V ESTNIK OF THE M AR I ST AT E UN I V E R S IT Y 61 CHAPTER “HISTORY. LAW”. 2017, VOL. 3, NO. 3 (11)

УДК 94(517)»12/13» МОНГОЛЫ В XIII–XIV ВЕКАХ И МОНГОЛЬСКОЕ НАШЕСТВИЕ НА РУСЬ М. Вайссман1, А. А. Ярыгин2 1Университет Колорадо Колорадо Спрингс, г. Колорадо Спрингс, США 2Марийский государственный университет, г. Йошкар-Ола

MONGOLS IN THE XIII–XIV CENTURIES AND MONGOLIAN INVASION OF RUS M. Vaissman1, A. A. Yarygin2 1University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, USA 2Mari State University, Yoshkar-Ola

Данная статья является частью совместного курса This article is part of a joint course of lectures лекций по истории России, который был прочи- on the history of Russia that was read by Professor тан профессором М. Вайсманом и профессором M. Wiseman and Professor A. Yarygin during the А. Ярыгиным осенью 2016 года на историческом fall of 2016 at the history Department at the факультете университета Колорадо Колорадо University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, USA. Спрингс, США. Статья посвящена истории воз- The article is devoted to the history and develop- никновения и развития Монгольской империи ment of the Mongol Empire in the 13th and 14th в XIII–XIV веках, особенностям формирования centuries, the peculiarities of the formation of the монгольской империи, роли Чингисхана в объе- Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan's role in bringing динении разрозненных монгольских улусов together disparate Mongolian ulus into a single в единое централизованное государство. Особое centralized state. Special attention is paid to the внимание уделено нашествию монгол на Русь Mongol invasion of Rus and the relations of the и отношениям Монгольской империи с европей- Mongol Empire with the European States and the скими государствами и папским престолом. Papal Throne. The article discusses the social В статье рассматривается общественный строй structure of the Mongols of that era, the main монгол той эпохи, основные направления их за- directions of their aggressive policy, gives charac- воевательной политики, дается характеристика teristic of the Mongol army and its most prominent монгольской армии и ее наиболее видных военных military leaders. Considerable space was devoted лидеров. Значительное место уделено героическое to the heroic resistance of the Russian principali- сопротивление русских княжеств монгольскому ties for the Mongol invasion and the reasons for нашествию и причины их поражения, которое their defeat, which primarily is the feudal fragmen- прежде всего заключается в феодальной раздроб- tation in Rus and the lack of unity in the confronta- ленности на Руси и отсутствии единства в противо- tion with the Mongols. The article also analyses стоянии с монголами. В статье также анализируется the impact of the Mongol invasion on the subse- влияние монгольского нашествия на последующее quent development of the Russian state. Also развитие Русского государства. Рассматриваются discusses the attempts of Christianization of the попытки христианизации монгольской империи Mongolian Empire by the Roman Catholic Church. Римской католической церковью. Keywords: mongols, Genghis Khan, Kievan Rus, Ключевые слова: монголы, Чингисхан, Киев- Alexander Nevsky, the Golden Horde. ская Русь, А. Невский, Золотая Орда.

One of the most vivid pages in the history of the the fate of the actual Mongol peoples, but also on the Eurasian civilization is the formation and develop- development of many countries in Europe and Asia. ment of the Mongol Empire in the XIIth and XIVth It was a striking phenomenon in the world history. centuries. In a short time Genghis Khan was able to The lack of written source material on the Mon- create from disparate regions one of the largest and gols of the thirteenth century frustrates the scholar. most powerful State in Eurasia in the Middle Ages. There is the Secret History of the Mongols, a document The Mongol Empire had a huge impact not only on that reflects more myth than substance, and therefore ———————————————————————— © Вайссман М., Ярыгин А. А., 2017

62 ВЕСТНИК М АРИЙСКОГО ГОСУДАРСТВ ЕННОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА СЕРИЯ «ИСТОРИЧЕСКИЕ НАУКИ. ЮРИДИЧЕСКИЕ НАУКИ». 2017. Т. 3. № 3 (11) of marginal historic significance. There are also the We would be somewhat remiss if the Roman his- Yasa (laws) written during the life of Genghis Khan torian Ammianus Marcellinus was not investigated (Timujin) that are of value in the investigation of Mon- when describing, not the Mongols, but the Huns of gol customs. How frustrating and challenging are the the fourth century. They are nomadic and crude to topics of the Eurasian steppes’. Foreign travelers, espe- the extreme, dwell in the open without even crude cially Muslim, have observed and recorded the behav- huts, vicious in battle, and excellent with the bow. ior and history of Mongol expansion through the mid- According to Marcellinus, they cannot be trusted east and into Europe. The stories from these random and, as with the Mongols in the future, will turn travelers, all, of differing backgrounds, were uncom- upon those who thought them allies. The Huns' mon people. All were entrenched in their own cultural appetite for gold and the possessions of others is clichés. All had their own peculiar agendas. unquenchable and thus the marauding within Asia Among these men are ‘Ala-as-Din ‘Ata-Malik and into the Roman Empire. Juvaini and ibn Battutah. The papacy, with hopes of There are some similarities to the Mongols of the conversion, sent a mission to Mongolia led by the future, but aside from horsemanship, viciousness in Franciscan John of Plano Carpini and William of war, expertise with the bow and reliance upon the Rubruck. Plano Carpini was a papal envoy, a sacred horse, there seems little else for comparison. Their person of sorts, who probably received support from reliance on the horse is notable, as they seem physical- rulers nearby. As such, his treatment was majestic ly attached to the animal. They will even sit female and he never talked about the “nitty gritty” of travel. style and so relieve themselves. They sleep and do all William of Rubruck, on the other hand, as an envoy business from the back of their horses.2 Mongolia in of the less important and definitely not as a sacral the thirteenth century – and now – is a vast territory leader, the French king, “hassled” his way to the with few inhabitants. Over the centuries little has Mongol court. changed. The land encouraged a pastoralist society. Just how much the Great Khan was aware of the In the thirteenth century it is estimated that the popu- sacral leadership in Europe and its claims to univer- lation ranged between 700,000 and one million. sal rule over lay rulers may be indicated in Khan A major primary source that describes Mongol Guyuk's response to the Bull of Innocent IV in 1245. expansion is that of Ata-Malik Juvaini. A keen observer In the Khan’s response he informs the Pope that he of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, we might antici- awaits his arrival to kowtow and serve him. (Ah well, pate much from Juvaini. Here is the primary source of so much for understanding). The Chronicles of the a contemporary viewing the Mongol onslaught. Surely English Benedictine Monk Matthew Paris recount there would be insightful commentary and information tales of Mongol fury. Other contemporary accounts concerning their appearance and irresistible expansion of Mongol culture are in the travel chronicles of Ata- into Russia. We are met with disappointment