. In Japan the television melodrama (e.g. melodrama (e.g. the television In Japan country to country. Sonata) Hong and Taiwan In popular. most the been have groups dance and Kong, historic television dramas such as (2011: 392). the hottest genre’ in national fondness for individual Cho dramas, makes Younghan the important observation that even television drama itself is not necessarily at the forefront when preference, explaining it again in relation comes to the to that Korean Wave Asian audience ‘the that pop ways Korean culture is consumed di"er widely from in di"erent Asian countries. Ryoo Woongjae explains in relation to Korean drama that while rage in Vietnam Japan, and Taiwan, Uzbekistan’, it did not do as well everywhere: ‘In Thailand and Malaysia, people devoured of Autumn Tale to glued were characteristics involve characteristics combinations involve of local and foreign elements (2009: 78). levels’ at multiple programmes, so too are pan-Asian because di"erent tastes forms of hard entertainment to appear to characterize be preferred such as China, Taiwan and Vietnam. Jaz Hee-jeong Choi similarly and Vietnam. Jaz such as China, Taiwan has enabled alike’ ideal balance of ‘foreign-yet suggests that Korea’s it to a occupy position more advantageous as a cultural interpreter within Asia (2008: 151). goes Jung Eun-young so far as to suggest since all at Korean’ ‘authentically not is culture popular Korean that ‘most of its characteristics are transnational and hybrid; and these popular culture currently enjoys over Japanese popular culture in East and Southeast Asia. He argues that hybridizesKorea Western Westernized as yet not is it because e"ectively more culture popular has West, the towards move its of consequence a as which, Japan as now lost much of its cultural a!nity with other Asian countries 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 31 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 32

32 READING ASIAN TELEVISION DRAMA owr t hl acut o te rnntoa itrAin appeal inter-Asian transnational the for account help to forward 2004). 2008;Siriyuvasak MacLachlan andChua2004;Mōri Tong2008; and Lin 2004b; Dong-Hoo Leung 2004; Lee,Ming-tsung Lee, 2008; 2004; Ko 2005; Iwabuchi 2008; Hirata 2004; n mte ad vr heacia scey n Confucianism’ and society 2010). (cited inFarrar hierarchical very a and mother and father the ‘respect argues, he Asians, mentality’. ‘Eastern shared a Broadcasting System), of the attributes Koreanpopularity drama to (Korean KBS channel television Korean the at manager senior a Asian viewers many who share bysimilar cultural val ‘welcomed are they values family and elders for of chord respect of images display right they because that and the sentiments’, Asian ‘touch dramas TV Korean that argues who ‘East JungEun-young by to endorsed view a 35), sentiment’ points (2010: Asian Sung Sang-Yeon 171). (2008: space’ imaginary ‘transnational Asian an create dramas the suggests Lee Dong–Hoo 4). (2007: imagination’ cultural Asian East ‘the to allure regional their attribute Moran 49). Albert and (2002b: Fung Anthony Keane, importance Michael crucial of is audiences Asian between region’ (2008: 78), whilst Iwabuchi posits that a sense of ‘coevality’ to the popularity of East Asian drama series that circulate within the similar physiognomy of the actors ‘undoubtedly contributes greatly relativelythe that suggests Huat Beng Chua dramas. Asian East of 02; Lukács 2002a; Iwabuchi 2008; (Chua modernity Asian-specific 2004a), (Leung Confucian as such values (Chua areas and Iwabuchi at 2008a), Asian-specific looking narrative qualities included have drama Asian East of nature pan-Asian the identify to Attempts 383). (2011: is it why explaining di!culty has himself he though evenculture’ pop of form pan-Asian truly ‘a is drama Asian East that doubt no in Younghanis example,drama. televisionfor Cho, Asian East of and appeals pan-Asian study the of much underpin underlying that keyremainassumptions qualities of are products existence cultural the certain received), how in part their play influences ln te a, ueos hois n trs ae en put been have terms and theories numerous way, the Along

00 ad sa-pcﬁ veig oiin (Chua positions viewing Asian-speciﬁc and 2010) ues’ (2009: 75). Sung Tae-Ho,

