CONTINUOUS PRODUCTIVE URBAN LANDSCAPES Cpul-FM.Qxd 02/01/2005 9:07 PM Page Ii Cpul-FM.Qxd 02/01/2005 9:07 PM Page Iii
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Cpul-FM.qxd 02/01/2005 9:07 PM Page i CONTINUOUS PRODUCTIVE URBAN LANDSCAPES Cpul-FM.qxd 02/01/2005 9:07 PM Page ii Cpul-FM.qxd 02/01/2005 9:07 PM Page iii CONTINUOUS PRODUCTIVE URBAN LANDSCAPES: DESIGNING URBAN AGRICULTURE FOR SUSTAINABLE CITIES André Viljoen Katrin Bohn Joe Howe AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Architectural Press is an imprint of Elsevier Cpul-FM.qxd 02/01/2005 9:07 PM Page iv Architectural Press An imprint of Elsevier Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 30 Corporate Drive, Burlington, MA 01803 First published 2005 Copyright © 2005, André Viljoen. All rights reserved. The right of André Viljoen to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1T 4LP.Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science and Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK; phone: ϩ44-0-1865-843830; fax: ϩ44-0-1865-853333; e-mail: [email protected]. You may also complete your request on-line via the Elsevier homepage (http://www.elsevier.com), by selecting ‘Customer Support’ and then ‘Obtaining Permissions’. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0 7506 55437 For information on all Architectural Press publications visit our website at architecturalpress.com Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems Pvt Ltd, Chennai, India Printed and bound in Great Britain Cpul-FM.qxd 02/01/2005 9:07 PM Page v CONTENTS Foreword ix Preface xi Acknowledgements xii Illustrations: credits and permissions xiii Contributors xv An introductory glossary xviii André Viljoen and Katrin Bohn Part One Carrot and City:The Concept of CPULs 1 1 New space for old space: An urban vision 3 Katrin Bohn and André Viljoen Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: London in 2045 4 Ecological Intensification 7 London in 2045: Postscript 8 2 More space with less space: An urban design strategy 10 Katrin Bohn and André Viljoen What are CPULs? 11 Why CPULs? 12 Where will CPULs be? 15 Part Two Planning for CPULs: Urban Agriculture 17 3 More food with less space: Why bother? 19 André Viljoen, Katrin Bohn and Joe Howe Food and urban design 21 Why urban food? 21 The environmental case for urban agriculture 22 Organic urban agriculture 25 Seasonal consumption 26 Local growing and trading of crops 29 4 Urban agriculture and sustainable urban development 32 Herbert Giradet Taking stock 33 Energy and land-use 33 Nutrient flows 34 Relearning Urban Agriculture 35 Cities as sustainable systems 38 5 Food Miles 40 Angela Paxton Introduction 41 The food miles food chain 41 Implications of the food miles chain 44 Forces behind the food miles 45 Solutions 46 6 Sandwell: A rich country and food for the poor 48 André Viljoen 7 Plan it: An inclusive approach to environmentally sustainable planning 52 Dr Susannah Hagan v Cpul-FM.qxd 02/01/2005 9:07 PM Page vi CONTENTS 8 New cities with more life: Benefits and obstacles 56 Joe Howe, André Viljoen and Katrin Bohn Socio-cultural benefits 57 Economic benefits 57 Health benefits 59 Obstacles to urban agriculture 60 9 The economics of urban and peri-urban agriculture 65 James Petts Introduction 66 Micro-economic aspects 68 Motives for UPA 68 Supply 69 Market entry, demand, and prices 71 Macro-economic aspects 72 Policy conclusions 73 10 Changing consumer behaviour: The role of farmers’ markets 78 Nina Planck 11 The social role of community farms and gardens in the city 82 Jeremy Iles What is a community garden or a city farm? 83 The benefits of a community garden or city farm project 83 Policy on food production and sustainability 85 Encouraging an existing or new project 86 A vision for the future 87 The Federation of City Farms and Community Gardens 87 Notes 88 12 Recycling systems at the urban scale 89 Dr Margi Lennartsson Part Three Planning for CPULs: Open Urban Space 93 13 Food in time: The history of English open urban space as a European example 95 Joe Howe, Katrin Bohn and André Viljoen Where we live is where we grow 97 Industrial revolution and suburban utopias: the divorce of cities and food production 98 Urban food and conflict 101 Urban rebuilding and urban food decline 104 Revival and diversification of urban food growing 105 Urban agriculture and sustainability 106 14 Food in space: CPULs amongst contemporary open urban space 108 Katrin Bohn and André Viljoen CPULs for European cities 109 The open urban space atlas 109 15 Designs on