The Effect of the Color Red on Hirability and Attractiveness Julia F

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The Effect of the Color Red on Hirability and Attractiveness Julia F. Hammett, Emily J. Issler, and Holly E. Bashore San Diego State University

ABSTRACT. The present study investigated the effect of the color red on hirability and character attractiveness. Initial data were collected from 106 voluntary participants recruited from a Southwestern American university campus. Participants read a personality description, printed on either red or white paper, of either a male or female target, and completed a questionnaire rating the target’s hirability and character attractiveness. The first hypothesis, that people would rate the target as less hirable if the personality description was printed on red paper rather than on white paper, was mostly supported. The second hypothesis, that people would rate the target as more attractive if the personality description was printed on red paper rather than on white paper, was partially supported. The third hypothesis, that this effect would only be true when rating opposite-sex targets, was not clearly supported. The results indicate that the effects of the color red depend on the context in which the color is viewed. A red stimulus may increase undesirable behaviors and attributes in performance-based contexts that foster competitiveness, such as contexts in which a person’s hirability is evaluated, but may increase desirable behaviors and attributes in relational contexts, in which a person’s attractiveness is evaluated.

olors are present everywhere in our such as physical attractiveness (e.g., Elliot & Niesta, environment. Because symbolic and 2008; Elliot et al., 2010). Thus, it seems that the Caesthetic meanings have been attached effect of a red stimulus depends on the context to certain colors throughout history and across of the task and the socio-cultural meaning of the cultures, colors influence our perception of the color red regarding this context. In the present world around us (Smeesters & Liu, 2011). One study, we will examine the effect of the color red color that has been shown to influence humans in two different contexts, namely evaluations of in various ways is the color red. Red has an impact a person’s hirability, which includes predictions on our affect (Elliott & Niesta, 2008), cognition of a person’s overall qualifications and expected (Tanaka & Tokuno, 2011), and behavior (Elliot job performance (Dunn, Mount, Barrick, & Ones, & Aarts, 2011). Some studies have yielded results 1995), and character attractiveness, which includes indicating a negative effect of red, in that red perceived desirability of a person based on this increases undesirable behaviors and attributes, person’s nonphysical attributes, such as character such as aggression (e.g. Elliot, Moller, Friedman, traits, attitudes, and behavior patterns (Kniffin & SPRING 2014 Maier, & Meinhardt, 2007; Gnambs, Appel, & Wilson, 2004). Batinic, 2010); however, other studies have yielded PSI CHI Several studies have yielded findings indicating JOURNAL OF results indicating a positive effect of red, in that PSYCHOLOGICAL red increases desirable behaviors and attributes, Faculty mentor: Richard Graf, PhD RESEARCH

20 COPYRIGHT 2014 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 19, NO. 1/ISSN 2164-8204) Hammett, Issler, and Bashore | The Effect of the Color Red a negative effect of red stimuli on performance, on human affect, behavior, and cognition may be in which red increased undesirable behaviors and positive in that red increased desirable behaviors attributes. Elliot et al. (2007) found that having a and attributes. Elliot and Niesta (2008) found that number written in red ink, as opposed to green or seeing a woman’s photograph placed on a red back- black ink, in the corner of a test booklet impaired ground increased men’s physical attractiveness and performance on anagram and numeric tests. sexual desirability ratings of the target. Similarly, Additionally, this color manipulation resulted in women perceived men’s physical attractiveness to avoidance motivation as indicated by participants’ be higher when men’s pictures were placed on a tendency to choose easier rather than more dif- red background and when they wore red clothing ficult tasks. Similarly, Gnambs et al. (2010) found (Elliot et al., 2010). The color red did not have an that a red (versus green) progress bar harmed effect on men’s and women’s physical attractiveness performance in web-based tests of general knowl- ratings when viewing photographs of their own sex. edge. Other studies support the concept that the Further support for the effect of red on human color red activates avoidance motivation (Tanaka physical attraction comes from Niesta Kayser, Elliot, & Tokuno, 2011) and that reading the word and Feltman (2010), who showed that men chose undermines intellectual performance (Lichtenfeld, to ask a conversation partner in a red shirt more Maier, Elliot, & Pekrun, 2009). Thus, the color intimate questions and also to sit