01/11/2013 12:25 INTERNATIONAL CIRCULATION AND LOCAL RETALIATION 33

01/11/2013 12:25 ’ (2008: 121). While they may well be so, it is importantis to it so, be well may they While 121). (2008: ’

is just as important when considering the popularity of East

This distinction between ‘regionally celebrated values’ and Asian and values’ celebrated ‘regionally between distinction This Yet as Yet Lin and astutely Tong observe, it is interesting to note and failed to account drama. television for their engagement with East Asian the international rather than national sphere, it does not account for the Asian television fandom of non-Confucian audiences such as Islamic and Christian communities within Asia Hudson and beyond. and Azalanshah maintain that the in focus on Confucian this a inclusivity large has proportion excluded collection, of the Malaysian for television drama audience example, hypotheses hypotheses lose much of their ‘validity when one considers that … not all of the Korean huge dramas audiences in East and Asia emphasize films the Confucian values that that have attracted are assumed to be (cited pan-Asian’ in Cho 2011: 387). Whilst a Confucian focus does facilitate discussion of television drama in values Confucian on focus a because is This Asia. East within drama Asian values only serves to amongst certain dominant explain audience groups in certain East East Asian Asian countries. Even then, as drama’s Son and have Yang popularityargued, Asian-value It is a phrase that is more the widely that recognition applicable its to when due drama discussing Asian East the of appeal pan-Asian values themselves are not Asian-specific but are rather regionally appreciated, allowing for the possibility that them equally. appreciate other regions can “Asian” recognize that such values are also highly in regarded many other, non-Confucian cultures including large parts of the Middle East forward puts Fung Anthony values’, ‘Asian than Africa.Rather and indicate to values’ Asian-centriccelebrated termless ‘regionally the those aspects that East Asian audiences identify with (2007b: 281). that ‘traditional elements’ that feature drama in such as and attitudes love ‘conservative sex, towards female East Asian television family-orientedness, women, respect of quality natural a as chastity for seniors and the elderly’ are very often identified ‘as being 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 33 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 34

34 READING ASIAN TELEVISION DRAMA of people. mass diverse a to attitudes and beliefs involvesassigning it similarly because values Asian of study the as problem-fraught as be to and what it means to be Asian. Yet it is an area that has also proven perceivehowAsians nations themselves,their exploring for spaces conceptual up opened has modernity’ ‘Asian with relationship its modern. Scholarly consideration of becoming) East Asian television (or drama and already and dynamic because as Seoul themselves perceive and Tokyothey as such metropolises in living urban trendy of images consume eagerly drama Asian East of audiences Asian that proposed have They Asia. changing and developing a in life daily modern depicts also televisiondrama Asian East much well as valuesfeaturing that Asians view as signiﬁcant or traditional, as that, out pointed have (2008a) Iwabuchi and Chua audiences, respects itisantithetical toit.Jenny Kwok Wah Lauexplains how: some simple in a Indeed, means 306). no (2004: modernity’ by Western is of replication – life of way a as – modernity ‘Asian that out points Ang Westernization’,Ien of element fundamental now thantheWest. more modern are they that argued be could it that degree a such to developed technologically have Japan like countries Asian that out pointed have (1995) Robbins and For West.Morley theorists the cultural in the example, lie nations modern most the that assumed be spatial zones. Amongst these multiple it modernities, can no longer di"erent into splitting modernities in order requiresto more accurately modernity describe and discuss diverse of notion the times, "erentdi at waysand di "erent in modern havebecome world the Mike Featherstone (1995) has argued that because di"erent parts of Drama Viewing Asian ModernityandItsImpactonEast Trying to conceive of alternative ways to consider mass Asian mass consider to ways alternative of conceive to Trying hl mdriain a uaodby ae novd ‘a involved have unavoidably may modernization While

