Molecules and Morphology: Where's the Homology?

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Molecules and Morphology: Where's the Homology? COMMENT Molecules and morphology: where's the homology? W.J. DICKINSON DEPARTMENTOF BIOLOGLUNIVERSITY OF UTAH,SALT LAKE CITY, UT 84112, USA. A few years ago l, molecular biologists have also been considered (at least early speculations centered on the were chastised for sloppy and con- implicitly). If doubt remained, se- possibility that insects and vertebrates fusing use of the term 'homology'. quence data could be collected to share a conserved mechanism of Many treated homology as an objec- confirm that bats descend from wing- segmentation, even though this con- tive observation rather than an in- less mammals. tradicted the conventional view that ference, and as a quantitative trait Now, suppose the molecular the last common ancestor of arthro- ('percentage homology') rather than mechanisms controlling develop- pods and vertebrates was not seg- a relationship of common evol- ment in birds and bats are examined. mented. However, the discovery of utionary origin that either does or Given the known conservation of homeobox clusters in unsegmented does not exist (see description of mechanisms in vertebrates, homolo- creatures like Caenorhabditis elegans terminology in Box 1). There is gous molecules and conserved path- undermined these speculations, par- another source of confusion that ways would certainly be found oper- ticularly since analyses of expression threatens to become increasingly ating in the development of wings patterns in the worm confirmed that troublesome as the fascinating mol- in both groups. However, such simi- there is no relationship between ecular homologies that lie at the heart larities would not be interpreted homeobox genes and reiterated cell of developmental mechanisms are as supporting the surprising' con- lineages that might be regarded as a unraveled: there is not necessarily a clusion that the two sorts of wings are, primitive form of segmentation 8,9. simple relationship between hom- after all, homologous. Instead, the Homeobox genes are involved in ology of molecules (or even path- molecular similarities would be other divergent processes such as ways) and homology of the anatomi- recognized as reflecting homology at limb development in vertebrates 1° cal features in whose development a deeper level (forelimbs). In other and gut differentiation in insects1( those components participate. In studies, the danger arises when Thus, the focus of interpreting other words, some recent suggestions evidence beating on homology is less homeobox gene function shifted notwithstanding v7, molecular simi- extensive or decisive (or less well progressively from segmentation to larities in the developmental mech- known to the average molecular or anterior-posterior polarity lz and to anisms that produce specific organs developmental biologist) than in this axial patterning in general 13. Hom- are not, by themselves, strong evi- example. ology at even deeper levels, such as dence for homology of those organs. positional information per se or Interpreting homeobox gene simply transcriptional regulation, may Levels of homology comparisons be most relevant to some homeobox The central point of this article is Turning to real molecular ex- gene comparisons. that questions of homology can be amples, the evolving interpretation of A cautious initial interpretation of examined at multiple levels and that comparisons between homeobox similarities among insects and ver- homology between a pair of struc- genes and clusters in different organ- tebrates would have considered all tures can simultaneously be present isms is instructive. When these were of these possibilities and recognized at some levels but absent at others. discovered in vertebrates following the need for additional information to The term 'levels of homology' refers their initial characterization in insects, distinguish between them. As in the to a nested series of progressively more ancient and inclusive ('deeper') relationships. The classic textbook Box 1. Addendum on terminology example of homology, the vertebrate The terminology used in this article to describe rehtionships is that proposed by forelimb, conveniently illustrates the Fitch16, elaborated by Patterson17, and summarized in the instructions to authors point. Considered only as forelimbs, writing for Molecular Biology and Evolution. Briefly, features (including mol- the wings of birds and bats are ecules) that are similar by virtue of common ancestry are homologous, while homologous; considered as wings, those that are similar by convergence are analogous. Among homologous mol- they are not. In other words, the last ecules, those produced by gene duplication are paralogous and those separated common ancestor of these two by speciation are orthologous. It is possible (and useful), as Patterson suggests, to groups had forelimbs but not wings. give