closer to her. red seems to enhance undesirable behaviors in Thus, the color red seems to enhance desirable situations in which performance is measured. behaviors in situations in which partners of the Different mechanisms have been proposed other sex are being evaluated. to account for these negative effects of the color The impact of the color red on human physical red. Elliot et al. (2007) proposed that viewing the attractiveness can be explained, at least partially, color red results in decreased performance on by evolutionary, biological, and socio-cultural academic tasks and that avoidance of challenges factors. Throughout the animal kingdom, the red is due to learned associations. Red is often used in coloration of several species’ body parts provides the educational system to indicate failure, because evidence for evolutionary ingrained preferences teachers may use red ink to correct their students’ that may explain why humans are attracted to mistakes (Rutchick, Slepian, & Ferris, 2010). The potential partners of the other sex who display color red is further used as an indicator of danger the color red. For example, Hill (1990) found and as a warning signal (e.g., red lights, fire alarms, that female house finches preferred colorful warning signs). Given the repeated pairing of mates, namely those with bright red plumage red with failure, danger, and avoidance, it is not coloration. Zebra finches showed similar prefer- surprising that seeing a red stimulus may impair ences regarding their mates’ red bill color (Burley performance. In conclusion, it seems that a red & Coopersmith, 1987). Waitt, Gerald, Little, and stimulus will have a negative impact on human Kraiselburd (2006) found that rhesus macaques behavior in performance contexts that foster gazed significantly longer at reddened versions competitiveness. of female hindquarters. These behavior patterns Perceptions of an individual’s hirability occur suggest a connection between the color red and in performance-based situations, such as the ones intersexual selection. Pink-to-red anogenital and previously described, in that hirability is based facial coloration does not only occur in animals, but on people’s predictions of an applicant’s future human female skin color also varies with reproduc- performance on the job. In addition, employment tive state (Waitt et al., 2006). Increased reddening application settings, in which a person’s hirability of a woman’s face during ovulation serves as an is assessed, may foster feelings of competition, indicator of fertility. It is evolutionarily adaptive because several applicants often compete for a for a man to be more attracted to a woman during single position (Duckett, 2000). This focus on this phase of her reproductive cycle. performance and competition may increase nega- Furthermore, the effect of red on human tive emotions. Thus, the color red should have a behavior may be due to socio-cultural experiences. negative effect on people’s perceptions of a job The color red is frequently used as a symbol of applicant’s hirability in that it should lead people love, romance, and fertility (e.g., red hearts on SPRING 2014 to evaluate an applicant’s overall qualifications and Valentine’s Day cards). This symbolic meaning of PSI CHI expected job performance more negatively. the color red has existed throughout history in JOURNAL OF Other studies have shown that the effect of red numerous cultures and has been used in folklore PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

and rituals. For example, Japanese brides wear the more attractive if they read the personality descrip- colors white and red at their weddings (Hutchings, tion of a potential partner printed on red paper 2004). Thus, a red stimulus may have a positive rather than on white paper. Third, we hypothesized effect on human affect in that it enhances desirable that red would only increase attractiveness ratings attributes, such as physical attractiveness, by func- of men reading about women and of women read- tioning as a sexual symbol in contexts that include ing about men. the evaluation of individuals of the other sex. The concept of human attractiveness, however, Method is not limited to physical aspects, but can also Overview include a person’s character traits, attitudes, and The present study used existing data initially col- behavior patterns. According to Kniffin and Wilson lected for a class project, in which men and women (2004), people are drawn to potential partners had been asked to read a personality description because of their overall fitness value, which consists of either a male or female target, printed on either of physical as well as nonphysical factors. These red or white paper. In addition, participants were nonphysical factors may enhance the perceived asked to rate the target’s hirability and attractive- physical attractiveness of a person and are therefore ness. In the present study, the data were analyzed an important component of what makes a person to test our hypotheses that (a) targets described on appear attractive. The importance