as Juvaini Malik Juvaini, Ibn Battutah and Rabbi Petachia of only comments on the Rus without significant detail. Ratisbon. In his travels, Rabbi Petachia observed The Rus were a side issue as the real significance lay in Mongol culture. Unfortunately, there is little in these the civilized world of the Fertile Crescent, the Islamic accounts or those of others that furnish new avenues world. John of Plano Carpini noted some years later, of study. Mongols, he observed, live in tents made of that at the court of the Khan “we saw the Grand horse hide, they eat raw meat warmed between saddle Duke of Russia, the son of the King of Georgia, nu- and horse, drink mares’ milk (indicating lactose intol- merous sultans, and other great lords, but to none of erance), and are excellent bowmen, “bringing down them was paid any particular respect…”3 Carpini birds whilst on the wing. ” While such accounts are of proceeds to note that They are quickly roused to an- interest, they relay the same events, whether war or ger with other people… no truth is to be found more peaceful visits to Mongol centers. Their lands are among them… they get around everyone with their in the steppe where “all is level”. They eat no bread cunning… They are exceedingly grasping and avari- [hard to accept] …but rice and millet boiled in milk. cious… They consider the slaughter of other people There area includes the Black Sea and Ukraine. The as nothing… Their food consists of everything that Rabbi’s travels among the Mongols and Slavs in- ———— cluded the Crimea, the Dnieper, and its tributaries, 2 1 Ammianus Marcellinus, The Later Roman Empire (A. D. 354–378). the Putrid Sea, and Armenia . Selected and translated by Walter Hamilton with an Introduction and Notes by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill (England: Penguin Books, ———— 1986), book 31, 2–3 pp. 411–415. 1 Jewish Travellers in the Middle Ages, ed. by Elkan N. Adler. 3 Michael Prawdin, The Mongol Empire and its Rise and Legacy, Account of Rabbi Petachia of Ratisbon (New York: Dover Publica- with new introduction by Gerard Challand (London: Aldine tions Inc., 1987), pp. 64–65. Hereafter cited as Jewish Travellers. Transaction, 2010), 87. Hereafter cited as Prawdin, Mongol Empire. V ESTNIK OF THE M AR I ST AT E UN I V E R S IT Y 63 CHAPTER “HISTORY. LAW”. 2017, VOL. 3, NO. 3 (11) can be eaten… They do not wash their clothes… “are the mountains of the Rus…they have red hair, They drink mares’ milk… The men to no make any- blue eyes, and ugly faces, and are treacherous folk. ” thing at all, with the exception of arrows… they are The Christianity of the Rus is a factor in Battutah’s all, big or little, excellent archers…1 opinion.4 This was the land of “infidelity. ” The city Unfortunately, modern scholarship does little to of Sarai was impressive, “of boundless size, situated add to the reports of contemporaries of the thirteenth in a plain, choked with the throng of its inhabitants, century. Studying the Mongol expansion, there are and possessing good bazaars and broad streets.”5 many hypotheses, assumptions, and possibilities, We are here more concerned with the effect of while there are too few conclusions. In the beginning the Mongol attack and control of Russia where they of the thirteenth century there rose to leadership a remained unchallenged for the better part of 270 years: remarkable man; Genghis Khan. We know that the the Mongol Yoke. Good leadership seeks out and Mongols were comprised of pastoralists who fol- acknowledges the exceptional, and utilizes them for mu- lowed their flocks and horses as they moved in tual objectives. For Genghis Khan, this was the bril- search of pasturage. If there had been no Genghis liant tactician Subotai. His military genius ranks him Khan, a man of brilliant leadership and organization, among the greatest military leaders of history. Richard the Mongols would receive little attention, other Gabriel considers Subotai the equal of Julius Caesar.6 than as another tribe of the steppes. When it comes to Genghis Khan, «formidable Initially there was nothing unique about Temujin, opponent» would be an understatement. He was an as he bore the same racial heritage as other Turkish unlettered man who brought unity and purpose to the nomads. Their religion was animistic, relying on the people of the great plains of central Asia. He be- interpretations of shamans. Temujin and his tribe, lieved that victory was proof of the protection of the rather than succumb to the aggression of other tribes, gods. How often throughout history have we en- moved first, defeated them and absorbed them into countered those whose actions were justified by di- his growing army. His success in acquiring treasure, vine approval? “If you wish me to be your ruler, are and pasturage for thousands of horses, led to in- you without exception ready and resolved to fulfill creased prestige as “victories bred in him [Temujin] all my behests, to come when I summon you; to go an ambition for conquest which, as always with no- whithersoever I send you; and to put to death whom- mads, scorned political frontiers.”2 soever I may indicate?”7 Genghis, hearing the roar The impact of the explosion of pastoralists from of approval, said, “henceforward, then, my simple the steppes of central Asia rippled across the Eura- word shall be my sword.”8 sian continent. The planned and deliberate move- What of the Mongol warrior? Hardy, broad ment of the Mongols westward caused anxiety long shouldered, elongated torso except for short bowed before their appearance. They cut a destructive path legs. This latter condition was his life on horseback, from Korea, in the east, to the plains of Hungary in as from a very early age he rode, slept, and ate on the west. The Mongols, however, noted the value of horseback. Maco Polo, in his Travels described the commerce. The Pax Mongolica (Mongol peace) en- Mongol diet, one high in protein, thus ensuring a sured the safe travel of merchants and their goods warrior of resiliency and stamina, as the world of throughout their empire. Travelling through Syria, central Asia, China, and Russia were to discover to Ibn Battutah commented that travel and accommo- their regret.9 Richard Hakluyt observed that the dations along his route were well maintained. “Tartars never ride without their bow, arrows, and “At each of these [post stations] there is a hostelry… sword…and they are good archers both on horse- where travelers alight… and outside… is a public back, and on foot also…Bread they have none, for watering place and a shop at which the traveler may they neither till nor sow; they be great devourers of buy what he requires…”3 Battutah also noted that flesh…Their chief drink is mares milk soured.”10 passports were essential in traveling to Egypt and ———— from there to Syria. In his travels, Battutah came to 4 Battutah, Travels, p. 129. Sarai. He commented that a day’s march from “al Sara” 5 Battutah, Travels, p. 136 6 Thomas Craughwell, The Rise and Fall of the Second Largest ———— Empire in History (New York: Crestline, 2013), p. 114. Hereaf- 1 John of Plano Carpini, in Brundage, Crusades, pp. 255–257. ter cited as Craughwell, Rise and Fall. 2 Claude Cahen, “The Mongols and the Near East” in A History 7 Prawdin, Mongol Empire, p. 85. of the Crusades, edited by R. L. Wolff and H. W. Hazard (Madi- 8 Prawdin, Mongol Empire, p. 85. son: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), II, p. 716. Hereafter 9Thomas T. Allen, Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia cited as Cahen, “The Mongols and the Near East.” (England: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 127–128. 