01/11/2013 12:25 INTERNATIONAL CIRCULATION AND LOCAL RETALIATION 35 01/11/2013 12:25 West, is accompanied by the West, anxiety of that recognizing such material Western toward an unprecedented receptiveness involves advancement ideas, manifested via financial and technological is particularly investments. problematic This in parts of Asia, such as China, that have struggledcolonization in fiercely with the Western past and are trying 1) post-colonial status. (2003: to establish The rapid economic change in the East Asian countries has created a so-called new Asian generation a – source an of both a$uent pride and condition anxiety for that modern success is in Asia. the restructuring and The of in society, the resulting pridecapacity to of create material abundance compatible with that of the contemporary However, this critical focus on Asian modernity does raise prickly raise does modernity Asian on focus critical this However, and which are living in ones that have attained it? Chua directly state of engages with the impact upon consumption of a perceived Chua 2006; Chua 2008; Lin and Tong 2008; Shim 2006a). Chua 2006; Chua 2008; Lin and Tong questions, such as: which Asian countries are modern and which, by comparison, are underdeveloped? Which audience members are living in ‘spatial zones’ that are aspiring towards modernity nity through consuming commonly satisfying images of images satisfying commonly consuming through a!nity cultural an advanced and glamorous Asia. Japanese dramas er o" images of desirable living that other Asian countries can either aspire recently has to drama television or Korean achieved. having pridein take been critically understood as the most recent cultural space where further images of Asian modernity can be negotiated (Cho 2005; forward forward that Asian audiences have come to recognize similarities experiencesAsian modernizationof other’s each in di"erences and (Iwabuchi 2004c). Numerous scholars argued that and Na 2005) have 2002a; 2002b; Leung 2004a; Yoon (Chua 2004; Iwabuchi the consumption of Japanese drama has enabled Asian audiences and contemporaneity of sense shared a with acquainted become to Asian television drama has become a site for exploring both the pride and consumption international the the tensions Through to life’. which of Lau way refers, a ‘as in relation modernity, to Asian of Japanese Asian television fictions, for example, it has been put 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 35 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 36

36 READING ASIAN TELEVISION DRAMA As Lukács points out, ‘the viewers in East Asia and South East Asia signalling of what was hip and fashionable to non-Japanese viewers. from the beginning a major appeal that of Japanese trendy argued drama was haveits 2004) Siriyuvasak 2002; Nakano 2010; Lukács by … collectivities appealing toviewers’ individ lifestyle distinct more ever into population ‘the compartmentalizing in communities’than national particular of members as them interpolating by population ‘the uniting in Japanesethat havetrendyargues dramas always interestedless been example,for Lukács, address viewers Gabriella subjects. national as to failing increasingly is itself television problematicbecause more and more becoming is trajectory linear based geographically a on at a time when particularly assigning ‘national’ fragmentation, positions to viewers cultural as such globalization of influences other positioning such Yetis how culture.also reductive popular gauging because it imported fails for to with take interacts into tool consideration country critical each useful a provide can modernity improvements life’ intheirmaterial (2008b:2). to aspire developingwho the nations in those especially Asia, East the audience of Japanese trendy dramas in the captivatesrest of … East and South modernity ‘consumerist that proposing specifically, theywhen Chua with agreement Japanesediscuss television drama “imaginable” and “desired”an future’of representations (Chua 2008: 89). Iwabuchias is in culture pop Japanese has read Asia to East tendency ofa rest the while was”, that “Japan a for nostalgia evoking “Japan’spast”, of representations as Asia East of rest the cultureshavefrompop Japaneseread the to consumers tendency a argues, ‘has very significant e"ects on the attitude of the consumers: in the middle’ and China ‘at the rear’. ‘Location on this trajectory,’ end, ‘Korea,the most modern Hong Kong, Taiwan and Singapore he at Japan with modernity consumerist capitalist of trajectory linear and popular culture generally tend to be read within Asia along the national development by arguing that Asian television programmes Several cultural commentators (Ko 2004; Lee, Ming-tsung 2004; consumerist capitalist of trajectory linear the on Placement uality’ (2010:4). 01/11/2013 12:25 INTERNATIONAL CIRCULATION AND LOCAL RETALIATION 37