of nonphysical red paper would be perceived as less hirable, (b) traits on perceived attractiveness is suggested by targets described on red paper would be perceived the careful manner with which people describe as more attractive, and (c) red would increase themselves in personal advertisements. Such attractiveness ratings of targets of the other sex. descriptions typically address hobbies, preferences, interests, and other nonphysical characteristics. Experimental Design For example, when analyzing personal advertise- The study used a 2 x 2 x 2 between-subjects design. ments in local newspapers, Rajecki, Bledsoe, and The independent variables were comprised of two Rasmussen (1991) found that while men often levels of paper color (white and red), two levels stipulated looks, women often stipulated status, a of sex of the participant, and two levels of sex of nonphysical characteristic. Red has been shown to the target person. The dependent variables were enhance people’s perceptions of a person’s physical perceived hirability and character attractiveness of attractiveness, and physical and character attrac- the target person. tiveness go hand in hand to determine a person’s overall attractiveness, or fitness value. Thus, the Participants color red should also have a positive effect on One hundred six voluntary participants recruited character attractiveness. In fact, red should lead from a Southwestern American university campus people to evaluate a person’s character traits, took part in the initial study. There were 39 (36.8%) attitudes, and behavior patterns more positively. men and 67 (63.2%) women ranging in age from As previous studies have shown, the effect of 18 to 62 (M = 21.09, SD = 5.61). Seventy-three a red stimulus depends on the context of the task (68.9%) participants were single and 33 (31.1%) and the sociocultural meaning of the color red participants were in a committed monogamous regarding this context. The present study adds relationship. Due to the small number of lesbians, to the literature by examining the negative and gay men, and bisexual individuals (n = 2), these positive impacts of the color red in two different participants were excluded from the analyses. contexts. We will examine the effects of the color red on perceptions of a person’s hirability during Materials employment applications and on perceptions of Personality description. A brief personality descrip- a person’s character attractiveness. In the present tion of either a male target (“John”) or a female study, hirability and character attractiveness will be target (“Joan”) was developed by the researchers interpreted from reading a personality description. of the initial study and was printed on either red First, we hypothesized that people would rate or white paper, such that there were four different SPRING 2014 a person as less hirable if they read the personality personality description versions. The description description of a potential job applicant printed on was the same for both target sex conditions, so the PSI CHI JOURNAL OF red paper rather than on white paper. Second, we only thing different was the name of the target. The PSYCHOLOGICAL hypothesized that people would find a person to be personality description consisted of one paragraph, RESEARCH

22 COPYRIGHT 2014 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 19, NO. 1/ISSN 2164-8204) Hammett, Issler, and Bashore | The Effect of the Color Red in which the target’s character traits (“Joan is nice attractiveness items was counterbalanced. There and fun to be around”; “Some people describe were eight demographic items to assess partici- her as impulsive”), attitudes (“She values relation- pants’ age, sex, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and ships... but it is difficult for her to keep in touch”) relationship status. A full list of the hirability, attrac- and behavior patterns (“Being active outside is one tiveness, and demographic items can be obtained of Joan’s favorite things to do”) were outlined. The by contacting the first author. goal in developing the personality description was to obtain and even balance of the target person’s Procedure positive and negative attributes. Individual participants were approached on cam- Hirability. The hirability measure, printed on pus and asked if they would like to participate in white paper, consisted of six items assessing the a short study on first impressions. If they agreed, target’s hirability. Examples included “I would they were handed one of the four versions of the hire this person” and “This person would bring personality description (of either a male or female good ideas to the company.” All items were rated target and printed on either red or white paper) on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) and the test battery. Participants were instructed to 5 (strongly agree). The six hirability items were to first read the personality description, and preceded by a brief job description. Participants then, based on what they had read, answer the were instructed to imagine they were on a