3 The Travels of Ibn Battutah, abridged, introduced and annotat- 10 Richard Hakluyt, Voyages and Discoveries, edited, abridged and ed by Tim Macintosh-Smith (London: Picador, 1988), p. 25. introduced by Jack Beeching (London: Penguin Books, 1972), p. 82. 64 ВЕСТНИК М АРИЙСКОГО ГОСУДАРСТВ ЕННОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА СЕРИЯ «ИСТОРИЧЕСКИЕ НАУКИ. ЮРИДИЧЕСКИЕ НАУКИ». 2017. Т. 3. № 3 (11) The world of the thirteenth century had never extended over a territory from the Irtysh in the east, been confronted with warriors possessing the skills the Danube in the west, and from Novgorod in the so carefully honed by the Mongols. Nurtured by the north, to the Caucasus and Crimea in the south. great distances of Central Asia, the reliance upon the The major capital of the Mongols lay to the east in horse was essential. For Mongol horsemen to cover Karakorum on the Orkhon River south of Lake 80 to 90 miles a day was not out of the ordinary. In Baikal in Mongolia. The area of Russia, however, all conditions, however, the Mongols displayed their was controlled from the city of Sarai, the capitol of adaptability. The winter proved no barrier and thus the Golden Horde initially governed by the grand- no respite for the bickering Russian princes. Frozen sons of Genghis Khan Batu and Juchi. The Mongol rivers became highways and their Chinese engineers attack in the thirteenth century left devastation and honed their new lord’s knowledge of siege tactics, havoc in its path. Cities, palaces, and churches were with exploding missiles, ballista’s, mangonels, and completely razed. Countless thousands of men, catapults. The Chinese were also excellent bureau- women and children were either butchered or carried crats, especially in establishing the census and intel- into slavery, to serve their new masters as labor or in ligence gathering. In the army there were Chinese the army. For the Mongols, expansion into Slavic doctors assigned to units of 1000 warriors. It was the Europe meant territory that could be exploited for its Chinese that introduced silk undershirts that protect- natural resources but not as an area for colonization.2 ed against penetrating arrow wounds. As the under- By the time Genghis Khan turned his attention to shirt would not tear, the arrow could be more easily the West his military skills had sharpened. Added to extracted by gently pulling the shirt, allowing the his armies fighting were siege machines. Chinese arrow to come free.1 The tactic of feigned retreat engineers had introduced the ballista and mangonel, served the Mongols well in encounters with greater siege towers, and exploding bombs. City walls could forces. The personal relationship of each warrior to not withstand such whirlwinds of destruction, nor his group and commander ensured maximum effort could mounted warriors compete with the Mongol in battle. Genghis' experience, gained in China, light and heavy cavalry. moved west along with Mongol attention. That the Russians considered either defense or Few natural barriers impose themselves on the withdrawal an option to submission is a moot point. vastness of the Eurasian land mass. The only hills of The Mongols moved into and through the Crimea, any significance lie north of present-day Afghani- across the Dnieper and Dniester, into the Black Sea, stan. These are the Urals, a long ridge of low hills, where to the north lay Russia. Before the onslaught, few over some hundreds of feet that run north-south. the uprooted searched for protection bringing to the They are, therefore, of little effect as a deterrent to Byzantine emperor warning of the “devil's spawn.” movement east/west or the reverse. To the north are The uprooted were the Cumans, of similar racial the Baltic Sea, Arctic Ocean, White Sea and Scandi- makeup to the Mongols. In the Russian principalities navia. In the moderate south, fed by the Danube, there was alarm as Mstislav of Halicz called his Dnieper and Don, is the Black Sea. Within these wa- fellow princes to meet at Kiev. The Cumans had ter systems, the Baltic to the Black Sea, the Urals to never been a friend to the Russians but circumstanc- the gates of Western Europe, is Russia. Fed by the es brought them begging for protection and alliance. mighty Volga River and situated east of the Black At the Battle of the Kalka River the Mongol advance Sea is the Caspian Sea. The Volga begins in the guard led by Jebe and Subotai destroyed first the north and winds its way south and east-ward leaving Cumans and then the Russians. Subotai, however, the forest region flowing across the steppes of grass- had not been directed by the Khan to attack the land and into the Caspian. Russians. His force represented a scouting expedi- As in Western Europe, the Slavic lands that be- tion and not an invasion. Duly following those direc- came Russia have likewise been subjected to foreign tives, he withdrew into the steppes.3 invasions. The area of southern Russia, the Caucasus At the Kalka River on 31 May 1223, Subotai and and Crimea, witnessed the incursions of Huns, Jebe destroyed multi-led separate armies of Russians Avars, and Pechenegs. Then in the thirteenth centu- and Cumans. The Mongols noted that the Russians ry, Russia was traumatized by the devastating attack had no center of command but rather each prince led of another eastern horde, the Mongols or Tatars. ———— Between 1240 and 1480, the vast territory of Russia 2 Charles J. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, the Mongol was controlled by these Asiatic people. Their control Impact on Medieval Russian History (Indiana University Press: loomington, 1985), pp. 7, 20. Hereafter cited as Halperin, Gold- ———— en Horde. 1 Craughwell, Rise and Fall. 145. 3 Prawdin, Mongol Empire, p. 217. V ESTNIK OF THE M AR I ST AT E UN I V E R S IT Y 65 CHAPTER “HISTORY. LAW”. 2017, VOL. 3, NO. 3 (11) his own army. Princes of Kiev, Suzdal, Kursk, Vla- moved towards the West under the generalship of dimir and others attacked to no effect. The Russian Batu and Subutai. Resistance meant destruction as army fled and while figures in chronicles are never witness in the squalid remains of Riazin (1237), fully reliable, we can believe that tens of thousands Suzdal (1238), Chernigov (1239), Yaroslav and fell before the Mongol attack.1 The Russians, as so Tver, Novgorod (1240). In the thirteenth century, many others, were ill matched against the Mongols. Franciscans John of Plano Carpini and William of It was 1223 and the loss was written off as yet an- Rubruque traveled into the vastness of the Orient to other raid from the steppes. After the battle at the observe and report on the activities of the Mongols. Kalka River the Mongols withdrew into the steppes. They endured exhausting physical hardships and Their foray had been a reconnaissance probe and the wrote of their experiences in the land of the Mon- valuable information thus gathered would serve gols. Their accounts furnish a glimpse of the Mon- them well in the future. The Mongols withdrew and gols’ court etiquette and culture. the Russians considered the threat to be over, and Describing Mongol behavior, Plano Carpini ini- they could return to their own warfare. Little did tially outlined their positive characteristics. It is to they know what awaited them within a mere decade! be expected that the evidence of what is positive is This, however, was not the time for a major limited. “Fights, brawls, wounding, murder are nev- Mongol offensive, and Subotai and Jebe had not er met with among them. Nor are robbers and been given instructions to pursue a major attack; that thieves…They show considerable respect to each would come in the future. 