precise definitions even when there are substantial practical difficulties in Note that this conclusion is partly deciding which relationship applies in particular cases. There is, however, one based on evidence other than that problem of definition not dealt with in the cited sources. When duplication pro- cluces a paralogous gene set in one species,- is the orthologous relationship to derived from the direct comparisons homologs in other lineages retained by both, one, or neither of the copies? If it "is of wings: the comparative anatomy of retained by only one c0py, to which copy.sl~ould the orthologous relationship be other vertebrate forelimbs; the fossil assigned? This difficulty does not need to be resolved for the present purpose but record; and other anatomical com- it further highlights the complexities of using molecular similarities as evidence for parisons that reveal, for exaraple, the anatomical homology. relationship of bats to other- ,l~ammals TIG APPalL 1995 VOL. 11 NO. 4 @ 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd 0168 - 9525/95/$09.50 119 COMMENT example of bird and bat wings men- u'aced backwards from the current As with other developmental regu- tioned above, more detailed analyses examples under consideration. Such lators, these factors belong to a lim- of the relevant systenxs would not, in an analysis would identify the level at ited number of families and typically isolation, have resolved the question. which the contemporary functions function in a variety of contexts. The progressive interpretation sum- and contexts could usefully be said to Again, coincidental similarities be- marized above depended on in- be homologous. tween analogous systems are to be fom~ation about additional species expected. This case is also confused (e.g.C. elegans) and other contexts of Some questionable cases by the seemingly interchangeable use expression within species (e.g. limbs Molecular similarities have some- of the terms 'homology' and 'analogy' and guts); in turn, those comparisons times not been interpreted in an in file discussion. depend, at least implicitly, on ad- appropriately cautious manner. Laufer and Marigo 4 summarize ditional data of various kinds (such as Based on comparisons of function additional examples in which con- that relevant to phylogeny). and expression of the orthodenticle nections between molecular and gene in Drosophila and of homologs anatomical homology have been Homologous molecules in in vertebrates, Finkelstein and considered. The issues raised in this analogous orgam Boncinelli 2 suggest that, contrary to article have not always been given A second example highlights prevailing opinion, head specializ- adequate attention. It is noteworthy the classic problem of convergence, ation may have occurred before the that the majority of 'surprising' ana- with the deceptive twist that truly ancestral lineages separated. How- tomical homologies thus far pro- homologous molecules may be ever, the facts permit hypotheses posed on the basis of molecular data involved in processes that are only similar to those proposed for inter involve comparisons between insects analogous. Products of the hedgehog preting analyses of homeobox genes and vertebrates. This certainly reflects gene in Drosophila and of an avian mentioned above: these ortho- the intense effort devoted to molecular homolog serve strikingly similar func- denticle homologs could be deeply analyses of development in these par- tions in wing development 14. Quite conserved components involved in ticular systems. As other groups re- properly, their roles in that context axial patterning (or another aspect of ceive more attention, the incidence of are recognized as analogous, not positional information) not specifi- convergent examples will surely in- homologous. Again, hedgehog hom- cally related to cephalization. crease, reinforcing the importance of ologs play comparable roles in inter- Defects caused by eyeless in caution and precision in the interpret- cellular signaling in various other Drosophila and a homolog, Small eye, ation of molecular similarities. developmental contexts in both in mice have prompted speculation insects and vertebrates. Undoubtedly, that arthropod and vertebrate eyes Conclusions there is deep and interesting hom- are homologous despite fundamental In no case am I arguing that ology here but the wing is not the differences in organizationS,7. This suggested inferences about organ- level at which it should be sought. situation may be comparable to that level homology are definitely wrong; The probability of encountering of the hedgehog gene in wing de- I claim only that the molecular such convergence is greatly increased velopment. The roles
Recommended publications
  • Transformations of Lamarckism Vienna Series in Theoretical Biology Gerd B