selec- questions in the questionnaire without consulting tion committee for a job that required moderate with others. All participants were informed that job demands and no previous experience. If the their answers would be anonymous and would be person described were hired, the participant would handled confidentially. be working in close contact with this person. All six item scores were added up to yield a hirability Results summation with high scores indicating higher Overview of Analyses perceptions of hirability. In our sample, scores After computing the hirability and attractiveness ranged from 14 to 30. Cronbach’s alpha was .84. summations, five separate 2 x 2 x 2 between-subjects Attractiveness. The attractiveness measure, analyses of variance were conducted. We examined printed on white paper, consisted of nine items the influence of color, sex of participant, and sex assessing the target’s character attractiveness. of target on (a) the hirability summation, (b) Examples included “This person and I would the attractiveness summation, (c) the dependent probably have a good connection” and “I find attractiveness item “I think this person is attrac- this person appealing.” All items were rated on tive”, (d) the dependent attractiveness item “If I a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) were to meet this person, I would think he/she is to 5 (strongly agree). All nine item scores were attractive,” and (e) the dependent attractiveness added up to yield an attractiveness summation item “Others would find this person attractive.” with high scores indicating higher perceptions of For simplification purposes, the results of the last attractiveness. In our sample, scores ranged from three analyses, which examined the influence of 16 to 45. Cronbach’s alpha was .83. Three of the the independent variables on the three dependent items included in the attractiveness measure were core attractiveness items as adapted from Elliot et adapted from Elliot et al. (2010). Instead of Elliot al. (2010) are reported in one combined section. et al.’s (2010) question format (“How attractive do you think this person is?”), a statement format Influence of Color, Sex of Participant, addressing the participant’s perception (“I think and Sex of Target on Hirability this person is attractive”) as well as the participant’s A 2 x 2 x 2 between-subjects analysis of variance estimate of other people’s perceptions (“Others examining the influence of color, sex of partici- would find this person attractive”) was used. The pant, and sex of target on the hirability summation item “If I were to meet the person in this picture yielded the following results. A marginally signifi- face to face, I would think he is attractive” (Elliot cant main effect of color was found for the hirability et al., 2010) was changed to “If I were to meet this summation, F(1, 98) = 3.77, p = .055. Participants person, I would think he/she is attractive.” These rated targets as less hirable if their description SPRING 2014 three core attractiveness items as adapted from was printed on red paper (M = 22.56, SD = 4.16) PSI CHI Elliot et al. (2010) were examined separately. than if their description was printed on white JOURNAL OF The order of the grouped hirability and paper (M = 24.11, SD = 3.42; r = .20). No significant PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

differences were found when examining the effects be less hirable if they read the personality descrip- of sex of participant, F(1, 98) = 3.44, p = .07, and tion of a potential job applicant printed on red sex of target, F(1,98) = 0.54, p = .47, on hirability paper rather than on white paper, (b) people would as measured by the hirability summation. rate a person to be more attractive if they read the personality description of a potential partner Influence of Color, Sex of Participant, printed on red paper rather than on white paper, and Sex of Target on Attractiveness and (c) the effect of the color red on character A 2 x 2 x 2 between-subjects analysis of variance attractiveness would be consistent with the effect of examining the influence of color, sex of par- the color red on physical attractiveness in that red ticipant, and sex of target on the attractiveness would increase attractiveness ratings of opposite- summation yielded no significant results. No sex partners but not of same-sex partners (Elliot & significant differences were found when examin- Niesta, 2008; Elliot et al., 2010). ing the effects of color, F(1, 98) = 0.14; p = .71, sex The first hypothesis, that reading a person- of participant, F(1, 98) = 0.02, p = .88, and sex of ality description on red paper rather than on target, F(1, 98) = 1.55, p = .22, on attractiveness as white paper decreases perceived hirability of the measured by the attractiveness summation. target, was mostly supported. The job description preceding the hirability items might have provided Influence of Color, Sex of Participant, a competitiveness-fostering context in that it stated and Sex of Target on Core Attractiveness Items that if the person described were