2 At the Kalka the com- other…share their food…On horseback they endure bined force of Russians and Cumans outnumbered great cold and they also put up with excessive the Mongols ten to one. This did not deter Subotai heat.”5 and Jebe. Using the tactic of controlled withdrawal, There is an interesting source that describes the the Russian/Cuman army was drawn deeper into the violence in the Baltic and Slavic lands that would Steppes, a terrain familiar and comfortable for the soon be visited by the Mongols. The Chronicle of Hen- Mongols. The Russian/Cuman army continued to ry of Livonia, translation with introduction and notes pursue and finally by 31 May 1223, battle took by James A. Brundage, details the rigors of life in place. In some ways this battle was forced upon the the Slavic, German and Scandinavian lands. Henry’s Mongols as their instructions were to scout Russia accounts follow a set pattern of vivid description of while moving against the Bulgars and into the plains the living conditions for peoples of the east. As an of Hungary. The size of the Russian/Cuman army example, one that holds true throughout the Chroni- made it impossible to avoid battle. This army was cle and is as applicable to the behavior of the Mon- comprised of separate armies led by Mistislav the gols. “The Brothers of the Militia [German]… built Daring, Prince of Galicia, princes of Kursk and up all the forts and fortified them strongly… Chernigov, Grand Prince Mstislav Romanovich of The Ungannians [Estonians?]… went with an army Kiev, and Yuri, Duke of Suzdal. in the very deep snow of mid-winter. They passed The Russian attack was disordered, as each by Wierland, crossed the Narva, pillaged the neigh- prince sought individual glory. None received any, boring land, and brought back captives and loot… however, as they were all severely defeated. With They struck the Ingarians [Hungarians] an extremely perfect timing and coordination, the Mongols turned great blow, killing the men and many people and on their pursuers and unleashed a storm of arrows. capturing many of both species. They slaughtered Quickly deserted by the Cumans, the result for the sheep and cattle and many flocks which they could Russians was a foregone conclusion.3, 4 The Mongols, not take away with them.6 In the midst of the bicker- having successfully studied the terrain of Russia, ing and violence, Henry pauses to inform us that came in force in 1236–1237. The Mongols now “here come the Mongol.” This was a danger insuffi- ———— ciently noted by Russia’s kings. “Word went out 1 The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia, translation with introduc- through all of Russia that they should fight against tion and notes by James A. Brundage (Madison: University of the Tatars [Mongols]. For Russia, as for so many Wisconsin Press, 1961), p. 205. Hereafter cited as Chronicle of others, there would be neither respite nor escape. Henry of Livonia. 2 Timothy May, The Mongol Art of War (Pennsylvania: Westholme The Russians were not strong enough…” Publishing, 2007), pp. 128–130. Hereafter cited as May, Art of War. Established empires fell. As an example, 1231 3 W. B. Bartlett, The Mongols From Genghis Khan To Tamer- witnessed the end of the state that was Khwarazm. lane (England: Amberley Publishing, 2010), pp. 80–81. 4 Cameron White, Genghis Khan (Make Profits East, 2015), ———— p. 101. Stephen Turnbull. Mongol Warrior, 1200–1350 (New 5 John of Plano Carpini, in Brundage, Crusades, pp. 254–255. York: Osprey Publishing, 2003), pp. 46–47. 6 Chronicle of Henry of Livonia, p. 204. 66 ВЕСТНИК М АРИЙСКОГО ГОСУДАРСТВ ЕННОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА СЕРИЯ «ИСТОРИЧЕСКИЕ НАУКИ. ЮРИДИЧЕСКИЕ НАУКИ». 2017. Т. 3. № 3 (11) Before the Mongols. As that wave approached the important being Subotai. As they advanced, the Rus- Russian lands the bickering princes had returned to sians seemed oblivious, as they did little to prepare, their comfortable world of small military campaigns even with reports of horror. As the Mongol army and bickering’s. Their defeat of 1223 no longer ap- advanced, it divided. One portion struck the Kipchak peared to concern them; it had been written off as to the south. The other attacked Bulghar, a city and just another raid from the steppes. Had they given territory that promised a substantial bounty. The city proper weight to the Mongol threat, they might have was demolished without significant opposition. noted the increased movement of displaced tribes The next step was to move onto the lands of the from the steppes crossing into Rus. The Pecheneges / Rus. In preparation, Mongol commanders supple- Cumans, even though enemies for many years, mented their troops, filing the ranks with conscripts warned the Rus that a vicious horde was over the until 120,000 were ready to advance. In December horizon. The future came in 1236 with Russia cowed 1237, their war machine began to advance. Subotai’s within two years. After 1236 Russia’s path was one plan was cunning and simple. He intended to drive a never anticipated in their darkest imagination. wedge, isolating one area from the other and then The reconnaissance at the Kalka River became a full turning his attention to each in separate campaigns. invasion with the return of the Mongols. On 16 December, the Mongols advanced on Ria- The Mongols returned in 1236 and life within the zin, a city located on the Oka River. Its prince Yuri, Slavic world would be traumatized beyond anticipa- his family, and the citizens of the city were massa- tion. A number of Mongol princes were directed to cred. Riazin was an important defensive point in the mobilize their armies and prepare for the campaigns. south. Unfortunately, its princes were too busy quar- “The earth echoed and reverberated from the multi- reling with one another to be prepared for a major tude of their armies…” Bulgar fell and was despoiled military encounter. The Mongols appeared before where “they slew the people or led them captive.”1 the walls, asked Riazin to surrender and pay tribute. The Mongols were aware of conditions within This was refused, and the city was surrounded with a Russia and decided to add that territory to its grow- palisade from which the Mongols used their siege ing empire. At that time there was no Russian state, engines to deadly effect. Riazin fell, and we can only but a series of principalities with key centers in each. imagine the callous loss of life at the hands of the Russia in the thirteenth century was a fragmented Mongols. There was a massacre: all residents of the series of princedoms with Kiev the one of greatest city were butchered; none survived. This tactic of significance. Kiev was the lodestone, the ecclesiasti- total destruction continued unabated through the cal center that drew Russian princes in attempts to Mongols' entire military campaigns against the Rus. gain its throne. To that end there was continual Next came Moscow. Its prince Yuri, sitting in fighting, such that blood on the field was worth Vladimir-Suzdal, sent his son Vsevelod to garrison more than that which bound family. Military histori- the city. By January 1238 it was over and Moscow ans Richard A. Gabriel and Donald W. Boorse Jr. had a new overlord. Within a month Vladimir fol- estimate that between 1054 and 1224 civil war lowed suit. In three