    Transformations of Lamarckism Vienna Series in Theoretical Biology Gerd B. M ü ller, G ü nter P. Wagner, and Werner Callebaut, editors The Evolution of Cognition , edited by Cecilia Heyes and Ludwig Huber, 2000 Origination of Organismal Form: Beyond the Gene in Development and Evolutionary Biology , edited by Gerd B. M ü ller and Stuart A. Newman, 2003 Environment, Development, and Evolution: Toward a Synthesis , edited by Brian K. Hall, Roy D. Pearson, and Gerd B. M ü ller, 2004 Evolution of Communication Systems: A Comparative Approach , edited by D. Kimbrough Oller and Ulrike Griebel, 2004 Modularity: Understanding the Development and Evolution of Natural Complex Systems , edited by Werner Callebaut and Diego Rasskin-Gutman, 2005 Compositional Evolution: The Impact of Sex, Symbiosis, and Modularity on the Gradualist Framework of Evolution , by Richard A. Watson, 2006 Biological Emergences: Evolution by Natural Experiment , by Robert G. B. Reid, 2007 Modeling Biology: Structure, Behaviors, Evolution , edited by Manfred D. Laubichler and Gerd B. M ü ller, 2007 Evolution of Communicative Flexibility: Complexity, Creativity, and Adaptability in Human and Animal Communication , edited by Kimbrough D. Oller and Ulrike Griebel, 2008 Functions in Biological and Artifi cial Worlds: Comparative Philosophical Perspectives , edited by Ulrich Krohs and Peter Kroes, 2009 Cognitive Biology: Evolutionary and Developmental Perspectives on Mind, Brain, and Behavior , edited by Luca Tommasi, Mary A. Peterson, and Lynn Nadel, 2009 Innovation in Cultural Systems: Contributions from Evolutionary Anthropology , edited by Michael J. O ’ Brien and Stephen J. Shennan, 2010 The Major Transitions in Evolution Revisited , edited by Brett Calcott and Kim Sterelny, 2011 Transformations of Lamarckism: From Subtle Fluids to Molecular Biology , edited by Snait B.
    [Show full text]
  • Evolution by Natural Selection, Formulated Independently by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace
    UNIT 4 EVOLUTIONARY PATT EVOLUTIONARY E RNS AND PROC E SS E Evolution by Natural S 22 Selection Natural selection In this chapter you will learn that explains how Evolution is one of the most populations become important ideas in modern biology well suited to their environments over time. The shape and by reviewing by asking by applying coloration of leafy sea The rise of What is the evidence for evolution? Evolution in action: dragons (a fish closely evolutionary thought two case studies related to seahorses) 22.1 22.4 are heritable traits that with regard to help them to hide from predators. The pattern of evolution: The process of species have changed evolution by natural and are related 22.2 selection 22.3 keeping in mind Common myths about natural selection and adaptation 22.5 his chapter is about one of the great ideas in science: the theory of evolution by natural selection, formulated independently by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. The theory explains how T populations—individuals of the same species that live in the same area at the same time—have come to be adapted to environments ranging from arctic tundra to tropical wet forest. It revealed one of the five key attributes of life: Populations of organisms evolve. In other words, the heritable characteris- This chapter is part of the tics of populations change over time (Chapter 1). Big Picture. See how on Evolution by natural selection is one of the best supported and most important theories in the history pages 516–517. of scientific research.
    [Show full text]
  • Many but Not All Lineage-Specific Genes Can Be Explained by Homology Detection Failure
    bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.27.968420; this version posted April 14, 2020. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is made available under aCC-BY 4.0 International license. Many but not all lineage-specific genes can be explained by homology detection failure Caroline M. Weisman1, Andrew W. Murray1, Sean R. Eddy1,2,3 1 Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology, 2 Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 3 John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge MA, USA Abstract Genes for which homologs can be detected only in a limited group of evolutionarily related species, called “lineage-specific genes,” are pervasive: essentially every lineage has them, and they often comprise a sizable fraction of the group’s total genes. Lineage-specific genes are often interpreted as “novel” genes, representing genetic novelty born anew within that lineage. Here, we develop a simple method to test an alternative null hypothesis: that lineage-specific genes do have homologs outside of the lineage that, even while evolving at a constant rate in a novelty-free manner, have merely become undetectable by search algorithms used to infer homology. We show that this null hypothesis is sufficient to explain the lack of detected homologs of a large number of lineage-specific genes in fungi and insects. However, we also find that a minority of lineage-specific genes in both clades are not well-explained by this novelty- free model.