01/11/2013 12:25 points out, Taipei Taipei Times It is highly is debatable that the consumption of such ‘messages’ Hae-Joang Hae-Joang Cho, in her discussion of the underlying appeal of countries she mentions already see would as themselves belonging to class a due ‘sophisticated’ to their status elevated and possession of Chinese fans. Jeon and Yoon (2005), for example, maintain that (2005), for example, of Chinese fans.and Yoon Jeon ‘there is no indication that local audiences in China feel any sense (cited drama Wave Korean of result a as inferioritycultural of fever’ in Ryoo 2009: 149). Cho’s assigning of a higher ‘class’ category to the images presented by Korean popular culture also neglects the fact that certain privileged teenagers within the ‘aspiring’ of superiority Korea toward since it was a not does vassal it state Korea, to of imperial views competing such Given 8). (2002: China’ necessarily follow that adopting fashionable looks popularized in culture dramas equates with feelings of longing for Korean Korean part the on culture Chinese with disappointment concomitant a and as uncontested as Cho assumes. While in China it may well be the as uncontested as well Cho assumes. While in China it may case that ‘South Korean dramas are sold and pirated everywhere, and fans adopt the clothing and hairstyles used by South Korean protagonists’ (Ryoo 2009: 139), as the it is also the case that China has historically ‘felt a strong sense global, and middle-class” citizens in viewing the “sophisticated and “sophisticated the viewing in citizens middle-class” and global, countriesin ‘teenagers that argues she stars”,’ Korean individualistic like China, Thailand, and Vietnam are enthusiastically consuming block-busters Korean-style through ered o" messages and images the 175). (2005: class’ that into enter to desire the with operas soap and as did the state of development of the nation in which they lived. lived. they of the nation in which development as did the state of drama, assumes a Wave similar Korean desire – wish that to ‘they’ be like – ‘us’ as Chua and Iwabuchi in their appraisal of Japanese Hong in Taiwan, contrast to viewers ‘In popularity. drama’s trendy “urban, fellow as identiﬁcation of sense a feel who Japan, and Kong, who were most keen on watching these shows were style-conscious style-conscious were shows these watching on keen most were who young men and women who looked to Japan for tips on fashion, food, and (2010: design’ 195). Particular placement on as the just had linear have to seems therefore, lifespans, own their of trajectory with relationships imported drama impact much on viewers’ many 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 37 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 38

38 READING ASIAN TELEVISION DRAMA following its phenomenal international success. benefits social numerous about bringing as identified particularly nentoa cmoaiy ptnily rnig no en an being into Asian ‘globalvillage’. bringing potentially commonality, foregrounds international and frontiers national transcends It relations. Asian globally positive presence in many respects, in relation a particularly to inter- as viewed broadly be thus can drama television Asian world. overthe all communities diasporic of identities ethnic the sustain to helped has programming Asian that suggested has work Dayan’s (1998) Daniel Asia, East Outside 144). (2009: identities’ new their develop and region other, each the understand over‘communicate, all to fans enabled has drama Asian of circulation optimistic this fulfil to inter-Asian helping the that promise.Woongjaestates example,Ryoo, for as scholars some by seen been has communication transnational of means a as drama television Asia, East Within 252). (1990: communities’ cultural forging of ways new solidarity, and bonding of forms new of opportunities ‘a"ords 1990, in asserted Ang Ien communication,Transnational Korean Television Drama:Pan-AsianorPandora’s Box? audience on pleasure intoasingleconsequenceofcapitalistdevelopment. influences multiple and complex the homogenize desire, and envy cross-cultural by driven as viewing, dramatic of notion Cho’s and modernity consumerist capitalist of linear trajectory Chua’s Both nations. own their within capital cultural of become friendlier orfrostier followingbecome friendlier itsinter-Asiancirculation. has ‘partners’between conversation phenomenon this Wavewhether considering Koreanand the surrounded discourses recently various have at that looking by this do to endeavours next section The conversation. ongoing an in partners as nations Asian as markets populated by consumers, it is more beneficial to consider rather than focusing on capitalist discourse and East Asian countries The Korean serial serial Korean The In contrast to such approaches, K.-H. Lee (2006) suggests that, suggests (2006) Lee K.-H. approaches, such to contrast In 5

itr Sonata Winter s n daa ht a been has that drama one is 6 A survey conducted 4

01/11/2013 12:25 INTERNATIONAL CIRCULATION AND LOCAL RETALIATION 39 ’ 01/11/2013 12:25 Winter Winter popularity in popularity