months Russia was subdued. amongst Russian princes broke out on eighty-three City after city fell to the Mongols, and resistance occasions. Conditions were perfect for the Mongol was met with massacre. Batu and Subotai had been strategy of divide and conquer. Aiding their advance delayed by Vladimir and the destruction of Torzhok. were winter conditions that froze the rivers and pro- Novgorod, only by chance, was spared as the coming vided access for Mongol cavalry. With spring the of spring saved the city from the Mongols. The land grasslands would furnish the fodder for the hundreds around the city became a swamp when the river Ilmen of thousands of horses. There was, therefore, noth- flooded its banks. The siege engines could not be ing to obstruct Mongol plans. deployed and the troops were hindered by the mud2. Though the forests of Russia were not to the In February 1239, Vladimir was attacked. Before Mongols liking, they adapted to the topography, uti- the walls of the city, Prince Vladimir, the son of lizing their hunting skills to surround forest areas Yuri, was killed. The city fell the next day, a Sunday and slowly tighten the circle until there was no es- (a bad portent), to the Mongols. There was panic in cape. Estimates of the Mongol army are 50,000. the city as resistance crumbled. The magnates of the They were led by senior commanders; the most city, including the Grand Duchess with her children and grandchildren, fled to the Church and into the sac- ———— risty, choosing death over surrender. The Mongols saw 1 AtA-Malik Juvaini, The History of the World Conqueror, translated by John Andrew Boyle (Massachusetts: Harvard Uni- ———— versity Press, 1958), I, 269. 2 May, Art of War, pp. 18–19. V ESTNIK OF THE M AR I ST AT E UN I V E R S IT Y 67 CHAPTER “HISTORY. LAW”. 2017, VOL. 3, NO. 3 (11) them as trophies to be held for ransom and broke saved, not by determined resistance, but a spring through the doors. Their victims refused, and so thaw that made movement toward the city too diffi- flammables were piled before the sacristy, and the cult. As luck would have it, Batu had paused on his family was consumed. way to Novgorod to destroy the town of Vladimir. March came, and with it another major battle at During that respite for Novgorod, the ice on Lake the Sit River. Yuri, the prince of Vladimir, dis- Ilman melted, the lake flooded, and the area around traught at the loss of his family and city, joined bat- Novgorod became a muddy swamp. tle. He had little choice as he was surrounded. Proceeding to their summer quarters Batu, and A fierce engagement ensued, and the prince was Subatai passed close to the town of Kozelsk. killed. The armies, divided at the onset of the cam- The Mongol vanguard was attacked by Russian paign, now rejoined and spent the early spring re- heavy cavalry. When the Mongol army reached the gaining their strength. Refitted and organized, the next town it was besieged. It proved a vicious encounter objective of the Mongols was to take the south. as the town resisted for seven weeks and when the The first city to stand in the way of their advance was walls were finally breached there was house to fortified Kozelsk. The garrison successfully attacked house and street to street fighting. “The Mongols the Mongol vanguard and enjoyed a pyrrhic victory. succumbed to a kind of killing frenzy; they extermi- Enraged, the Mongols laid siege to the town. The battle nated every living thing in Kozelsk.” Chronicles de- raged for seven weeks. When the town was finally scribe the death of the seven-year-old prince, Vasil, defeated, the Mongols went on a killing frenzy; “drowned in the blood of his own people.”3 nothing, no one remained alive. In 1238 news of the horde coming from the East We come to 1240, and the Mongol campaign was is noted in the Chronicle of Matthew Paris. renewed with the prospect of the jewel to had: Kiev. The Mongols had a psychological impact far beyond Thirteenth-century Kiev was a city of wealth, beauty Central Asia and Russia. Matthew describes them as in architecture, and Byzantine-inspired churches. large headed out of proportion to their bodies. They The governor of Kiev was Dimitri, a brave yet fool- food is “raw flesh, and even on human beings.”4, 5 hardy man. The Mongols sent envoys demanding A good monk, Matthew had a religious explanation surrender. They were executed by Dimitri and by for the appearance of the Tatars. They “are very nu- this act he guaranteed that the fight would be to the merous, and are believed to have been sent as a death; and it was. Bombardment destroyed walls and plague on mankind.”6 … buildings as rubble filled the streets. The citizens The destruction of Russia’s cities has been noted. were horrified as they realized and anticipated their Matthew was apprised of the current events of 1240 fate. As in all previous attacks, the walls of Kiev when Russia was cowed by the Tatars/Mongols. were breached and the city suffered for it resistance. In 1240 “an immense horde of that detestable race of Many of the citizens had barricaded themselves in Satan, the Tartars, burst forth … like demons … the Church of the Virgin. Unfortunately, the Virgin overrunning the country, covering the face of the earth was unable to save them. The weight and numbers like locusts, they ravaged the eastern countries … in the Church led to the collapse of the building. The razed cities to the ground, burnt woods, pulled The Mongols appreciated Dimitri's bravery and he downs castles and massacred the citizens and hus- was spared; not so the city1. bandmen.”7 Matthew, far to the West, nonetheless Arriving before the walls of Moscow, at this time portrayed the tragedy being experienced in the East. a town of meager value, the Mongols found that the The Mongols established themselves at Sarai on garrison had fled. “The men of Moscow ran away the lower Volga River that became the capitol of the having seen nothing.”2 In January the walls were Golden Horde and the Great Khan’s administrative breached and all inside the city were slaughtered. center. The dynamics of court life at Sarai can be The Novgorod Chronicle describes, in vivid details, described as full of intrigue and fraught with assas- the fall of Vladimir in February 1238. The brother of sination. Poison was one means of dealing with Vsevelod and Mystislav witnessed his death before the wall of the city. On February fourteenth the ———— 3 Craughwell, Rise and Fall, p. 183. Mongols swarmed into the city, followed by indis- 4 Matthew Paris, English History, From the Year 1235–1273 criminate mayhem. As stated earlier, Novgorod was (Bohn’s Libraries), I, 131. Hereafter cited as Paris, History. 5 David Christian, A History of Russia, Central Asia, and Mon- ———— golia (Australia: Blackwell, Publishing, 1998), I, 410–411. 1 Bartlett, The Mongols From Genghis Khan To Tamerlane, Hereafter cited as Christian, History, I. pp. 105–112. 6 Paris, History, I, 131. 2 The Novgorod Chronicle c. 1275, in Craughwell, Rise and Fall. 7 Paris, History, I, 312. 68 ВЕСТНИК М АРИЙСКОГО ГОСУДАРСТВ ЕННОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА СЕРИЯ «ИСТОРИЧЕСКИЕ НАУКИ. ЮРИДИЧЕСКИЕ НАУКИ». 