    [Show full text]
  • Convergent Evolution
    Exploring the KU Natural History Museum Convergent Evolution Target Audience: Middle school and above Differentiated Instruction Summary Strategy Levels Content/Process/Product Grouping(s) Learning modalities Whole group • Level 1 – Visual (spatial) Small groups Process Cubing Level 2 – Kinesthetic (physical) Peer partners • Product • Level 3 – Verbal (linguistic) Homogeneous Heterogeneous * Varied grouping options can be used for this activity, depending on student needs and chaperone ability. Objectives: Explore examples of convergent evolution in vertebrates. Pre-assessment/Prior Knowledge: Prior to their visit, students should be familiar with the idea of convergent evolution, overall evolutionary relationships/classification of vertebrate groups and basic anatomy of those groups. Activity Description: Students explore the idea of convergent evolution through museum exhibits through different learning modalities. Materials Needed: • Student o Cubes (three levels, see attached) o Paper and pencils (alternatively you could use flipchart paper and markers, whiteboards and dry erase markers) o Optional (cell phones or other recording device for visual or kinesthetic levels) Note: Format to record/present findings determined by individual teacher. Provide clear instructions about expectations for documenting participation, particularly for verbal/spatial and body/kinesthetic levels (e.g. stage direction, audio/video recording). • Teacher o Content Outline o Cube labels o Cube template Content: Convergence Overview Convergent evolution refers to the similarities in biological traits that arise independently in organisms that are not closely related, e.g. wings in birds, bats and insects. Similarity among organisms and their structures that was not inherited from a common ancestor is considered to be homoplasy. This can be contrasted with homology, which refers to similarity of traits due to common ancestry.
    [Show full text]
  • Systematic Morphology of Fishes in the Early 21St Century
    Copeia 103, No. 4, 2015, 858–873 When Tradition Meets Technology: Systematic Morphology of Fishes in the Early 21st Century Eric J. Hilton1, Nalani K. Schnell2, and Peter Konstantinidis1 Many of the primary groups of fishes currently recognized have been established through an iterative process of anatomical study and comparison of fishes that has spanned a time period approaching 500 years. In this paper we give a brief history of the systematic morphology of fishes, focusing on some of the individuals and their works from which we derive our own inspiration. We further discuss what is possible at this point in history in the anatomical study of fishes and speculate on the future of morphology used in the systematics of fishes. Beyond the collection of facts about the anatomy of fishes, morphology remains extremely relevant in the age of molecular data for at least three broad reasons: 1) new techniques for the preparation of specimens allow new data sources to be broadly compared; 2) past morphological analyses, as well as new ideas about interrelationships of fishes (based on both morphological and molecular data) provide rich sources of hypotheses to test with new morphological investigations; and 3) the use of morphological data is not limited to understanding phylogeny and evolution of fishes, but rather is of broad utility to understanding the general biology (including phenotypic adaptation, evolution, ecology, and conservation biology) of fishes. Although in some ways morphology struggles to compete with the lure of molecular data for systematic research, we see the anatomical study of fishes entering into a new and exciting phase of its history because of recent technological and methodological innovations.
    [Show full text]
  • Fins, Limbs, and Tails: Outgrowths and Axial Patterning in Vertebrate Evolution Michael I
    Review articles Fins, limbs, and tails: outgrowths and axial patterning in vertebrate evolution Michael I. Coates1* and Martin J. Cohn2 Summary Current phylogenies show that paired fins and limbs are unique to jawed verte- brates and their immediate ancestry. Such fins evolved first as a single pair extending from an anterior location, and later stabilized as two pairs at pectoral and pelvic levels. Fin number, identity, and position are therefore key issues in vertebrate developmental evolution. Localization of the AP levels at which develop- mental signals initiate outgrowth from the body wall may be determined by Hox gene expression patterns along the lateral plate mesoderm. This regionalization appears to be regulated independently of that in the paraxial mesoderm and axial skeleton. When combined with current hypotheses of Hox gene phylogenetic and functional diversity, these data suggest a new model of fin/limb developmental evolution. This coordinates body wall regions of outgrowth with primitive bound- aries established in the gut, as well as the fundamental nonequivalence of pectoral and pelvic structures. BioEssays 20:371–381, 1998. ௠ 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Introduction over and again to exemplify fundamental concepts in biological Vertebrate appendages include an amazing diversity of form, theory. The striking uniformity of teleost pectoral fin skeletons from the huge wing-like fins of manta rays or the stumpy limbs of illustrated Geoffroy Saint-Hilair’s discussion of ‘‘special analo- frogfishes, to ichthyosaur paddles, the extraordinary fingers of gies,’’1 while tetrapod limbs exemplified Owen’s2 related concept aye-ayes, and the fin-like wings of penguins. The functional of ‘‘homology’’; Darwin3 then employed precisely the same ex- diversity of these appendages is similarly vast and, in addition to ample as evidence of evolutionary descent from common ances- various modes of locomotion, fins and limbs are also used for try.
    [Show full text]
  • FORELIMB LAMENESS: the GREAT IMPERSONATOR Juliette Hart, DVM, MS, CCRT, CVA Cornell University Veterinary Specialists
    FORELIMB LAMENESS: THE GREAT IMPERSONATOR Juliette Hart, DVM, MS, CCRT, CVA Cornell University Veterinary Specialists. Stamford, CT Diagnosis of forelimb lameness in canine patients can often be a labor-intensive and time- consuming process, often with multiple factors being taken into account, regardless of the actual diagnosis. The dog’s age, activity level, co-morbidities, job and environment can be key players. Close examination of the dog in motion (in hospital and at home) can be helpful when determining type and degree of lameness, and may frequently assist the clinician in determining next appropriate diagnostic tests and treatment plans. This lecture will focus on differentials associated with forelimb lameness in dogs, current diagnostic tests and potential treatments available, and finally prognoses and outcomes for specific types of shoulder forelimb lameness in dogs. Lameness Evaluation The forelimb skeleton consists of the thoracic or pectoral girdle and the bones of the forelimb. The canine scapula itself is positioned close to the sagittal plane, and the humeral head is less rounded (as compared to the human head) to assist with weight bearing. The radius takes the majority of weight-bearing in the antebrachium. And, although small, the many sesamoid bones in the carpus/paw allow for biomechanically advantageous alignment of angles of insertion of tendons at their attachments.¹ While there can be tremendous variation in the sizes of the bones themselves comparing dog to dog, the literature have reported a roughly 60% body weight distribution in the thoracic limbs.² As a clinician evaluates a patient, lameness is a key element of that examination.
    [Show full text]
  • From Fin to Forelimb Crucially Showing That They Develop in Situ Rather Than Migrating to Their the Vertebrate Invasion of Land Was Cartilaginous Fish Such As Sharks
    NATURE|Vol 466|5 August 2010 NEWS & VIEWS Goulielmakis and colleagues1 characterized Figure 1 | The first attosecond probe the coherence, and thus the entanglement, of experiments. Goulielmakis et al.1 report a Kr+ and the lost electron. In their experiments, technique for observing electron motion in the intense, ultrashort pump pulse ensures real time. They irradiated krypton atoms (Kr) significant overlap of the two quantum states Kr+, 3d–1 with a ‘pump’ pulse of infrared light lasting a few femtoseconds, liberating electrons to of the removed electron that correlate with generate Kr+ ions in a superposition of two two different pathways in the ion’s subsystem states, 4p−1(J = 1/2) and 4p−1(J = 3/2), where J is (Fig. 1b), resulting in a low electron–ion entan- total angular momentum. Black arrows indicate glement, a high coherence of the hole’s wave the two ionization pathways. The authors then packet and high visibility of the interference Kr+, irradiated the ions with attosecond ‘probe’ pulses 4p–1(J=1/2) fringes. The ability to probe decoherence is a + of extreme-ultraviolet light, exciting them to a Kr , −1 very important aspect of the experiment. 4p–1(J=3/2) higher-energy 3d state; red and green arrows The authors’ experiment is reminiscent of a indicate the two possible excitation pathways. two-colour coherent-control scheme2. In such The complete system constitutes an entangled electron–ion pair. a, The different excitation schemes, population of a final state is controlled pathways taken by the ion to reach the 3d−1 by the relative phase between the two colours state may cause the liberated electrons to adopt of light needed to promote a system from two orthogonal quantum states.
    [Show full text]
  • Tetrapod Limb and Sarcopterygian Fin Regeneration Share a Core Genetic
    ARTICLE Received 28 Apr 2016 | Accepted 27 Sep 2016 | Published 2 Nov 2016 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13364 OPEN Tetrapod limb and sarcopterygian fin regeneration share a core genetic programme Acacio F. Nogueira1,*, Carinne M. Costa1,*, Jamily Lorena1, Rodrigo N. Moreira1, Gabriela N. Frota-Lima1, Carolina Furtado2, Mark Robinson3, Chris T. Amemiya3,4, Sylvain Darnet1 & Igor Schneider1 Salamanders are the only living tetrapods capable of fully regenerating limbs. The discovery of salamander lineage-specific genes (LSGs) expressed during limb regeneration suggests that this capacity is a salamander novelty. Conversely, recent paleontological evidence supports a deeper evolutionary origin, before the occurrence of salamanders in the fossil record. Here we show that lungfishes, the sister group of tetrapods, regenerate their fins through morphological steps equivalent to those seen in salamanders. Lungfish de novo transcriptome assembly and differential gene expression analysis reveal notable parallels between lungfish and salamander appendage regeneration, including strong downregulation of muscle proteins and upregulation of oncogenes, developmental genes and lungfish LSGs. MARCKS-like protein (MLP), recently discovered as a regeneration-initiating molecule in salamander, is likewise upregulated during early stages of lungfish fin regeneration. Taken together, our results lend strong support for the hypothesis that tetrapods inherited a bona fide limb regeneration programme concomitant with the fin-to-limb transition. 1 Instituto de Cieˆncias Biolo´gicas, Universidade Federal do Para´, Rua Augusto Correa, 01, Bele´m66075-110,Brazil.2 Unidade Genoˆmica, Programa de Gene´tica, Instituto Nacional do Caˆncer, Rio de Janeiro 20230-240, Brazil. 3 Benaroya Research Institute at Virginia Mason, 1201 Ninth Avenue, Seattle, Washington 98101, USA. 4 Department of Biology, University of Washington 106 Kincaid, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
    [Show full text]
  • Evolution of the Muscular System in Tetrapod Limbs Tatsuya Hirasawa1* and Shigeru Kuratani1,2
    Hirasawa and Kuratani Zoological Letters (2018) 4:27 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40851-018-0110-2 REVIEW Open Access Evolution of the muscular system in tetrapod limbs Tatsuya Hirasawa1* and Shigeru Kuratani1,2 Abstract While skeletal evolution has been extensively studied, the evolution of limb muscles and brachial plexus has received less attention. In this review, we focus on the tempo and mode of evolution of forelimb muscles in the vertebrate history, and on the developmental mechanisms that have affected the evolution of their morphology. Tetrapod limb muscles develop from diffuse migrating cells derived from dermomyotomes, and the limb-innervating nerves lose their segmental patterns to form the brachial plexus distally. Despite such seemingly disorganized developmental processes, limb muscle homology has been highly conserved in tetrapod evolution, with the apparent exception of the mammalian diaphragm. The limb mesenchyme of lateral plate mesoderm likely plays a pivotal role in the subdivision of the myogenic cell population into individual muscles through the formation of interstitial muscle connective tissues. Interactions with tendons and motoneuron axons are involved in the early and late phases of limb muscle morphogenesis, respectively. The mechanism underlying the recurrent generation of limb muscle homology likely resides in these developmental processes, which should be studied from an evolutionary perspective in the future. Keywords: Development, Evolution, Homology, Fossils, Regeneration, Tetrapods Background other morphological characters that may change during The fossil record reveals that the evolutionary rate of growth. Skeletal muscles thus exhibit clear advantages vertebrate morphology has been variable, and morpho- for the integration of paleontology and evolutionary logical deviations and alterations have taken place unevenly developmental biology.