hired, participants Three 2 x 2 x 2 between-subjects analyses of vari- would be working in close contact with this person ance examining the influence of color, sex of on the same project. As a result, participants might participant, and sex of target on the three core have perceived the target to be their competitor attractiveness items adapted from Elliot et al. in the work place. This would be consistent with (2010) yielded the following results: previous literature, which indicates that red has a A main effect was found for color for the negative effect on human behavior in performance dependent measure “I think this person is attrac- and competitiveness-based contexts (e.g., Rutchick tive,” F(1, 98) = 5.84, p = .02. Participants rated et al., 2010). However, it should be noted that this targets whose description was printed on red paper finding was marginally significantp ( = .055) and (M = 3.50, SD = 0.87) as more attractive than targets its effect size was small to medium (r = .20). Thus, whose description was printed on white paper (M conclusions should be drawn with caution. =3.22, SD = 0.89, r = .16). The second hypothesis, that reading a A color x sex of participant x sex of target interaction was found for the dependent measure FIGURE 1 “Others would find this person attractive,”F (1, 98) Mean Attractiveness Ratings = 5.38, p = .02. As can be seen in Figure 1, women Sex of Participant Color rated male targets on red paper (M = 3.53, SD White 5.00 = 0.74) as less attractive than male targets on white MenWomen Red paper (M = 4.21, SD = 0.80, r = .40). Women rated female targets on red paper (M = 3.80, SD = 0.56) 4.00 as more attractive than female targets on white

paper (M = 3.35, SD = 0.65, r = .35). There were tiveness no significant differences for men rating male and 3.00 female targets on red or white paper. Attrac

Discussion 2.00 The present study examined the extent to which the color red would influence perceptions of 1.00 hirability, defined as a person’s capability of being Male TargetsMFemale TargetsFale Targets emale Targets hired (Dunn et al., 1995), and character attractive- Sex of Target SPRING 2014 ness, defined as the power of irresistible attraction based on a person’s character traits, attitudes, and PSI CHI The mean attractiveness ratings that men and women gave to male and female targets, whose behavior patterns (Kniffin & Wilson, 2004). We personality descriptions were printed on white and red paper, in response to the test item JOURNAL OF “Others would find this person attractive.” PSYCHOLOGICAL hypothesized that (a) people would rate a person to RESEARCH

24 COPYRIGHT 2014 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 19, NO. 1/ISSN 2164-8204) Hammett, Issler, and Bashore | The Effect of the Color Red personality description printed on red paper rather targets described on red paper as more attractive than on white paper increases perceived character than female targets described on white paper but attractiveness of the target, is partially supported. perceived male targets described on red paper as For the dependent measure “I think this person less attractive than male targets described on white is attractive,” which, compared to the other paper, it may be that the color red only enhances attractiveness items, assessed attractiveness in women’s attractiveness. The reason behind this the most explicit way, participants rated targets effect might be that the biological force that causes whose description was printed on red paper as women to appear more attractive to others during more attractive than targets whose description was ovulation when their skin tones are reddened printed on white paper. These findings replicate should not have an influence on men’s attractive- and extend previous work by Elliot and Niesta ness, because men’s fertility is not indicated by a (2008) and Elliot et al. (2010), who found that reddening of the skin (Waitt et al., 2006). viewing a photograph of a target person on red background increased perceived physical attractive- Theoretical and Practical Implications ness of the target. Therefore, we can conclude that The present study indicates that the valence of the positive effect of the color red on human affect the effect of red is context-dependent. Red had may not be limited to visual stimuli, as perceived a marginally significant negative effect on the when seeing a target’s photograph, but may gen- dependent measure of hirability, but had a posi- eralize to verbal information, as perceived when tive effect on the most explicit dependent items reading a target’s personality description. of character attractiveness. The dependency of the The third hypothesis, that red increases effect of the color red on the context in which red attractiveness ratings of partners of the other sex is viewed may be explained by the symbolic mean- but not of partners of the same sex, was not clearly ing of the color in the given situation. The job supported. Women rated female targets whose description preceding the hirability questions description was printed on red paper as more