2017. Т. 3. № 3 (11) an imagined or real adversary. As an example: the Khan was able to keep to a minimum the use of The Grand Duke of Suzdal was invited to the tent of his own officials. As an example: Mongol Khans, from the Great Khan’s mother where she offered him food the mid-thirteenth to the first third of the fifteenth and drink. He died within a week “his whole body century appointed 130 Russian princes as governors. turned bluish-grey in a strange fashion.”1 Thus, if you As the Mongols followed the practice of hereditary desired the lands of a conquered prince, an invitation succession, where office passed from father to son, to food and drink could mean death. An established they supported that principle when dealing with the practice of the Mongols during the period of the many quarrels arising among their Russian subjects. 270 years of the Yoke was to purposefully turn The traditional family of the Rurikids had prece- Russian princes against one another in order to keep dence with son inheriting from parent rather than the them weak and not a threat to Sarai. Facilitating his earlier tradition of lateral inheritance within a fami- control, the Khan established a vast bureaucracy ly. Hereditary succession became the norm within headed by his sons, generals (noians) and the native Russia because that corresponded to the Mongol princes of the territory. principle of inheritance. Thus when dealing with the For 270 years the land that became Russia was innumerable quarrels among and within families, the subjected to degrees of control under the Mongol Mongols adhered to a practice that would be adopted Yoke. The term Mongol Yoke indicates excessive by the Russians4. In this territory of the Golden control, but evidence does not support this hypothe- Horde travel was by wagon and journeys could take sis. It would be foolish to contend that the Mongol months. Sarai controlled the Rus. A Russian prince presence in Russia was absent of control, coercion, summoned to Sarai could be summoned to his death. and violence, either in fact or in threat. For the most The hero Alexander Nevsky may have been poi- part, however, the Mongols exacted their tribute soned at Sarai, dying along his return journey. through the Russian princes. From there were sent Matthew Paris provides an account of an Eng- tax collectors, census takers, and warriors, if the lishman at the Mongol court. It appears that this per- Russians proved reluctant to pay and be counted. son had fled England because of his debts. His life The Mongols likewise recognized their lack of was one of poor fortune and bad health. Fortune at skilled workers. Craftsmen were usually separated last presented him an opportunity. He had a quick from others after capturing a fortified city. Young intellect and became conversant in the Mongol men were sent to learn Mongol fighting style, pretty language. He was brought to the Mongol court girls were made slaves, and the rest were put to the where he flourished as an interpreter. At their court sword. Having said this does not detract from the he reinforced the Mongol belief that the world was Mongol scourge to city and countryside. Many pop- theirs to conquer. Matthew’s commentary describes ulation centers never recovered from the trauma of the Mongols as vicious beyond adequate description. Mongol domination. The Church, however, enjoyed Matthew did not personally witness what he de- an autonomy that was unique in its history. In return scribed but his accounts are corroborated by Mus- for prayers to ensure the health of the Khan’s family, lim, Russian, and Jewish sources. In point of fact the Orthodox Church received a yarlyk granting a Matthew’s descriptions are in greater detail than series of privileges that included exemption from the those of immediate witness to Mongol behavior. census, taxes, and military service2. “The Tatars [Mongols] are extremely duplicitous To Sarai came those competing for yarlyk, a war- and untrustworthy in their promises. By these fic- rant that indicated their position, or to explain their tions, they prevailed on some simple kings to make a behavior. The visit could be rewarded or death. treaty with them, and grant them a free passage Those who competed most fiercely for the yarlyk through their territories; the Tatars did not keep the were the princes of Russia. The stakes were ex- treaty, and those princes perished for their trouble.”5 tremely high as the loser was usually executed3. Matthew is mightily annoyed at the “Black and Exploiting the Russian prince’s affinity for intrigue, White friars” [Franciscans and Dominicans] who are busy preaching a crusade rather than warn that the ———— Mongols are the real menace. “Six Christian king- 1 Dawson, The Mongol Mission (London: Sheed and Ward, 1955), p. 65. Hereafter cited as Dawson, Mission. doms have already been destroyed, and the same fate 2 James Chambers, The Devil’s Horsemen, The Mongol Invasion hangs over the others whilst the example of those of Europe (Atheneum: New York, 1979), pp. 26–29, 32. Hereafter cited as Chambers, Horsemen. ———— 3 J. J. Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests (University 4 Halperin, Golden Horde, p. 26. of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia, 1971), pp. 82–84, 101. 5 W. Rishanger (n. d.), I, 471–472. Hereafter cited as Paris, Eng- Hereafter cited as Saunders, Conquests. lish History, I. V ESTNIK OF THE M AR I ST AT E UN I V E R S IT Y 69 CHAPTER “HISTORY. LAW”. 2017, VOL. 3, NO. 3 (11) who have perished does not serve as a warning…we The crusading King of France, Louis XI, enter- neglect our worst enemies at home…attack those tained a plan to ally with the Mongols against the who are harmless beyond the sea.”1 Muslims. The plan was never realized as the two What Matthew was referring to was the unfortunate parties could not understand one another. The Tatars quarrel between the papacy and the Holy Roman Em- were interested in war and material gain while Louis peror Frederick. This was a quarrel that would not hope to convert them to to deal with the Tatars. be put aside, no matter the strength of the appeals. He should not be harshly criticized for ignorance of As a result of their inaction they “exhilarated the hearts Oriental subtleties. To the Great Khan Guyuk the of the Tartars, ay, of all pagans, and, moreover, of all French were not submissive, while Louis was not the enemies of Christ, and made them increase their about to accept a vassal’s status. In the thirteenth hopes.” Matthew’s appetite for visual descriptions century England, the Benedictine Monk Matthew never loses its energy. As the following years pass, Paris of St. Albans commented about the Tatars. our chronicler fills the parchment with ever more In his Chronicle, Matthew notes the scourge from vivid accounts of cannibalism and pitiless destruc- the east. Sin has led God to remonstrate against tion, all at the hands of the anti-Christ Mongols. those “believers” seduced by sin. In the fourteenth A decade following the Mongol expansion into century the Muslim traveler and commentator Ibn Russia, Hungary was falling victim to Mongol ex- Battutah remarks at the destruction and of Mongol pansion. Once again Matthew Paris cites a letter viciousness. The list goes on as in this world of the from the dethroned King of Hungary to the Holy steppes many were the groups of indigenous people Roman Emperor Frederick. The King of Hungary of similar ethnicity. There’s was the ancient land of asked for protection and against the Tatars. Freder- Scythia peopled by loose confederations of Turkish, ick agreed to help, so long as success would oblige Cumans, Kipchak, Pecheneges, Polovtsians, Mongols, the King of Hungary to become a vassal. Matthew Naimans, Tatars; to name a few. All lived within the hypothesized that the Emperor may have connived vastness of Central Asia. These were the pastoralists in this matter, especially with a successful campaign that Bishop Otto of Freising observed that their against the Mongols2. A year later in 1241 the Holy land showed no evidence of plow. For the west Roman Emperor Frederick wrote to the English they were all grouped together and identified as Ta- King expressing his concern for the future of Chris- tars [Mongols]. tianity. Frederick bemoans the fate of Christianity as In 1245, Pope Innocent IV chose the Portuguese being under great pressure from “Tartars [that have] Lawrence and John of Plano Carpini to travel to lately emerged from… the south… for the ruin of Mongolia. The journey was arduous as the rotund the whole of Christianity.” John, upon meeting the Mongols, was made to ride To their great dismay, too many had discounted day after day into the vastness of the East. The chal- the threat from the east, and Europe followed that lenges of his journey would make the American Po- path. Finally, with reality intruding on fantasy the ny Express uneventful by comparison. Innocent monarchs and Papacy began to take the threat seri- chose John because of his knowledge of Scripture ously. The warnings had been many, as one after and his years following the monastic regula. At the another, Hungary, Bulgar, Poland, Moravia, and age of sixty-five, lacking in knowledge of oriental Russia succumbed. The Mongol’s campaign in Rus- languages and bolstered by his faith, he began his sia made clear that the in-fighting among the Rus- demanding journey. The Pope hoped that John sian princes was part of their undoing. “The diverse would be successful in missionary activity and inter- tendencies of the Russian princes…were too deeply est the Mongols in Christianity.6 They endured ex- rooted to be set aside even in so serious an emergen- hausting physical hardships and wrote of their expe- cy.”3, 4, 5 riences in the land of the Tatars. Their accounts ———— furnish a glimpse of the Mongols’ court etiquette 1 Paris, English History, I, 473. and culture. 2 Letter of the King of Hungary to Emperor Frederick, in Matthew As the crusading states were under constant pres- Paris, English History, I, 489–490. sure from Islam, so was Islam under pressure from 3 David Morgan, The Mongols (Australia: Blackwell Publishing, 2007), p. 121. Hereafter cited as Morgan, Mongols. the Mongols. The shrinking fortunes of the Crusades 4 Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (New coupled with reports of Mongol viciousness caused York: Thomas Y. Crowell and Company, 1845), V, 272–273. Innocent IV to issue a Bull to the “emperor of the 5 A History of the Crusades, ed. by Kenneth M. Setton, Volume Tatars.” From the tone of the Bull, it is apparent that II, The Later Crusades, 1189–1311, ed. By Robert Lee Wolff and Harry W. Hazard (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, ———— 1969), 230. Hereafter cited as Setton et al, Later Crusades. 6 Halperin, Golden Horde, pp. 84–86, 87. 70 ВЕСТНИК М АРИЙСКОГО ГОСУДАРСТВ ЕННОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА СЕРИЯ «ИСТОРИЧЕСКИЕ НАУКИ. ЮРИДИЧЕСКИЕ НАУКИ». 2017. Т. 3. № 3 (11) Innocent failed to understand this irresistible force aid and succor the bickering Latin crusaders. “We saw from the East. This is not to be critical of the Pope, there at that time the aforesaid Bishop in Jabala as the knowledge of geography and other cultures Syria… He said, indeed, that not many years since, was in its infancy. The Pope noted that he expects one John, and king and priest living in the Far East, the Tatars “furnishing them with a safe conduct…on beyond Persia and Armenia, and who, with his peo- both their outward and return journey…”1 The Bull ple, is a Christian, but a Nestorian, had warred upon indicates some effort to understand who and what the so-called Samiards” Samiards may refer to the represented this menace. How can the European Seljuk Sultan Sanjar5. community grasp “fury still unabated… stretching When faith is placed in miracles, divine interven- out your destroying hand… breaking the bond of tion, and fantasy, we are dealing with loosely rav- natural ties, sparing neither sex, nor age, you rage eled cloth. Europe awaited the appearance of this against all…”2 If this was “diplomacy,” it was not a deliverer and his army. Where could they be? success, as peace was never an option; witness the Reports circulated that they were encamped between continued expansion of the Mongols. the Caspian Sea and Mesopotamia. “But if they were The Khan Guyuk responded with a command to there, they failed to come to the aid of the crusad- the Pope. “Thou thyself, at the head of all the princ- ers.”6 The King of Hungary, Duke Leopold of Aus- es, come at once to serve and wait upon us! At that tria was the first to return to Europe while those re- time I shall recognize your submission.”3 And so maining saw the possibility of plunder in Egypt. goes diplomacy, as the Mongols continued their mil- Offers of peace from the Muslims were reflected; in itary expansion. part because of the expectation of the great army Europe’s crusading zeal had met with limited from the east. Crusaders expended their energies in success, and by the thirteenth century it appeared plunder only to find themselves besieged and defeat- predictable that the Crusading states would fall to ed; no army from the east made its appearance, other Islam. The crusading spirit however, continued to be than the Mongols7. “There was no new and mighty voiced from the pulpits of St. Peters and the lure of protector of Christianity. There was no King David gain under the protection of the cross was a powerful of India, at the head of an army of unparalleled size, stimulus. There again rode a dark beast that de- has taken the field against the unbelievers.”8 Some stroyed fortresses thought impenetrable. There was versions of the tale have Prester John and David be- no respite from the Mongol armies. ing the same person. This becomes a stretch to ac- Europe was beleaguered and only a miracle could cept as Prester John/David would be a hundred years be its rescue. Mongol scouting parties were seen in old. Where there is hope, belief supersedes reason the north of Italy while Hungary and Georgia were and logic9. over run. A rumor that a grandson of the mysterious European accounts of the Mongols describe Prester John, David, would come out of the East to carnage and massive loss of life. The Middle East, lend support to Europe, was no more than a myth. China and Europe, neither could have anticipated Still, the myth had great staying appeal for those nor prepared for the Mongol attacks. In some re- whose reality lay in dreams. spects it would have been remarkable if Europe In the twelfth century there were declarations by could have effectively responded. The Latin Empire Jacques de Vitry, bishop of Ptolemais, that “a new of Constantinople was a shadow of it previous maj- and mighty protector of Christianity has arisen. King esty. The Mongols targeted Hungary, while the pa- David of India, at the head of an army of unparalled pacy quarreled with the Hohenstaufen’s. With this size, has taken the field against the unbelievers.” the situation there could be little effective military Those who listened to de Vitry wanted to believe campaign against the Mongols10. that there was a King David, and that this remarka- It was not until the fourteenth century that the ble personage was just over the horizon. This won- power of the Golden Horde began to display signs drous king would rebuild the walls of Jerusalem and ———— Christian prisoners would be released4. 5 James Brundage, The Crusades, A Documentary Survey (Milwau- Prester John, the fabulous monarch residing kee: Marquette University Press, 1962), pp. 83, 85. Sanjar was defeated 9 September 1141 by Gur-Khan of Qara Kithay, Yeh-lu somewhere in the east, was believed on his way to Ta Shih with whom Prester John has been identified by Charles E. ———— Nowell. 1 Bull of Innocent IV dated 1245 in Dawson, Mission, pp. 73–75. 6 Prawdin, The Mongol Empire, p. 17. 2 Bull of Innocent IV dated 1245, in Dawson, Mission, pp. 75–76. 7 Dawson, Mission, p. 22. 3 Guyuk Khan’s reply to Pope Innocent IV, in Dawson, Mission, 8 Jacques de Vitry in Prawdin, Mongol Empire, p. 15. pp. 85–86. 9 Morgan, Mongols, p. 155. 4 Jacques de Vitry in Prawdin, Mongol Empire, p. 15. 10 Setton et al, Later Crusades, 220. V ESTNIK OF THE M AR I ST AT E UN I V E R S IT Y 71 CHAPTER “HISTORY. LAW”. 2017, VOL. 3, NO. 3 (11) of weakness. From the reign of Prince Ivan I strengthened religious institutions. Other schools of (1325–1341): Kalita (money bag), to Ivan IV Russian and Soviet historians led by Grekov and (1547–1584) (Grozny), Mongols were replaced by Rybakov were of the opinion that Russia, ill-prepared Russian officials, and Muscovy’s autonomy and and lacking organization, was an easy target for power increased. As an example, Ivan I, with no Mongol expansion. The most balanced and clear Mongol interference, established an army and co- analysis is that of Charles J. Halperin who points out erced other princes in northeastern Russia to the effect of the Mongols upon Russia. “The tena- acknowledge his authority1. cious picture of Russian existence as part of the In the mid-fourteenth century, the Golden Horde Golden Horde that has survived is the one that medi- experienced internal power struggles that further eval Russian intellectuals could reconcile with weakened its hold on Russia. In 1380, the Khan Christian ideology–a simplistic vision of brutal Mamai’s army was defeated at Kulikovо by Dimitrii oppression and bitter resistance.”4 Ignorance and Donskoi; it is this event that marks Russia’s first national sentiment has clouded the mosaic of the success in the struggle to free itself from the “Mon- relationship between the Horde and Russia. Halperin gol Yoke.” True, the Mongols returned to pillaged is of the opinion that Russian chroniclers chose to and burn Moscow, but their iron control of the remain silent when addressing the Mongol presence. Slavic lands had begun to erode. By the first half of This becomes increasingly evident following the the fifteenth century, the Golden Horde had frag- Mongols’ conversion to Islam in 1340, as that made mented into seven independent khanates. As the them the implacable enemy, the Hagarenes or Ismai- khanates struggled to assert their authority, the ensu- lites. This silence of the chroniclers lulled future ing competition for power enabled Moscow to gain historians into taking them at face value, concluding increased autonomy, finally ending Mongol control that the Mongols had either a negative or, at best, a by 1480. Moscow’s future would be secured as it marginal effect upon Russia. This is far removed absorbed those territories previously controlled by from the reality of the situation as there was much Sarai. As Charles J. Halperin observes: “Though the interaction that was not conflict. There is evidence Mongols had sought above all to prevent the emer- of intermarriage as well as diplomatic and economic gence of a single Russian principality strong enough ties between the various Russian princes and the to seriously annoy the Golden Horde, in the end they Mongols. Russians who desired to do business with helped to produce one.”2 Sarai or Karakorum in Mongolia learned court eti- To what extent the Yoke of the Mongols influ- quette, Turkic, and the intricacies of Tatar diplomacy5. enced the history of Russia has been a hot-button It is challenging to attempt to measure the impact topic debated by historians, especially in the twenti- of the Mongols upon the development of Russia. eth century. Mongol interest concentrated upon ex- During the period of their dominance of over two ploiting the resources of their conquered territory centuries they converted to Islam. They sent baskaki rather than attempting to assimilate with the indigenous (officials) throughout their conquered territory to population. Much of Russia’s cultural and religious oversee the organization of taxes and the taking foundation remained, therefore, essentially unaffected. of chislo (census) to ensure the proper levies. “Muscovite borrowing of Mongol political forms was The Mongols seem to have abandoned the baskak significant but not wholesale, with profound but not system sometime in the fourteenth century, replacing permanent effects on Russian history.”3 them with envoys with the same responsibilities. Two schools of Russian historians dominate the This modification decreased the administrative costs debate on the Mongol legacy in Russia. Lev Gumilev, of the Golden Horde6. Professor of Geography and History at the University As often as not, the Mongols were active partici- of St. Petersburg argues, as does George Vernadsky, pants in the internal machinations of various Russian that the Mongols had both a positive as well as nega- princes as they vied with one another for office. tive impact upon the development of Russia. Profes- Mongol cavalry served as auxiliaries in many a fam- sor Gumilev hypothesized that the Mongol period ily or dynastic feud acting to keep any one prince encouraged Russian national consciousness and from becoming too strong. ———— It was also a reverse effect, especially after the 1 Halperin, Golden Horde, pp. 61–62, 66, 77. Chambers, decline of the Golden Horde, the autonomous part of Horsemen, pp. 36, 125–126. ———— 2 Halperin, Golden Horde, pp. 145–146. Saunders, Conquests, 4 Halperin, Golden Horde, p. 90. pp. 105, 161. 5 Halperin, Golden Horde, p. 103. Saunders, Conquests, 3 Halperin, Golden Horde, pp. 100–101. Saunders, Conquests, pp. 168–169. pp. 165, 166. 6 Halperin, Golden Horde, p. 128. 72 ВЕСТНИК М АРИЙСКОГО ГОСУДАРСТВ ЕННОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА СЕРИЯ «ИСТОРИЧЕСКИЕ НАУКИ. ЮРИДИЧЕСКИЕ НАУКИ». 2017. Т. 3. № 3 (11) the once mighty Mongol Empire. Many members of curs the Kasimov Kingdom within the Russian the Tatars nobility leaved the Sarai for the military lands. But finally the “Mongol Yoke” ends in the service primarily to the Moscow princes and gave period of Ivan III in the XV century. Moscow Russia rise to many Russian feudal families. So in 1445 oc- finally becomes an independent state.

Для цитирования: Вайссман М., Ярыгин А. А. Монголы в XIII–XIV веках и монгольское наше- ствие на Русь // Вестник Марийского государственного университета. Серия «Исторические науки. Юридические науки». 2017. № 3 (11). С. 6172. Citation for an article: Vaissman M., Yarygin A. A. Mongols in the XIII–XIV centuries and Mongolian invasion of Rus. Vestnik of the Mari State University. Chapter “History. Law”. 2017, no. 3 (11), pp. 6172.

Вайссман М, Ph. D., профессор кафедры Weissman M., Ph. D., lecture of the de- истории, университет Колорадо Колорадо partment of history, University of Colorado Спрингс, г. Колорадо Спрингс, США, at Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, [email protected] USA, [email protected] Ярыгин Андрей Андреевич, кандидат Iarygin Andrei A., Ph. D. (History), asso- исторических наук, доцент, Марийский ciate professor, Mari State University, государственный университет, г. Йош- Yoshkar-Ola, [email protected] кар-Ола, [email protected]