the plot: The future for allotments in urban landscapes 124 Professor David Crouch and Richard Wiltshire Allotments as (open) green space 125 Allotments as urban landscape 127 Allotments as negotiated communities 129 The plot for designers 130 Part Four Planning for CPULs: International Experience 133 16 Urban agriculture in Havana: Opportunities for the future 135 Jorge Peña Díaz and Professor Phil Harris The challenge 136 People’s and government’s response 137 vi Cpul-FM.qxd 02/01/2005 9:07 PM Page vii CONTENTS Rural agriculture and urban horticulture in Cuba 138 Urban and peri-urban agriculture in Havana 140 Havana: antecedents and current development 140 The experience of the 1990s 142 Conclusions 143 References 145 17 Cuba: Laboratory for urban agriculture 146 André Viljoen and Joe Howe The spatial characteristics of Cuban urban agriculture 147 Urban agriculture at the city scale 149 The urban agriculture site 153 Infrastructure and urban agriculture 188 Urban agriculture in residential areas 189 Organic urban agriculture 190 18 Urban and peri-urban agriculture in East and Southern Africa: Economic, planning and social dimensions 192 Dr Beacon Mbiba Research Patterns since the 1970s: regional and subject focus 193 Summary of the context of urban and peri-urban agriculture in africa in critical research areas 195 Actors and institutions 197 Conclusion 198 19 Moulsecoomb: Discovering a Micro-PUL 200 André Viljoen and Katrin Bohn 20 Allotments, plots and crops in Britain 206 H.F.Cook, H.C. Lee and A. Perez-Vazquez The organisation of allotments 207 Practical production issues 210 The economic implications of UPA 214 Conclusions 215 21 Urban food growing: New landscapes, new thinking 217 Simon Michaels Food growing in urban areas 218 The landscape character of urban food growing projects 218 Conclusion 220 22 Permaculture and productive urban landscapes 221 Graeme Sherriff Permaculture 222 23 Utilitarian dreams: Examples from other countries 229 André Viljoen Delft, The Netherlands 230 Kathmandu Valley, Nepal 230 Gaborone, Botswana 231 Another model 233 Part Five Carrot and City: Practical Visioning 237 24 New space for old cities: Vision for landscape 239 Katrin Bohn and André Viljoen Size 240 Sense of openness 242 Local interactions 244 Urban nature 245 Persistent visual stimulation 249 vii Cpul-FM.qxd 02/01/2005 9:07 PM Page viii CONTENTS 25 More city with less space: Vision for lifestyle 251 Katrin Bohn and André Viljoen Variety of occupation and occupants 252 Economic return from land-use 253 Inner-city movement 260 Environmental delight 262 26 More or less: Food for thought 265 André Viljoen and Katrin Bohn Contacts 270 Index 272 viii Cpul-FM.qxd 02/01/2005 9:07 PM Page ix FOREWORD With a vision and a strategy the 21st century city will be green, a healthy place for all and will generate zero net pollution. This book offers a vision and a strategy. Productive urban landscapes have two huge challenges to address: CO2 emissions are projected to increase by two-thirds in the next 20 years, and as the global food production increases so does the number of people going hungry, with the number of urban hungry soaring. The symbiotic relationship between a productive landscape and the human settlement system is as old as civilization. During the past 200 years that millennium-old positive relationship deteriorated into a further and further separation of town and landscape. The good news is that during the past quarter-century the agricul- ture industry has turned a corner towards greater integration with our modern cities. One of the earliest archeological evidences of CPULs (4,000 years ago) are the semi-desert towns of Persia. Underground aqueducts brought mountain water to oases where intensive food production was conducted, substantially based on the use of urban waste within the settlement. A marvellous example in history is Machu Picchu in Peru. The Spaniards did not discover this nutritionally self-reliant city for 100 years. Scarce water was reused time and again, step-by-step down the mountain. Biointensive vegetable beds were designed to catch the afternoon sun and stretch the season. Water and land crops were brought together to resist the frequent mountain frost. There are many such stories from all corners of the earth. The industrial revolution brought the railroads, chemical fertilizers, petroleum fuel, tinned food and refrigera- tion and a separation of the food system from where we live. Socially this converted to the creation of the ‘city slicker’ and of the ‘country bumpkin’.