provided a performance-based context, which attractive than female targets whose description seemingly enhanced red’s symbolic meaning of was printed on white paper. However, women rated competitiveness and danger. Ratings of attrac- male targets whose description was printed on red tiveness include a context that is based on the paper to be less attractive than those whose descrip- evaluation of partners of the other sex, in which tion was printed on white paper. There were no red is thought to serve a symbol of sex, love, and significant differences for men rating male and romance. It is possible that this issue of context- female targets whose description was printed on dependency may extend beyond the simple context red and white paper. These findings are inconsis- in which the color is presented to how red is used tent with Elliot and Niesta (2008) and Elliot et al. and also to how much red is used (e.g., purpose, (2010). It may be that this inconsistency is due to channel, dominance in the visual field). the difference in stimuli used in the present study (a Our findings may be of interest to users of personality description) and the previous studies (a online dating services or other social media, whose photograph). De Vries (2010) found that for men goal it is to attract potential partners. By construct- assessing the attractiveness of a potential female ing their profiles to include a red background partner based on dating profiles, personality or red font they may increase the probability of descriptions were only half as influential as successfully reaching that goal. However, individu- photographs. However for women, expressed als in online dating and other social media settings dating interest was equally affected by personality should be careful when using the color red in descriptions and photographs of male targets. their profiles. Although red has been shown to Because personality descriptions were used in the increase positive feelings in relational contexts, it present study, these findings might explain why has also been shown to increase negative feelings there were no significant differences for men rating in competitiveness-based contexts and to be related the attractiveness of male and female targets on red to perceptions of aggression and danger. People and white paper but why there were differences for searching for the best suitable partner through the women rating male and female targets. use of social media compete with a great number SPRING 2014 It is also possible that the meaning of the of other social media users. In fact, several users PSI CHI color red may change when associated with differ- may be interested in a single person’s profile. In JOURNAL OF ent sexes. Because women only perceived female addition, a person using red in their profile may be PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

perceived by others as dangerous or aggressive, two included in the nine-item attractiveness measure personality traits that are not helpful when trying to might not have exclusively tapped attractiveness attract potential mates. Thus, red may not only have but might have tapped a related construct. For positive effects in these contexts but may also have example, the item “This person and I would prob- negative effects in that red could appear attractive ably have a good connection” might have tapped to potential mates but competitive to rivals. compatibility rather than perceived attractiveness. In job application settings, it generally may be However, although plausible, the present data advisable to shy away from the use of the color red do not support this possibility. When testing for in either clothing or application materials because inter-item reliability, the reliability of the overall red may decrease one’s chances of being hired. scale was not increased through the removal of However, it is possible that there may be hiring certain items. Nevertheless, it may be advisable to benefits of the red ‘power tie’ for men and similar use a shorter, three-item measure of attractiveness, smaller accessories. Red suits/dresses may be bad, consistent with measures used in previous studies but red accents (tie, kerchief, lipstick) may be good. (e.g., Elliot et al., 2010), and consisting of the items It is also interesting to note that it may be possible “I think this person is attractive,” “If I were to meet that, depending on the job, competitiveness and this person, I would think he/she is attractive,” aggression could be job assets and, thus, the use of and “Others would find this person attractive” in the color red may be advantageous. future studies. However, it should be considered that scale reliability may be sacrificed through the Limitations use of a shorter scale. The results of the present study and their impli- Finally, it remains unclear whether the attrac- cations should be viewed in light of several tiveness questions used in the present study limitations. First, implications for the present study actually tapped character attractiveness. Although it may be constrained by the relatively