Winter Sonata Winter ’s ’ ’ (2008: 131). In

by itself did ‘more ‘more did itself by has also been attributed Winter Sonata Winter Winter Sonata Winter Winter Sonata has changed my life!”

revealed that they organized fanrevealed meetings, started Winter Sonata and 22 per cent that it had their increased interest in South found that 31.2 per cent of respondents claimed to have ri’s study Mōri’s of middle-aged Japanese female Yoshitaka fans 7 As well as being credited with transforming the relationship Similar claims have been made for Korean drama’s impact on Winter Sonata with profoundly changing the lives of the viewers who watched it. watched who viewers the of changing lives the profoundly with Kaori reception study Hayashi’s of Japanese female fans of Sonata cent per 10.5 and drama the of fans other among friends new found declared that it had given them a new goal in their lives (2005b: 165). the two countries closer together, countries together, closer two the politically for South Korea and Japan than the FIFA Cup World 140). (2009: co-hosted in 2002’ they between Japan and Korea, Korea (Park 2008; cited in Sung 2010: 28). Apparently the interest interest the Apparently 28). 2010: Sung in cited 2008; (Park Korea so generated greatwas that the drama tourism boosted Japanese to South ‘by Korea 40 percent in the ﬁrst ten months (Han of 2004’ that asserts Ryoo Woongjae 32). 2008: made history ‘melting Japan the cultural barrierby South between he and goes Japan’; so farKorea as that to in say terms of bringing with 2,200 Japanese viewers by the Japanese television NHK, for channel example, strongly indicated that it had that brought believed respondents Japan of cent per 26 together; closer Korea and their image had of been South changed Korea watching by Sonata ‘material brilliance’ (2005: Sung 193). further Sang-Yeon suggests that this new image positive an ‘provided opportunity for Taiwan to others and respect family members after watching watching familymembersafter respect othersand to (2008: 249). example, for Kim, Mee Hyun countries.to Asian other According Korean drama transformed the Taiwanese perception that from Korea of into of an one country’ ‘impoverished containing South of even fans Japanese ‘some and culture and language Korean studying suggested “ audience Koichi Iwabuchi’s research many fans of the drama told caringgentle and more tried become consciously to they ‘that him 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 39 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 40

40 READING ASIAN TELEVISION DRAMA ae en rue b te xot f oen rms o some to dramas Korean of export the by aroused been have (English.chosun.com 2006). stage’cultural the on them outdo to chance the a has finally centuries, country for China, and Japan neighbors, its by shadowed a position when it stated that ‘after having been colonized or over- Ilbo Chosun newspaper Korean The 182). culture’(2008: popular Korean modern of “superiority” the wavedemonstrates Korean ‘the that o!cials and policy makers’ have all government organizations, too media readily major embraced at the ‘journalists concept with along academia’the of members some and critics cultural ‘conservative the Korean Wave (2011: 387). Keehyeung Lee has complained that of a political ‘hot potato’ in Asian countries that have found this found have that countries Asian potato’in ‘hot political a of something KoreanWavebecome and has nations receivingdrama ability and even Korean ‘cultural DNA’ unhealthyKoreathe within condemned focus Koreanhas on itself YounghanCho 2007). Kim (see neighbours Asian over conquest cultural perceived a and pride national to relate that country the from emanating sentiments jingoistic unpleasantly been also have like dramas of receptionpositive the followinggrowingAsian-ness of of bonds descriptions panegyrical Waveof Korean consisted the just surrounding Koreahavenot in form alternative an as to with significant disfavour. As well as being viewed as an alternative Korean solidarity’, and bonding of Wave forms met also has drama Shim ‘new forging 2005; in benefits apparent its (Cho of spite However,in 2005). imperialism cultural Western to alternative Asian welcome a as quarters some in regarded critically been has KoreanWavethe that understandable is it members, audience and 44). (2010: 1992 in countries two the betweenrelations diplomatic of Koreaand buildpositiveto relationships’ following breakdownthe cultural imperialism, the Korean Wave has also been construed construed been WaveKoreanalso the has imperialism, cultural ie sc jnosi ntoait iesos clua tensions cultural dimensions, nationalist jingoistic such Given Given its apparently favourable influence on East Asian countries provides just one illustrative example of adopting such providesadopting illustrativeof one example just of cultural imperialism by many.by Discourses imperialism cultural Winter Sonata Winter 8 as reasons for the success of abroad. There abroad. The 01/11/2013 12:25

INTERNATIONAL CIRCULATION AND LOCAL RETALIATION 41 01/11/2013 12:25 Dae Jang , criticizing its content with as being ‘boring, tempoed’ slow Korean Korean programs and carried signs saying ‘No More Korean Wave’. (English.chosun.com 2011a) thousands of Japanese demonstrated against Korean soap operas and other TV shows in front of the Fuji TV headquarters … The size of the protest – some 6,000 according to the organizers – was roughly the same as the turnout during an anti-nuclear protest following the ﬂags, Japanese accident plant. at Waving the Fukushima nuclear power airingstop to broadcaster the demanding slogans chanted protesters the In Japan anti-Korean Wave sentiments have been just as strongly strongly as just been have sentiments Wave anti-Korean Japan In Korean Wave on Twitter on on 23 Twitter Korean Wave July 2011. He stated that ‘it feels like Korean programs brainwash you, and it really makes me feel bad. Broadcasters need to realize its (Soompi.com negative e"ect’ 2011). A month later: also joined in the chorus of voices to resist the Korean Wave (Leung Wave Korean the resist to voices of chorus the in joined also 2008: 65–6). felt. The Japanese actor the channel leading airingJapanese Sousuke Fuji TV, to boycott movement Takaoka triggered an online the most Korean shows, when he announced his aversion to the exports (Maliangkay 2006: 15). He particularly disliked Geum that claiming by theft cultural of it accused and creativity’, of ‘lack a the acupuncture, cookery skills and herbal medicine presented in the drama as Korean were in fact of Chinese origin. Jackie Chan been of particular concern in countries like China and Vietnam who have long had issues and it perceive as being repackaged with and in relayed Korean dramas American-style consumerism, with their focus on glitz and glamour (2009: 148). In China, the Korean the called Li, Kuo Zhang dramas, epic popular of producer countrymentheir his urged and reject to invasion’ ‘cultural a Wave alternative alternative to American cultural imperialism equally objectionable (see Yang 2008b). As early as growing sentiments 2005, against the in Korean Jeon East Wave Asia and due to Yoon observed the expansion of its media industries into neighbouring countries. Ryoo points out that imported South popular Korean culture has 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 41 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 42

42 READING ASIAN TELEVISION DRAMA ( commercials in ‘tourism-linked to be airedand appearing overseas’ including Bae Yong-joon visiting Japan to promote Korean tourism the government also laid plans for a Korean Wave festival, with stars its across borders’ surging (Lieu culture2012). As part of pop the 2010–12 Korean‘Visit Korea’ of wave campaign the keep help to of support expand to policy 2012 a ‘announced Choe shik Kwang- Minister Tourism and Sports Culture, Korean the 2011 on a more direct role in overseeing On 31 their December export. taking and 126) 2011: (Kim dramas’Korean some of production to turn around its declining fortunes and re-initiate the Korean Wave.‘soft power’ within Asia, the Korean government has been very keen relations.As drama has become an established instrument of Korean saleabilityitsgoods,of has gained popular currencyinternational in throughregionimprovinga enhanced inthebe thus andimage its scholar American Joseph the Nye by(1990; 2004) coinedto encapsulate power’, how ‘soft a nation’s term inﬂuence can The 2011). region’ (Kang the Korea’s in reputation boost to tool a – vehicle country’spowerthesoft of aculture abroad,industryas viewing it government ‘Seoul’s because 148).ForKoreanthe government matterseriousbecomethishas a popularity,‘declineitsof a completeas not demise’if (Ryoo2009: KoreanWave’interpretedthe been of has which390) 2011: (Cho intensity and ‘decreasingmomentum noticeable a was there 2009 was perceived there astargetedatKorean dramainparticular. Koreaand in while a for anticipated been had movethat a 2012), (Jang pm) 10 and 7 (between time prime during outright drama foreign banned and further even gone has government Chinese percentage of South Korean dramas shown ( the reducewould it that condition the on 2011 December 28 on Commission only renewed Gala Television’s drama channel license Taiwan,In Taiwaneseexample,the for Communications National Similar anti-Korean wave activities have occurred throughout Asia. The KoreaHerald As part of the solution theysolution the of have part As of costs the ‘subsidizing begun by little, a or lot a contributed has hostility growing Whether 2010).

has actively supported the expansion the activelysupported has Taipei Times 2011). The Hallyu 9 01/11/2013 12:25 , INTERNATIONAL CIRCULATION AND LOCAL RETALIATION 43 01/11/2013 12:25 , for instance, stated that The Korea Times The negative reaction to the Korean overseas Wave has not

As long ago as 1818 the English poet John Keats recognized Such associations of Korean drama with national well-being of cultural imperialism. Then, the be a cultural mechanism that would phenomena hinder peace and would coexistence in the gone unnoticed in Korea and some have perceived its decline as potentially catastrophic. ‘if distorts the wave Korean or encroaches on the vitality of other Asian cultures, it be would nothing short of an East Asian version ‘aggressive ‘aggressive marketing strategies’ and ‘nationalistic content’ (2009: 16). Sitterson 2000: 113) and it would seem the same is true of recognize drama to able increasingly become have audiences Asian as today Wave. aspects of the Korean the nationalistic intentions motivating Ah-young Chung, for its of result a as largely grown has example, Japan and China in Wave argues Korean that resistance to the Eco’s ideological Eco’s organized warfare, resistance has instead become the response in countries such as Japan, China where and Taiwan undesirable ideological additives to Korean drama’s formula have and opposed. been perceived that ‘we hate poetry that has a palpable design upon (cited us’ in Ien Ang could write safe in the knowledge that audiences ‘textual and tricks’ ‘more skilful about in television’s ‘in were the know’ reading television and the peculiarities of its generic conventions’ because ‘the pervasiveness of than Rather television 22). (2007: life’ culture everyday of feature naturalised entirely has become an aggressive aggressive government intervention has happened at a time when become most skilled more probably in audiences recognizing have subtexts of television content. In contrast to the mid-1980s when Umberto Eco (1986) felt a form of ‘semiological guerrilla warfare’ was required on the part of audiences to make them more aware of the ideological content that they were consuming, by 2007, and Korean ‘soft power’ have and become have Korean ‘soft one power’ of the biggest setbacks that faces, the as Korean Wave it has become virtually impossible to disentangle Korean drama from its promotion of Korea. This is problematic because this latest intertwining of drama and more 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 43 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 44

44 READING ASIAN TELEVISION DRAMA of hilarious comedy and moving tragedy. Yet the dramas themselves moments and characters national unique own their cultures, their own of depiction their in lies that value a cinematography, and acting storytelling, aesthetics, within lies that them to appeal an is There Asians. wellas as non-Asians by embraced and content and form in diverse country,widely Asian every in created materials, Korean lifestyles. or Japanese of envy Asian-wide or modernity of visions speciﬁc more to East Asian drama than shared Confucian values, nationally and micro levels. What has also been argued is that there is certainly macroat areasfriction other of myriad and identities, Chinese and Malay values, Muslim and Confucian agendas, foreign and local national distinctiveness, past and present relationships,international and commonality cultural between pull and push the still is there cultures that the growth of cross-border television seems to suggest, other’seach to openness increasing and products cultural share to willingness growing the alongside exchange, the Within rejected. borders waysthe theyareupon viewed,which impact in crossand or embraced texts television successfully how in part their play also anxieties proximity,cultural cultural as well as that, fact the rising’‘Asian it, overlyput not Chua should and 6) (2005: obscure discourses critical relating to the notion of pan-Asianism or, as Erni numerous the that argued been has It exchange. television Asian East of aspects discussed less and attractive less the of proﬁle the major approachescritical to East Asian television drama and to raise the interrogateof to some chapter this of intention the been has It Concluding Thoughts Ki-tae Kim, in (cited region’ o ae rue a mc hae rato a a oeta nuclear potential a meltdown. as reaction heated much as aroused have to Japan,in anti-Koreanagain, Then Wave seems certainly sentiment suggest that television drama could lead to such dire consequences. h daa tesle ae rnhd ih oa cultural local with drenched are themselves dramas The

06. ehp i i to uh to much too is it Perhaps 2006). 01/11/2013 12:25

INTERNATIONAL CIRCULATION AND LOCAL RETALIATION 45 01/11/2013 12:25 was actually Dae Jang Geum when viewing imported dramas. when viewing television A term popularized Marshall McLuhan (1964). by as a lifestyle resource that fans could make use of to ‘expand their tastes their ‘expand to of use make fanscould that resource lifestyle a as (2009: 746–7). life’ in everyday and activities For example, in their study of Asian female viewers in Singapore and MacLachlan respectively, and Taiwan Chua (2004) and (2008a) Yang demonstrate that the viewer’s class and social (marital) status within their own culture can also greatly influence audience identification newspaper newspaper coverage in Korea, China and Japan, Kim reveals that the values Confucian traditional to challenge a quite considered was drama in Korea, whereas in China it was as viewed tale a that woman’s very much connected the heroine ‘with Confucian values and Confucianism culture’. of In context the of outside perceived was it however, Japan, Fung (2007b), Kim, Hyun Mee (2005), Kim, Sujeong (2009), Leung (2004a), Lee, Dong-Hoo (2008), Leung (2008), (2008), Lin and Tong Miller (2008), Otmazgin, Nissim and Eyal, Ben-Ari (2010). (2009), Shim (2005), Shim (2006a) and Wong (2011), Ryoo Sujeong Kim’s research suggests that quite within di"erently received even Confucian countries. Analyzing See Desser (2003) for a discussion of Hong how and Kong have Japan in terms of cultural production. long influenced the West (2008), Chua (2006), Chua (2011), Cho (2005), Cho example, for See,

5 4 3 1 2

Notes focus on the former implies that East Asian drama is to all intents and purposes a phenomenon restricted to Asia and the Asians, latter it and is currently under-examined aspects that very are moment enabling East Asian at television drama to surge across this world. the and non-Asian, all over borders, both Asian are receding from view are in receding from contemporary critical exchange as their social and political dimensions become increasingly foregrounded. what the dramas Ultimately, is represent being in overstated terms of their Asian qualities whilst the termsin artistic their of Whereas qualities. overlooked increasingly dramas themselves are being 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 45 01 ReadingAsian-Ch1-025-046.indd 46

46 READING ASIAN TELEVISION DRAMA

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anime drama TV the of success the After cartoons. animated into turned been also Japan (Han 2008: 35) and was made into a Other cartoon. dramas have Winter Sonata who didn’t com rikon weddings, and there was held talk Couples about the … wears … [Bae] ones the like just are that glasses for frames marketing began optometrists … Asia over all wellDevelopments,sold Pharma Advance named company Australian … 2005 YonThe Laura Miller: to ‘Yon-sama juice could be Accordingbought from street vending behaviour.machines. drama-inspired and merchandising The popularity of quota ofKorean-imported dramasby half. Televisionallowedand the reduceFilm to of intended Administration 2006 as early As See, forexample, Yoo etal.(2005). inthiscollection. Kirsch Griseldis and Gössmann Hilaria see work Hayashi’s of discussion further For os TV series, however, she had numerous animal companions including an a 12-year-old with an girl ambition to cook excellent food. Unlike the trich andaturtle. trich ), a result of women’s disenchantment with fuddy duddy husbands Dae JangDae Geum Shop Changumu no Yumeno Changumu Shop sama Teddy Bear, priced at about US$ 291, went on sale in sale on went 291, US$ about at Teddypriced Bear, sama itr So Winter was also adapted into a musical that toured major cities in pare well to kind and handsome Yon-sama’

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