    [Show full text]
  • The 'Role' a Concept Plays in Science — the Case of Homology
    The ‘Role’ a Concept Plays in Science — The Case of Homology INGO BRIGANDT Department of History and Philosophy of Science University of Pittsburgh 1017 Cathedral of Learning Pittsburgh, PA 15260 USA E-mail: [email protected] August 19, 2001 Abstract. This article tries to clarify the idea that a concept plays a certain role for a scientific field or a research program. The discussion is based on a case study of the homology concept in biology. In particular, I examine how homology plays a different role for comparative, developmental, and molecular biology. The aspects that may constitute the role of a concept emerge from this discussion. Introduction This paper deals with concepts and conceptual change in science by trying to shed some light on the idea that a concept plays a certain ‘role’ for a scientific field or a research approach. My original motivation to address this topic stems from semantic considerations. I disagree with standard causal theories of reference because they do not take conceptual change in science and its reasons seriously. Causal theories often have a somewhat static (in fact preformationist) understanding of concepts (our belief about the referent is usually considered to change), and they often look to the wrong place if they have to account for apparent changes in meaning. Instead, my idea is to focus on the role a concept plays — when the role of a scientific concept changes, then we have a change in meaning of this term. This is an approach that is neither a THE ‘ROLE’ A CONCEPT PLAYS IN SCIENCE 2 causal nor a descriptive theory of reference, and it is able to keep change of meaning and change of theory apart — not every change of theory amounts to a new role for a concept.
    [Show full text]
  • Four Unusual Cases of Congenital Forelimb Malformations in Dogs
    animals Article Four Unusual Cases of Congenital Forelimb Malformations in Dogs Simona Di Pietro 1 , Giuseppe Santi Rapisarda 2, Luca Cicero 3,* , Vito Angileri 4, Simona Morabito 5, Giovanni Cassata 3 and Francesco Macrì 1 1 Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Palatucci, 98168 Messina, Italy; [email protected] (S.D.P.); [email protected] (F.M.) 2 Department of Veterinary Prevention, Provincial Health Authority of Catania, 95030 Gravina di Catania, Italy; [email protected] 3 Institute Zooprofilattico Sperimentale of Sicily, Via G. Marinuzzi, 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy; [email protected] 4 Veterinary Practitioner, 91025 Marsala, Italy; [email protected] 5 Ospedale Veterinario I Portoni Rossi, Via Roma, 57/a, 40069 Zola Predosa (BO), Italy; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Simple Summary: Congenital limb defects are sporadically encountered in dogs during normal clinical practice. Literature concerning their diagnosis and management in canine species is poor. Sometimes, the diagnosis and description of congenital limb abnormalities are complicated by the concurrent presence of different malformations in the same limb and the lack of widely accepted classification schemes. In order to improve the knowledge about congenital limb anomalies in dogs, this report describes the clinical and radiographic findings in four dogs affected by unusual congenital forelimb defects, underlying also the importance of reviewing current terminology. Citation: Di Pietro, S.; Rapisarda, G.S.; Cicero, L.; Angileri, V.; Morabito, Abstract: Four dogs were presented with thoracic limb deformity. After clinical and radiographic S.; Cassata, G.; Macrì, F. Four Unusual examinations, a diagnosis of congenital malformations was performed for each of them.
    [Show full text]