small size of the is possible that participants evaluated the personal- sample in terms of gender. Effects of the color red ity characteristics of the target person as outlined may be stronger if the study had been conducted in the personality description to infer character using a larger sample. attractiveness, it is also plausible that they evalu- Second, it is uncertain whether the results of ated physical attractiveness by inferring physical the present study are due to the color red itself or appearance based on the information from the to the novelty of the paper color. The color red is description (e.g., they might have imagined the more unusual and novel than white, not only rela- person described to be athletic because “being tive to general expectations (most books, tests, and active outdoors is one of Joan’s favorite things to letters are printed on white paper as opposed to do.”) However, because no photograph was used, red paper), but also within the packet of papers in we may assume that participants were evaluating the present study (the hirability, attractiveness, and the target person’s nonphysical rather than physical demographic items were printed on white paper). attractiveness. For example, in an organizational setting, an application printed on red paper rather than white Future Directions paper is untraditional and thus, may be viewed as Future studies may address some of the previously unprofessional. This may decrease an applicant’s described limitations. Given the small to medium chance of being hired. effect sizes, researchers may consider increasing the Third, the use of an extended attractiveness size of the overall sample. Furthermore, researchers measure, as opposed to the shorter measure used may use a nonred but novel (e.g., green or blue) in previous studies (e.g., Elliot et al., 2010), might color to control for the effect of novelty of the have impacted the results, as indicated by the find- color red. Methods may be augmented by limiting ing that the 9-item attraction summation did not the attractiveness measure to the three core items yield any significant findings although analyses of adapted from Elliot et al. (2010) if doing so does the individual core items as adapted from Elliot et not decrease scale reliability. Finally, a subset of the al. (2010) did yield significant findings. Examining participants may be interviewed after completion SPRING 2014 the three core attractiveness items separately may of the questionnaire to determine which strategies present a threat to statistical conclusion validity, they used to evaluate the target’s attractiveness. PSI CHI JOURNAL OF particularly the effects of fishing on Type I error This would allow researchers to determine whether PSYCHOLOGICAL rates. It is possible that some of the additional items participants actually are evaluating the target’s RESEARCH

26 COPYRIGHT 2014 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 19, NO. 1/ISSN 2164-8204) Hammett, Issler, and Bashore | The Effect of the Color Red character attractiveness or whether they are infer- Disability and Society, 15, 1019–1039. doi:10.1080/713662022 ring physical information from the description Dunn, W. S., Mount, M. K., Barrick, M. R., & Ones, D. S. (1995). Relative importance of personality and general mental ability in managers’ provided. This follow-up interview also may shed judgments of applicant qualifications.Journal of Applied Psychology, light on the issue of whether participants were 80, 500–509. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.80.4.500 under the impression that the target chose to use Elliot, A. J., & Aarts, H. (2011). Perception of the color red enhances the force and velocity of motor output. Emotion, 11, 445–449. the color red for their description. A target’s inten- doi:10.1037/a0022599 tion of using an unusual background color for their Elliot, A. J., Greitemeyer, T., Gramzow, R. H., Niesta Kayser, D., Lichtenfeld, description may have an impact on participants’ S., Maier, M. A. & Lui, H. (2010). Red, rank, and romance in women viewing men. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139, 399– impressions of the target. 417. doi:10.1037/a0019689 In addition, it may be of interest to test the Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2007). Color and psychological functioning. effect of the color red in online dating and other Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 250–254. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00514.x social media contexts. Will red have a positive effect Elliot, A. J., Moller, A. C., Friedman, R., Maier, M. A., & Meinhardt, J. (2007). by enhancing a user’s attractiveness or will red have Color and psychological functioning: The effect of red on performance a negative effect by increasing feelings of competi- attainment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 154– 168. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.136.1.154 tion with this user or by increasing perceptions of Elliot, A. J., & Niesta, D. (2008). Romantic red: Red enhances men’s danger and aggressiveness? Similarly, it may be attraction to women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, interesting to take a closer look at red’s context- 1150–1164. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.5.1150 dependency. Does the effect of red simply depend Gnambs, T., Appel, M., & Batinic, B. (2010). Color red in web-based knowledge testing. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1625–1631. on the context itself or also on the way in which doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.06.010 red is used in this context and on the amount of Hill, G. E. (1990). Female house finches prefer colourful mates: Sexual red used? As mentioned earlier, it may be possible selection for a condition-dependent trait. Animal Behaviour, 40, 563– 572. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80537-8 that although red suits and dresses decrease a job Hutchings, J. (2004). Colour in folklore and tradition: The principles. Color applicant’s chances of being hired, red accessories Research and Application, 29, 57–66. doi:10.1002/col.10212 may be advantageous in this context. Kniffin, K. M., & Wilson, D. S. (2004). The effect of nonphysical traits on the perception of physical attractiveness: Three naturalistic studies. Evolution and Finally, it would be useful to determine whether Human Behavior, 25, 88–101. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.01.002 the effect of other colors, such as blue or black, Lichtenfeld, S., Maier, M. A., Elliot, A. J., & Pekrun, R. (2009). The is also context-dependent. Given the previous semantic red effect: Processing the word red undermines intellectual performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 1273– literature suggesting the importance of the color 1276. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.06.003 red in regards to human affect and behavior, we Niesta Kayser, D., Elliot, A. J. & Feltman, R. (2010). Red and romantic behavior concentrated on this color in the present study. in men viewing women. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 901–908. doi:10.1002/ejsp.757 However, assumptions about the symbolism of Rajecki, D. W., Bledsoe, S. B., & Rasmussen, J. L. (1991). Successful other colors (such as “black symbolizes eroticism” personal ads: Gender differences and similarities in offers, stipulations, versus “black symbolizes evil and death,” Elliot & and outcomes. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 12, 457–469. Maier, 2007) exist as well. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp1204_6 Rutchick, A. M., Slepian, M. L., & Ferris, B. D. (2010). The pen is mightier than the word: Object priming of evaluative standards. European Conclusion Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 704–708. doi:10.1002/ejsp.753 Bearing the limitations previously discussed in Smeesters, D., & Liu, J. (2011). The effect of color (red versus blue) on assimilation versus contrast in prime-to-behavior effects. mind, it can be concluded from the present Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 653–656. findings that the effects of the color red are doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2011.02.010 context-dependent. Red may increase undesirable Tanaka, A., & Tokuno, Y. (2011). The effect of the color red on avoidance motivation. Social Behavior and Personality, 39, 287–288. behaviors and attributes in performance-based doi:10.2224/sbp.2011.39.2.287 contexts that foster competitiveness, such as Waitt, C., Gerald, M. S., Little, A. C., & Kraiselburd, E. (2006). Selective attention contexts in which job applicants’ hirability is being toward female secondary sexual color in male rhesus macaques. evaluated, but may also increase desirable behav- American Journal of Primatology, 68, 738–744. doi:10.1002/ajp.20264 iors and attributes in more pleasant context, such Author Note. Julia F. Hammett, Department of Psychology, San as contexts in which people’s attractiveness is being Diego State University; Emily J. Issler, Department of Psychology, evaluated. San Diego State University; Holly E. Bashore, Department of Psychology, San Diego State University. The authors would like to thank professor and faculty References mentor, Dr. Richard Graf, and teaching assistants, Ralf Schuster, Burley, N., & Coopersmith, C. B. (1987). Bill color preferences of zebra finches. Andrew Galletta, Jamie Kissee, and Melissa Cervantez, for their Ethology, 76, 133–151. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1987.tb00679.x help and support in conducting the present study as a class SPRING 2014 De Vries, J. M. A. (2010). Impact of self-descriptions and photographs on project. mediated dating interest. Marriage & Family Review, 46, 538–56. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed PSI CHI doi:10.1080/01494929.2010.543038 to Julia F. Hammett, Department of Psychology, San Diego State JOURNAL OF Duckett, P. S. (2000). Disabling employment interviews: Warfare to work. University, San Diego, CA 92182. Email: [email protected]. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH