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Groupe de recherche en \ GÉOLOGIE DE L'INGÉNIEUR
RAPPORT GGL-90--02
Contract no. 64SS 57111-7-A117
Supply and Services Canada
DEVELOPMENT OF A METHOD
OF SEISMIC MICROZONATION MAPPING
APPLICABLE TO THE URBAN AREAS OF CANADA
FINAL REPORT
Submitted to
Emergency preparedness Canada
by
Jean-Yves CHAGNON
and
François D. GILBERT
JANUARY 1990 elmuninlinn UNIVERSITÉ DÉPARTEMENT DE GÉOLOGIE QE Faculté des sciences et de génie 539.2 LAVAL Cité universitaire .S34 Québec G1 K 7P4 C49 1990 E Groupe de recherche en GÉOLOGIE DE L'INGÉNIEUR
RAPPORT GGL-90-02
Contract no. 64SS 57111-7-A117
Supply and Services Canada
DEVELOPMENT OF A METHOD
OF SEISMIC MICROZONATION MAPPING
APPLICABLE TO THE URBAN AREAS OF CANADA
FINAL REPORT
Submitted to
Emergency preparedness Canada
by
Jean-Yves CHAGNON
and
François D. GILBERT
UNIVERSITÉ DÉPARTEMENT DE GÉOLOGIE Faculté des sciences et de génie efs LAVAL, Cité universitaire Québec G1K 7P4 RAPPORT GGL 90-02
Contract No.: 64SS 57111-7-A117 Supply and Services Canada
DEVELOPMENT OF A METHOD OF SEISMIC MICROZONATION MAPPING APPLICABLE TO THE URBAN AREAS OF CANADA
FINAL REPORT
by
CHAGNON., Jean-Yves and GILBERT, François, D.
submitted to
EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS CANADA
JANUARY 1990 SU/IMARY
The major objective of this project is the development of a methodology for seismic microzonation mapping applicable to the urban areas of Canada. The method should be simple and relatively inexpensive to implement and the resulting seismic microzonation map(s) should provide a sound basis for land- use planning and emergency planning on a regional scale. A review of the literature indicates that much work has been devoted to this topic in the last two decades. Seismic microzonation maps usually include three elements of risk which are: soil liquefaction, slope stability and intensity amplification. Many methods have been published on the precise evaluation of each of these elements. None is really simple and the cost of such evaluations is anything but inexpensive. A detailed and precise map prepared with the use of these elaborate methods would cost more than most planning authorities would be willing to invest. Few works have been published on methods of seismic microzonation based on simple procedures using already available information. A methodology has been developed in this project which allows the preparation of seismic microzonation maps on the ' basis of data commonly available in any urban area. The cost involved is relatively low, most of it being applied to the collection of the data. The resulting microzonation map includes the regional evaluation of the three elements usually considered. This evaluation is not precise and cannot be used on a site- specific basis. It is a first and necessary step in the process of obtaining a complete and precise determination of the risks associated with seismic activity. Many cities in Canada, both large and small, are within seismic zones and can suffer damages from a moderate to major earthquake. Others are outside seismic zones but are close enough to sustain damages from major events. The preparation of preliminary seismic microzonation maps for these areas should provide a basis for identifying sectors which are susceptible to the common risk elements and for the implemen- tation of damage mitigation measures. TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUIDLARY ...... i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... ii
FOREWORD ...... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ...... 3
1.1 Definition of the work ...... 3 1.1.1 Objectives ...... 3 1.1.2 Basic concepts on earthquakes and d^-namic loads ...... 5 1.1.3 Seismic zoning ( earthquake probability maps) vs. microzonation maps ...... 8
2. THE EFFECTS OF EARTHQUARES ...... 10
2.1. General ...... 10 2.2. Soil dynamics (behavior of soils under cyclic loading) ...... 11 2.3. Strong ground motions ...... 13 2.3.1 Measurement of the dynamic parameters ....15 2.3.2 Attenuation relations ...... 16 2.4. Evaluation and prediction of the displacements .17 2.4.1. Regional seismic hazard ...... 17 2.5. Soil liquefaction - settlement - failure ...... 17 2.6. Surface tectonics ...... 21
3. SEISMIC MICROZONATION ...... 22
3.1. General - Bibliographic research - Literature review ...... 22 3.2. Elements of microzonation ...... 2 3.2.1. Liquefaction potential ...... 24 3.2.1.1. Definition ...... 24 3.2.1.2. Causes ...... 25 3.2.1.3. Behavior of liquefiable soils ...26 3.2.1.4. Modeling ...... 27 3.2.1.5. Evaluation of the liquefaction potential ...... 29 3.2.1.5.1 Geologic conditions ...... 31 3.2.1.5.2. Measurement of shear wave velocity ...... 32 3.2.1.5.2.1. at the surface ...33 3.2.1.5.2.2. in boreholes .....34 3.2.1.5.3. SPT Test ...... +...... 36 3.2.1.5.4. Piezocone - cone penetra- tion test (CPT) ...... 42 3.2.1.5.5. Other methods ...... 45 iii
3.2.1.6. Observation and mapping of the liquefaction potential 46 3.2.1.7. Improvement of liquefiable soils 48 3.2.2. Slope stability - landslides 49 3.2.3. Settlement and subsidence 50 3.3. The amplification of seismic intensity (site effects) 51 3.3.1. General - theory 51 3.3.2. Effects related to the nature of the soil 58 3.3.3. Effects related to the geometry (bedrock and surface topography - structure - thickness of the deposits) 59 3.3.4. The determination and mapping of the site effects 62 3.4. Microzonation methods 64 4. THE MICROZONATION OF THE QUEBEC CITY AREA 7 9 4.1. Seismic activity in eastern Canada 7 9 4.1.1. The Charlevoix seismic zone 72 4.1.2. The Quebec area - Limits of the Quebec Urban Community (Q.U.C.) 75 4.2. The Geological conditions - bedrock occurrences - surficial deposits 76 4.3. Compilation of geotechnical data (boreholes, soil investigations) 79 4.4. Evaluation of the liquefaction potential 81 4.5. Slope stability 88 4.6. Amplification of seismic intensity 91 4.6.1. General considerations 91 4.6.2. Damages in previous earthquakes in the Quebec area 92 4.7. Regional seismic hazard map 95 5. DISCUSSION 97 5.1. General relations 97 5.2. The limitations of the method 97 6. GENERAL METHODOLOGY PROPOSED 99 7- URBAN AREAS IN CANADA WHERE MICROZONATION IS REQUIRED 104 8. CONCLUSIONS 106 9. REFERENCES 107
ANNEX I - BIBLIOGRAPHY 118 FINAL REPORT
SEISMIC MICROZONATION - QUEBEC CITY AREA
by
J.Y. Chagnon and F.D. Gilbert
FOREWORD The november 25, 1988 Saguenay earthquake with a magnitude of 6.0 on the Richter scale was a reminder that Eastern Canada is an earthquake prone area. Fortunately this earthquake was just below the threshold of major damage and no large-scale destruction occurred. Many buildings in the Chicoutimi area, 30 km north of the epicenter, and in the Quebec city area, .150 km south of the epicenter, were damaged. In all cases there was no structural damage but only architectural damage. In the Quebec city area the degree of perception of the earthquake and the distribution of the damage were uneven. On the Quebec promontory, in upper town, most of the buildings are built directly on bedrock and the earthquake was felt by most people for only a few seconds (3 to 15). The damage was limited to minor cracking of concrete basements and plaster walls. Of course those who lived on the upper floors of high-rise buildings were disturbed by the large swaying movement and they felt the earthquake more than those who live closer to the ground. In lower town, near the St.Charles River, the bedrock is covered by a thick layer of soft silts and clays and the bedrock topography shows a wide z and deep northeast trending valley underneath the thick
sediments. The earthquake was strongly felt in this area and most of the damage was concentrated there. The duration of
the shaking, according to the witnesses was on the order of
50-60 seconds. Chimneys were felled, brickwalls collapsed,
store shelves spilled their contents on the floors and
cracking of walls was common. In this part of the city there
was a power failure and there were scenes of panic in a large
downtown shopping center.
This earthquake pointed out the necessity of being able
to predict the behavior of the soils and structures in an
urban area during an earthquake in order to include paraseis-
mic provisions in the land-use planning schemes and in order
to plan the emergency measures so as to maximize their
efficiency. 3 1. INTRODUCTION
The present study was undertaken in august 1987 under a contract from the Department of Supply and Services, Canada (Contract No. 64SS 57111-7-A117). The contract was awarded at the request of Emergency, Preparedness Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. The work to be performed had been described in a proposal submitted by the authors in march 1987 to Mr. A. Tremblay and Mr. G. Lafond, Emergency, Preparedness Canada. 1.1 Definition of the work The work consists in the development of a methodology for seismic microzonation applicable to urban areas of Canada using simple and inexpensive geophysical techniques. 1.1.1 Objectives The principal objective is the development of a seismic microzonation methodology applicable to the urban areas of Canada. Seismic microzonation studies are concerned with the identification of the soil and rock units which behave differently under cyclic loads such as are generated during an earthquake. Seismic microzonation not only establishes distinctions between the units according to their behavior but attempts to establish in a quantitative way the various risks associated with this behavior. These risks are: landslides, settlement of loose granular material and liquefaction of loose saturated sands and silts. Furthermore the nature of some soft soils and the bedrock geometry may lead to a local amplification of the intensity. This is 4 generally referred to as a "site effect". Seismic microzona- tion maps usually include an evaluation of such effects inasmuch as it is possible. During the last 25 years, or since the 1964 Good Friday 'earthquake in Alaska (M=8.6), much research has been devoted to the understanding of the earthquake risks and numerous attempts to prepare seismic microzonation maps have been completed, mainly on the western coast of the U.S.A., in Japan and in Russia. In Canada, as far as is known, only two large cities have been covered by seismic microzonation maps. The first one is the city of Victoria mapped by Wuorinen (1976). This work was based mainly on the distribution of Quaternary deposits and no quantitative evaluation of risks such as liquefaction and settlement was made. The second is the city of Quebec where a seismic microzonation map was prepared on a limited budget by Doré in 1984. The limited means did not allow for any field measurements and the map was prepared using geological reports, airphoto interpreta- tion and the information gathered in a large soil data bank prepared earlier as part of a geotechnical mapping program undertaken - by the Geology Department at Laval university. The seismic risks were evaluated in a qualitative way which provided some indication as to the nature of the problems which could be anticipated during an earthquake but without giving any precise quantitative site-specific information. 5 The purpose of the present work is to provide quantita- tive information on the seismic risks and on the site effects using simple geophysical techniques which can be implemented easily and at a relatively modest cost. The methods used should be rapid and yet precise. They must be applicable to the urban areas of Canada. This last point is important and the strategy followed is based on it. For example in any large city many boreholes have been drilled at various points and these are the basis of an extensive data base on soil conditions. The method presented should therefore not rely on the drilling of holes which is time consuming and expensive. The borehole records which are disseminated in various offices in any city can be collected quite rapidly and at low cost and can be included in a soil data bank for the city to be mapped. . . The method to be developed will be applied to the Quebec city area using the previous seismic microzonation map.as a starting point. 1.1.2 Basic concepts on earthquakes and dynamic loads An earthquake is the sudden release of energy stored in the rocks under the surface of the earth by tectonic deformations. Most of the energy released in an earthquake is mechanical and is felt as waves propagating through the rocks which behave as elastic materials. There are four basic types of waves which can be assigned to two main groups: the body waves and the surface waves. The body waves consist of the 6 primary or P wave and the secondary or S wave. The P wave is a compressive deformation which alternately pushes and pulls the rock along the direction of propagation of the wave. The
S wave displaces or shears the rock sideways at right angles as it propagates through it. The S wave is slower than the P wave and is always recorded later on a seismogram. In most earthquakes the P wave is felt first as a sharp blow and is often heard as a low-frequency sound. Later, depending on the distance to the epicenter, the S waves are felt with sideways motions, both in vertical and horizontal planes. The S wave is the one that causes most of the damage close to the epicenter.
The surface waves consist of- the Love waves and the
Rayleigh waves which travel near the ground surface. The Love wave is similar to the S wave but it has no vertical displacement, moving the ground sideways in a horizontal plane in a direction perpendicular to the path of propaga- tion. The Rayleigh waves show a complex rotary movement similar to that of ocean waves. Surfaces waves are slower than body waves and are recorded later. The Love wave is slightly faster than the Rayleigh wave.
The body waves can be reflected or refracted as they move across different types of rocks. Thus many waves are recorded on a seismogram when an earthquake occurs and the movement of the ground is complex. When P and S waves come to
the surface they are reflected back downwards and the surface 7 is moved by upward and downward-moving waves resulting in amplification of shaking. Structures built underground in bedrock are always less affected by earthquakes than corresponding structures above the surface. When seismic waves travel through soils their parameters are modified, resulting most of the times in amplification of the intensity of the shaking at the surface. These so-called "site effects" may be influenced not only by the nature of the soils but also by the bedrock topography. Destruction of structures built on loose soils has been observed in many earthquakes while similar structures built on bedrock have suffered only minor damages. Amplification factors of 10 have been observed over the lake-bed zone during the Mexico earthquake of 1985 and more than 400 buildings were damaged or destroyed in this area. Earthquake waves have a complex frequency content and their propagation through soils results in a filtering effect and some frequencies are more amplified than others, depending on the rock or soil type through which they propagate. When the amplified frequency is close or similar to that of a structure at the ground surface, resonance may occur resulting in increased loads and usually greater destruction. 8
1.1.3 Seismic zoning (earthquake probability maps) vs. microzonation maps
The concept of seismic zoning has been developed at the request of engineers and architects who require quantitative values as input in their calculations of the structures of buildings. The seismic load is usually considered to be an horizontal stress applied at the base of the building. In order to provide the value to be used locally seismologists have proposed a seismic zoning based on a given probability of exceedence of a local value of acceleration. The local value is that of the acceleration of the ground motion in bedrock and it is obtained from the historical seismicity as reported by witnesses and as recorded by seismographs for more recent events. The Seismology Division of the Earth
Physics Branch, Geological Survey of Canada, has prepared the seismic zoning map used in the 1985 edition of the National
Building Code of Canada. This map covers the whole territory of Canada and shows values of acceleration for the various seismic zones of the country. The scale of this map is large
and it is not always easy to determine the exact value to be used in an active area. A more precise evaluation of the
seismic risk for a given area can be obtained directly from
the Seismology Division. The local acceleration value is
input in the load calculation along with various coefficients
which take other parameters into account. The National
Building Code of Canada has a section on seismic provisions
which details the values of the coefficients to be used. One 9 of these refers to the nature of the soils. It is based mainly on an objective evaluation of the "quality" of the soil and does not adequately account for amplification effects or problematic behavior such as liquefaction. Seismic microzonation maps differ from seismic zoning maps first on the basis of the scale used. The scale is not that of a country but usually that of a more limited area, such as a city. Another important difference is that seismic microzonation maps are not concerned only with seismic loads such as local accelerations, but are concerned with the identification of seismic risks associated from local rock or soil conditions. They are geotechnical maps applied to seismic effects. Therefore a seismic microzonation map will identify landslide-prone areas, soils which can settle or liquefy, and geologic conditions which may lead to amplifica- tion of seismic shaking. 1 0
9 . THE EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES 2.1. General Earthquakes are sudden releases of energy in the rock below the surface. As we have already seen the energy released is mechanical energy and is in the form of waves. There are four main types of seismic waves, two of which (P and S) are generated at the point of release and propagate along a spherical front away from the source. The other two types (L and R) are generated at discontinuities between different rock types and at the interface between the rock or soil and the surface. They propagate near the ground surface only. Earthquakes are ruptures along faults. They are usually assimilated to a point but they actually involve large surfaces along the fault planes. The area of the rupture is directly related to the magnitude of the earthquake. The displacements along the ruptured segments of the fault are often but not always visible at the surface. This depends on the depth and magnitude of the earthquake. Seismic waves are affected by soil conditions and bedrock topography at the surface and underneath the sediment cover. Usually the size of the wave is increased as a result of a transition from rigid bedrock to soft soil. Accelero- graphs are used to measure the more severe ground shaking observed at the surface. The records obtained from these instruments allow the measurement of some parameters of the motion of soil particles as seismic wave propagate through 11 the soil. As seismic waves propagate the soil particles are submitted to motions which depend on each type of wave
(P,S,L,R). The parameters measured are amplitude of the particle movement or displacement, particle velocity and acceleration. The acceleration is commonly used and is expressed in terms of the acceleration due to gravity (1g = 980 cm/sec 2 ). Accelerographs also allow the identification of the frequency content of the waves. This is important because the largest displacements may occur along a narrow frequency band which may correspond to the natural frequency of vibration of structures. 2.2. Soil dynamics (behavior of soils under cyclic loading) The ground motion near the surface of a soil deposit results from the passage of compression and shear waves from the underlying bedrock. The nature of the ground motion is related to a few factors such as duration of the vibrations, dominant period of acceleration and maximum amplitude of motion. The duration of the earthquake-induced vibrations generally varies according to the magnitude of the earthqua- ke. For instance a magnitude 6 earthquake will be felt for 15 • seconds on bedrock and 40-50 seconds on soft soils. The behaviour of granular material (sand, silt) under seismic load has been the object of numerous observations and studies. The major effects are: settlement of loose dry material and saturated material when drainage is possible 12 and liquefaction of soft saturated material at various depths. These will be looked at in detail in later sections of this report.
The behavior of clays under seismic loading has been
studied extensively mainly in relation with offshore
applications. For clay material cyclic loading usually
results in a decrease in undrained shear strength which can
be explained by the reduction in effective stress due to
excess pore-water pressures generated by the cyclic loads
(Koutsoftas, 1978). Cyclic loadings also lead to softening of
the clay. Matsui et al. (1980) found that an overconsolidated
state "due to the cyclic stress-strain history is similar in
strength to one due to the ordinary overconsolidation history
and that, in spite of the temporary loss in strength and
deformation modulus immediately after cyclic loading, the
dissipation of pore pressures leads to higher strength than
the initial strength". According to these authors the
normally consolidated clays are similar to the so-called
"aged" normally consolidated clays after cyclic loadings and
the dissipation of excess pore pressures. Cyclic stress-
strain history can be one of the factors causing natural
ground to become lightly overconsolidated. Ohara and Matsuda
(1988) also explain the apparent settlement of clay layers by
the excess pore pressures. They note that the seismic
settlement is large in comparison with that produced by
secondary compression. 13 2.3. Strong ground motions The ground motions generated at the surface by an earthquake are complex and are influenced by numerous factors such as the magnitude of the earthquake, the distance of the site from the epicenter, the geological conditions along the path of the waves, the source mechanism of the earthquake and the local soil conditions at the site. The effect of the distance from the epicenter is well established and attenuation curves are available for magnitude 6 to 7 earthquakes and for sites at various distances from the source of energy release. The influence of local soil conditions on the maximum ground acceleration are now well documented. Seed and Idriss (1982) indicate that at comparable distances from the source, peak accelerations recorded on rock are higher than those recorded on deep alluvium. This is usually the case for acceleration levels greater than 0.1g. At lower levels, accelerations on deep soil deposits are higher than those on rock. The local soil conditions have a profound influence on the response spectra of the ground motion. Response spectra obtained over various soil and rock types show large differences in shapes. For periods greater than 0.5 second spectral amplifications are higher for deep cohesionless and for soft to medium stiff clay deposits than for stiff soil deposits and rock. Deep and soft deposits act as filters and allow more long period components in the ground motion. TOTAL NUMBER OF RECORDS ANALYSED: 104 o SPECTRA FOR 5% DAMPING z- o t-- ff, < SOFT TO MEDIUM CLAY AND LL, 11-A -et 1.1.1 SAND - 15 RECORDS LiJ < SOILS m 2 f COHESIONLESS
a) Average acceleration spectra for different site conditions.
5 TOTAL NUMBER OF RECORDS ANALYSED: 104 SPECTRA FOR 5% DAMPING
■■•■1 4 /SOFT TO MEDIUM CLAY AND cr F SAND - 15 RECORDS - ce <1- Lu WiA\-4 ce La DEEP COMES I ONLESS SO 1. 1-S Là+ t..) 3 c..) (>250 FT) - 30 RECORDS 1.1.1 ‘.3 L.) CD STIFF SOILS < (<200 FT) -31 RECORDS -4 0 •N < ce 2 - ce NRC REGULATORY Li.1 GUIDE. CL r 1 (01 — X < I ...... reZ:::=21L212---;:r-1 ROCK - 28 RECORDS / 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 30 PERIOD, s
b) 84th percentile spectra for different site conditions.
FIGURE 1 (From Seed and Idriss, 1982) 15
Figure 1, from Seed and Idriss,(1982) illustrates this. Schenk (1984) has investigated the relations between
ground motions and earthquake magnitude, focal distance and epicentral intensity. According to him there are four methods used to determine ground motions: 1- Direct measurement using strong motion equipment 2- Determination by means of the known relations with respect to the regional and local seismological conditions 3- Estimation of ground motions from the observed macroseismic intensity 4- Computation based on the assumption that the medium acts as a linear system or a filter with one degree of freedom. Schenk used the second and third method and established some relations between various parameters. He concluded that the great variability of ground motion values recorded for epicentral distances up to 30 km is caused by the influence of different site condi- tions, that the peak particle accelerations can frequently be found within the frequency range of 3 to 30 Hz, the peak particle velocities in the range of 1-15 Hz and the peak particle displacements in the range of a few seconds to several Hz. 2.3.1 Measurement of the dynamic parameters
The characteristics of earthquake ground motions are obtained from accelerograph records. Maximum ground displace-
ment, maximum ground velocity and maximum ground accelera- tion, and duration of significant ground shaking can be read off from these records. Fourier techniques are then applied 16
to the records for spectral analysis of the ground motion
data. A Fourier spectrum resolves the ground motion time history into an infinite series of simple harmonic functions
in the frequency domain. The resulting transformation gives
both an amplitude and a phase spectrum which are uniquely
related to the seismogram (Hays, 1980). As will be seen later
response spectra over soft soils differ markedly from those
over the underlying bedrock. The difference between the two
yields the transfer function which provides an evaluation of
the local site intensity amplification.
2.3.2 Attenuation relations
Strong ground motion attenuation relations have been
proposed for many areas of the world. There is no unique
relation which can be used everywhere but rather there are
different relations suitable for use in specific areas.
Hasegawa et al. (1981) have published attenuation relations
for eastern Canada. Prior to the Saguenay earthquake of
november, 1988, there were few strong ground motion recor-
dings available for eastern Canada and the proposed relations
were largely untested. The 1988 event triggered 12 accelero-
graphs and the analysis of the recordings indicate that the
proposed attenuation relations are satisfactory (Munro and
North, 1989). 17 2.4. Evaluation and prediction of the displacements 2.4.1. Regional seismic hazard Hays (1984) discusses the technical problems associated with the construction of a map to zone the earthquake ground- shaking hazard. For this purpose information is needed on seismicity, the nature of the earthquake source zone, seismic wave attenuation and local ground response. Hays (1984) believes that site effects should be included in zoning maps so that they can be used to guide land-use planning and earthquake-resistant design. 2.5. Soil liquefaction - settlement - failure Liquefaction may result from both static (monotonic) and dynamic (cyclic) loading. Youd (1973) defines liquefaction as the transformation of a granular material from a solid state to a liquefied state as a consequence of increased pore water pressure. When seismic waves travel through loose, saturated sandy or silty soils, the particles are subjected to cycles of shear stress. In such cohesionless deposits, the soil structure tends to compact in response to the cyclic strains and the soil particles roll and slide into more stable positions. If the deposit is undrained the volume cannot decrease and the pore water pressure increases correspon- dingly with a decrease in effective stress as the sand particles form a denser material. When the earthquake is of long duration and the cycles of loading are numerous the pore 1 8 water pressure may approach and even exceed the overburden stress. In a loose sand the pore water pressure increase is rapid and liquefaction will eventually occur because unlimited deformation takes place as the sand grains lose direct contact without the sand mobilizing significant resistance. If the sand is dense and undrained, it will tend to dilate and the pore pressure will decrease and the soil will develop enough resistance to withstand the applied stress. Deformation will occur and this is a necessary condition for the development of resistance. The amount of deformation will increase with the cyclic loads. This behavior is known as "cyclic mobility" (Castro, 1975, Seed, 1979). Fine sand liquefy more readily than coarse sand which drains rapidly. Clay soils which show cohesion are very resistant to liquefaction. Soil units which are the most likely to liquefy are the most recently deposited sediments (deltaic, river channel, poorly compacted fills). Youd and Perkins (1978) emphasize the influence of age on the liquefaction potential. Figure 2, from Seed and Idriss (1982), shows the mechanism of pore pressure generation during cyclic loading. When cyclic loading comes to a stop the residual pressures will cause an upward flow of water which will be expelled from the ground causing liquefaction, sand volcanoes' or surface seepage. The change in volume resulting from the removal of sand and water may lead to large surface deforma- 19
COMPRESSION CURVE
EQUIVALENT VOLUME CHANGE OF GRAIN STRUCTURE DUE TO CYCLIC STRAIN APPLICATIONS DURING DRAINED LOADING TIO
RA e o
ID VO
a ' al= EFFECTIVE INDUCED o ' f PRESSURES, PORE WATER INITIAL AND PRESSURE FINAL STAGES ---àu-----
a l o PRESSURE
Schematic illustration of mechanism of pore pressure generation during cyclk loading.
FIGURE 2 (From Seed and Idriss, 1982) 90 tions which are highly irregular. Liquefaction usually occurs at depths less than 15 meters, but deeper layers may also liquefy given the right conditions. For instance, Dixon and Burke (1973) reported liquefaction at a depth of 18 meters and Seed et al.(1981) reported it at a depth of 22 m. in Guatemala. When deposits liquefy below the surface the excess pore water pressures in the liquefied zone will dissipate by an upward flow of water. If the hydraulic gradient becomes sufficiently large, the upward flow will induce liquefaction in the upper layers (Seed and Idriss, 1982). Deposits that liquefy during one earthquake are likely to liquefy again during a later earthquake (Peterson, 1985). They do not become more stable because they have been liquefied once. This may be true for the lower layer from which the water is expelled, but the overlying layers may be loosened by the upward flow of water. Youd (1984) has observed that in some areas reliquefaction took place during earthquakes with lower accelerations than those of later earthquakes. Yasuda and Tohno (1988) have found more than 10 reliquefaction sites in an area which had been subjected to many earthquakes since 1964. They believe that some of these sites have liquefied more than twice. They consider that this is due to the loosening of the upper layers of a liquefied site by the upward migration of water. 21
Loose, unsaturated silty or sandy soils will not liquefy under cyclic loads because of the absence of water but they can be densified with a consequent change in volume leading to settlement of the surface and of the structures built upon it.
Ground failures in the form of landslides are a common result of earthquake loads. A slope which is stable under static loads may be led to failure by cyclic loads when stresses due to the earthquake exceed the soil shear
strength. Further the liquefaction of specific horizons at depth may lead to minor slumping and to large landslides such
as flow types or lateral spreads.
2.6. Surface tectonics
Earthquakes release energy stored in the rocks by deep-
seated tectonic forces. This release is triggered by a rupture along a fault. If the area of release, or f ocus , is
close to the surface or if the earthquake is of a large
enough magnitude the trace of the ruptured fault may be
visible at the surface. This is frequently the case in
earthquakes which occur on the west coast of North America,
either in California or in Alaska. In eastern Canada no
direct evidence of surface tectonics has ever been observed
and recognized. This may be due to the fact that there is
actually no rupture close enough to the surface or to the
fact that the search for evidence has been located in the
wrong places. 99
3. SEISMIC MICROZONATION
3.1. General - Bibliographic research - Literature review Seismic microzonation is a domain where research is active and numerous papers, symposia and conference procee- dings, and books are devoted to the results of this research. The number of publications on various topics related to seismic microzonation is so high that simply trying to keep up-to-date is almost a full-time occupation. As part of the contract we have prepared a bibliography of seismic microzo- nation, including all the elements which normally fall under this topic. The references were obtained through the use of major geological and geotechnical bibliographic data banks such as GEOTECHNICAL ABSTRACTS, ENGINEERING GEOLOGY ABSTRACTS and GEOREF. In order to have the latest publications we have also covered on a monthly basis publications such as the Journal of Geotechnical Engineering of the ASCE, Engineering Geology, Geotechnique, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, etc.. The reason for this is that there is always a certain delay between publication and inclusion in the large bibliographic data banks. The references were classified into categories broken down according to the Table of Contents of this report, with some exceptions. The bibliography which is presented in Annex I is therefore closely related to the report and can be considered complete up to september 1989. We have not included all the titles that we came across. We 23 have excluded many references that we felt could not be obtained or read easily, therefore excluding those written in Russian, Japanese or Chinese for instance. We also excluded many of the references which were older than 15 years because we felt that they were not too pertinent. The evolution of ideas and of technology is such that a ten year old document can be considered outdated. We have included only those old documents which were milestones in the evolution of concepts. Hard copies of many of these references were obtained and reviewed. We have not used all the references shown in the bibliography for this work and we therefore present a list of those used in section 9 of this report. 3.2. Elements of microzonation As indicated in previous sections seismic microzonation is concerned with many elements which are not always directly related. The main elements which are common to most microzo- nation studies are the determination of the liquefaction potential of certain types of soils, the evaluation of the anticipated settlement of certain types of soils, the evaluation of the stability of slopes under seismic loading, the evaluation and determination of the intensity amplifica- tion resulting from the soil and rock conditions. In some areas, surface tectonics is also included because the related ground displacements can lead to damages. In Eastern Canada, as previously mentioned, no evidence of activitY along a fault has ever been observed and linked to a specific 24 earthquake. We therefore decided not to include this element in our work. In any area not all of the elements are present simultaneously at one location and each varies laterally. The investigation for each type is independent from that of another type and could be treated accordingly. Indeed some authors have prepared liquefaction susceptibility maps and others have prepared slope stability maps. These are separate
elements and each map thus prepared cannot be considered a
seismic microzonation map. In the following reviews we will
indicate the specific products of the investigations for each
element and in a later section we will look at microzonation methodology which covers more than one element.
3.2.1. Liquefaction potential
The liquefaction potential of soils such as saturated
sands and silts has been thoroughly investigated since the
1964 Alaska earthquake. If such soils occur they constitute a
major problem which has to be considered in any seismic
microzonation study.
3.2.1.1. Definition
Loose and saturated granular soils are susceptible to
liquefaction under earthquake loading. However not all of
these soil will liquefy and some will liquefy for a given
amount of shaking only. Therefore it is not only necessary in
a seismic microzonation study to identify the soil types
which are susceptible to liquefaction but also to establish
the liquefaction. potential for an earthquake of a given 9 5 magnitude. The epicentral distance should also be taken into account. 3.2.1.2. Causes
As seen previously loose and saturated granular soils will liquefy under cyclic loads because of an increase in pore water pressure in excess of overburden stress. This implies that the pore water pressure can be affected and therefore that only soils of a given granulometry will allow
this to happen. Further the duration of shaking and the number of cycles have to be sufficient to provide the required increase in pore pressure. Some loose sandy soils will liquefy rapidly if the pore water pressure is high enough under static conditions, without any earthquake loads. Kramer (1988) has shown that the static liquefaction resistance increases with increasing relative density and confining pressure. Some dense sandy soils with low pore water pressures will need many loading cycles before liquefaction can take place. Midorikawa and Wakamatsu (1988) have investigated the critical intensity of earthquake ground motion which separates liquefiable from non-liquefiable conditions. They
found that the occurrence of soil liquefaction is better correlated with the peak ground velocity than with the peak ground acceleration. A peak ground velocity above 15 cm/sec. will usually provoke liquefaction. 26
3.2.1.3. Behavior of liquefiable soils
The behavior of liquefiable soils is related to the
evolution of porewater pressures during cyclic loading.
Therefore the prediction of porewater pressures resulting
from seismic loads is of importance and numerous authors have
tried to do so. Ishihara (1977) developed a method to
evaluate the liquefaction characteristics of sand during
earthquakes by following the evolution of porewater pres-
sures. Finn and Bhatia (1981) presented a method for
representing the porewater pressure data from constant stress
or constant strain cyclic loading tests on saturated sands. A
problem in this type of analysis is to obtain good represen-
tative samples of sand. Yoshimi et al. (1985) and Mori (1986)
report that in Japan a freezing method is used for taking
undisturbed samples of sand and gravelly soils while block
samples are used for silty soils.
Holzer et al. (1989) have actually recorded the
porewater pressure build-up during liquefaction in which
vertical effective stress became equal to zero in the
Superstition Hills, California, (M 6.6) earthquake of
november 1987. Pore pressures built up to overburden
pressures and caused sand boils and lateral spreading. Excess
pore pressures were generated when peak horizontal accelera-
tions ranged from 0.17 to 0.21g. Horizontal strong motion at
the surface decreased both in amplitude and high-frequency
content following liquefaction. 9 7
Vaid et al. (1985) have shown that substantial decrease in resistance to liquefaction occurs with increase in confining pressure for two sands differing in particle angularity. The decrease in resistance with confining pressures increases with increase in relative density and is larger for angular than for rounded sand. At low confining pressures angular sand is considerably more resistant to liquefaction than rounded sand over the entire range of relative densities. 3.2.1.4. Modeling Modeling is a powerful tool with which to develop, test and verify new theories and it has been used frequently to investigate the behavior of saturated sands under cyclic loads and methods to predict the liquefaction potential. . Finn et al. (1976) developed a non-linear effective stress analysis for the dynamic response of dry or saturated sands . , This method included a procedure for dynamic analysis, a specific stress-strain law, and a method for computing volume changes and pore water pressures concurrently with dynamic response. The model predicts the distribution of pore water pressures and the time of liquefaction. Bazant and Krizek (1976) developed a constitutive law for the liquefaction of sand based on a mathematical model using a time parameter. This "endochronic" model was found to be realistic for the liquefaction of undrained saturated sand. 28 Davis and Berrill (1982) developed a model based on liquefaction case history data and the hypothesis that increase in pore water pressure is proportional to the density of seismic energy dissipation. It relates pore prèssure increase during an earthquake to the earthquake magnitude, epicentral distance, initial effective overburden stress and standard penetration value of the site soil. This model was refined to include an allowance for constant-Q material attenuation between the earthquake source and the site and a non linear relation, based on laboratory testing, between pore pressure increase and density of dissipated seismic energy in the soil (Berrill and Davis, 1985). Arulanandan et al. (1983) have completed a research program involving centrifugal model tests on sand submitted to dynamic loads. They were able to study the generation and dissipation of excess pore water pressures in the sand, to estimate the threshold peak ground surface acceleration and the threshold shear strain necessary for the initiation of excess pore water pressure. The results showed that it was feasible to model liquefaction phenomena in a centrifuge, the existence of à threshold shear strain of about 1 X 10 -4 and a threshold peak surface acceleration of about 0.05 g for the initiation of excess pore water pressure in sands during cyclic action. Finally the authors observed that prior seismic activity leads to an increase in resistance to liquefaction. 29 Hoshiya and Saito (1986) developed an equivalent linearization model which allows direct determination of pore water pressures. It is less sophisticated than other models, such as Finn's (Finn et al., 1976), but is a simple and efficient alternative which can lead to the assessment ol liquefaction potential during earthquakes. Bouckovalas and Hoeg (1987) presented an analytical model for calculating permanent strains and accumulated pore water pressure due to cyclic loading of saturated sand. The model was tested on recorded response of sands in drained and undrained cyclic triaxial tests and good agreement was found in the comparisons. Shiomi et al. (1987) presented a dynamic effective stress analysis using the finite element method to predict the liquefaction of saturated sands. The method was tested by numerical studies on liquefaction simulations for shaking table tests. There is good agreement between the results of the calculations and the experimental data in terms of response acceleration, excess pore pressure and deformation profile. 3.2.1.5. Evaluation of the liquefaction potential The evaluation of the liquefaction potential has been the subject of numerous studies, both in the fields of site exploration and laboratory test procedures. Numerous papers have been published in the past few years and are still being published now. The references on this topic found in the 30 bibliography in Annex I of this report attest to the intense research activity. The procedures for identifying potentially liquefiable soils are fairly precise and reliable but the prediction of the consequences of liquefaction is still lacking and much research remains to be done on this aspect
(Seed, 1987).
Poulos et al. (1985) have published a procedure for
evaluating the liquefaction susceptibility of a soil mass
subjected to shear stress, such as in slopes, embankments and
foundations of structures. The liquefaction analysis is a
stability analysis in which the shear strength in the
numerator of the factor of safety equation is the undrained
stready-state strength, and the denominator is the driving
shear stress. The analysis relies on laboratory testing and
is not suitable for regional studies.
In-situ tests play an important role in assessing the
liquefaction potential of saturated granular soils. The
interpretation of in situ tests is rather empirical and is
often based on the examination of data obtained from
occurrences of liquefaction. It should be emphasized that
these methods are indirect procedures and that the soil
properties are not usually measured directly but are
inferred. Schmertmann (1978) indicated that SPT tests could
be used to investigate the liquefaction potential of
cohesionless soils because the factors which result in higher
penetration resistance also result in increased resistance 31 to liquefaction. Peck (1979) has pointed out that aging, overconsolidation and microvibrations have an influence on the liquefaction potential of samples of sand and all tend to increase the resistance to penetration. Various techniques based on penetration resistance other than the SPT test (Cone penetration test, Piezocone, Vibro cone, Seismic cone) have also been introduced and used successfully in recent years. 3.2.1.5.1 Geologic conditions Geologic conditions influence the liquefaction poten- tial. Qualitative evaluation of the conditions leading to liquefaction is a first step in the microzonation of an area. It can involve simple observation and analysis of various factors. Wang (1981) has attempted to devise a simple practical method for assessing the liquefaction potential by a "macroscopic" approach. This method is based on the observa- tion of the discernible patterns of liquefaction after an earthquake using airphoto interpretation. Wang recognized three types of patterns (scattered stars, network and tortue) and he believes that they can be used to identify potential liquefaction sites in future earthquakes. This method is practical in areas where earthquakes are frequent. This is not the case in Eastern Canada. 32 Kotoda et al. (1988) have proposed a method for evaluatifig the soil liquefaction potential which is based purely on the geomorphological land classification used in Japan. This classification can be made by interpretation of aerial photographs and field verification without expensive geotechnical tests. Youd and Perkins (1978) have used a similar classification to prepare liquefaction potential maps. Kotoda et al. (1988) have also investigated the critical intensity of ground motion which separates lique- fiable from non-liquefiable conditions for the geomorpholo- gical units. They conclude that peak ground velocity is the most appropriate measure of ground motion for evaluating the liquefaction potential. They have calculated it at sites which have and sites which have not liquefied in past earthquakes. They combine this information in isoseismal maps of earthquakes with the geomorphological classification to obtain the liquefaction potential. This method is useful in areas where earthquakes are frequent. It cannot be used in Eastern Canada because large earthquakes are not frequent. 3.2.1.5.2. Measurement of shear wave velocity Shear wave velocity is a parameter used by many to evaluate the liquefaction potential. The velocity measure- ments require specific instruments which can be located at the surface of the ground or under the surface in boreholes. 33 3.2.1.5.2.1. at the surface Relationships have been established between liquefaction resistance of sands and elastic-wave velocities (De Alba et al., 1984). This suggests that field measurements of elastic- wave velocities may be used to evaluate liquefaction resistance. Since this resistance is material dependent it is not possible to determine its value precisely from velocity measurements alone. Methods have been developed for measuring shear wave velocity in situ in order to characterize shear moduli of soils. Many are complex, time-consuming and expensive. We will mention here a few examples of successful applications. All these methods require the use of complex technical equipment so that none is really inexpensive, but some are less so than others. Nazarian and Stokoe (1984) report on a method called "Spectral-Analysis-of-Surface-Waves" (SASW) which is based upon generation and measurement of surface waves (Rayleigh waves). It is "fast, economical, nondestruc- tive and requires no boreholes". A vertical impact is applied to the ground surface by means of a hammer to generate Rayleigh waves with different frequencies. Propagation of the waves is monitored with two surface receivers located an equal distance from a centerline. By employing a fast-Fourier transform and spectral analyses, Rayleigh wave velocity, shear modulus and layering of the media are determined. According to the authors this technique is much less 34 expensive than crosshole measurements (seen in -section
3.2.1.5.1.2). But in order to implement it one must have various energy sources (a small claw hammer for shallow depths and a 1000 pounds hammer for greater depths) and the monitoring equipment consisting of two receivers, two amplifiers and a spectral analyzer. The minimum cost of these
is about $ 50,000 CDN.
Maugeri and Carrubba (1985) have established a correla-
tion between the shear modulus (G) and the SPT N-value using
shear wave velocities. SPT tests are performed and shear wave
velocities are derived from the correlation and used for the
evaluation of local soil amplification as input in the
preparation of microzonation maps.
• 3.2.1.5.2.2. in boreholes
In situ shear wave measurements by the crosshole seismic
method have been used by many authors with success. Imai
(1977) reported on the development of in situ measurement
techniques for soft ground in Japan. A P and S wave logging
technique was developed. It was considered to be efficient
and simple. It is however expensive. McEvilly and Clymer
(1981) described a technique developed at the U.S. Geological
Survey to monitor travel-time of waves in boreholes. Hoar and
Stokbe (1981) reported on successful experiments which
compared favorably with laboratory determined values. This
technique is not simple and inexpensive however. It requires
the drilling of boreholes and the use of specific equipments 35 such as mechanical sources of energy which are strong, directional and repeatable shear wave generators, receivers with proper coupling, orientation and frequency response, recording equipment with accurate timing and proper frequency response and with more than one recording channel and precise and consistent triggering systems. This is expensive and complex to operate. Rodrigues (1981) also described the field procedures and the equipment used to measure shear wave velocity by the crosshole seismic method using a specially developed impact energy source. Ohta et al. (1980) reported on the development of a technique based on an "elaborate" down-hole method. They applied it at depths as great as two to three kilometers. This technique which is very expensive could also be used to evaluate the amplification of seismic waves between the bedrock and the ground surface. Robertson et al. (1985) have combined seismic downhole methods and CPT logging, described in section 3.2.1.5.4, to determine the stratigraphic profile, the shear strength and the shear wave velocity of the various units. They called it the "seismic cone penetration test". They consider it to be rapid and inexpensive, but this is relative. In our view it is too expensive to be used on a regional basis. 36 3.2.1.5.3. SPT Test The standard penetration test (SPT) was developed around 1925 in the United States. It is now the most commonly used penetration testing method today and, in Japan, more than 90% of all borings use it (Broms, 1986). The procedure followed in North America is described in ASTM (1586-84). A 51mm diameter thick-walled split spoon sampler is driven into the soil using a 63.5 kg (140 lb) hammer with a height of fall of 760 mm (2.5 ft). The number of blows required to drive the sampler 0.3 m is counted, discounting the first 0.15 m and this number, called the N-value, is the penetration resis- tance of the soil. A test is usually terminated when the penetration resistance exceeds 100 blows/0.3 m. The SPT test estimates the relative density of granular soils. It may be used to evaluate the . strength and deformation characteristics of granular soils, the ultimate bearing capacity and settlement of shallow foundations and the liquefaction potential of sand and silt (Seed, 1979). This test is standardized and is used with minor variations in almost all parts of the world. The test procedure is easy to follow and the equipment is simple and rugged. The test is however affected by many factors which may contribute to inaccurate results. The SPT test is widely criticized for its shortco- mings, but it is nevertheless one of the only test used for the determination of the liquefaction potential in many countries. This is due to the fact that the test is performed 37 on a routine basis during the sampling of granular soils. The Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual (Anon., 1985) contains a long discussion on the factors influencing the results of the SPT test. Some of these factors are related to the mechanical aspects of the equipment and some are related to the procedures which often vary from one operator to another. Charts have been prepared by Seed and Idriss (1971) to correlate the liquefaction potential with the standard penetration resistance of soils. Since then many cases have been documented and the reliability of this method is now recognized. Correction factors are often applied to the SPT N value to account for variations in test procedure. A correction for the loss of driving energy resulting from the use of a short length of rods near the surface can be applied by multiplying the N values in the depth range 0 to 3 m by a factor of 0.75. Seed et al. (1985) have published a modified standard where the driving energy in the drill rods is 60% of the theoreti- cal free-fall energy. Correction to the N value to normalize penetration resistance for overburden effective stress is also commonly used (Liao and Whitman, 1986). Figure 3 is a chart presented by Seed and Idriss (1982) which allows the value of the correction factor to be determined for the depth where the penetration test was conducted. Kokusho and Yoshida (1985) have established a relationship for estimating 38 the liquefaction potential for dense sand from SPT blow counts.
Seed and Idriss (1982) have compiled data from many sites where liquefaction has occurred and have prepared a graph showing the correlation between the stress ratio causing liquefaction in the field and the penetration resistance of sand (Figure 4).
Finn (1988) has applied deterministic methods of liquefaction potential evaluation in which the liquefaction potential is related to specified input motions. This means that the liquefaction potential is specified in relation to a design earthquake located a specified distance from the site.
This combination of dynamic effective stress analysis applied to representative input motions and an estimate of the total probability of liquefaction provides a complete picture of the seismic response of a site underlain by potentially liquefiable soils.
Computer programs have been written for the calculation of the liquefaction potential of sandy soils using SPT and/or
CPT data as input. Atkinson et al. have published detailed information about PROLIQ, a program based on Seed's simpli- fied method of assessing liquefaction potential (Seed, 1971) and the Cornell method ( 1968) of assessing seismic hazard
(the probability of occurrence of magnitude and acceleration amplitude). Chen (1988) has published a public domain software, PETAL, distributed by the U.S. Geological Survey, 39
CN 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
= 4
LU et CI. 5 z co= 6 o LL1 7
Z21 8
Chart for values of C.
FIGURE 3 (From Seed and Idriss, 1982) 140
• LIQUEFACTION: STRESS RATIO BASED ON ESTIMATED ACCELERATION • LIQUEFACTION: STRESS RATIO BASED ON GOOD ACCELERATION DATA o NO LIQUEFACTION: STRESS RATIO BASED ON ESTIMATED ACCELERATION Cs NO LIQUEFACTION: STRESS RATIO BASED ON GOOD ACCELERATION DATA
0.5 1 1 I I LOWER BOUND FOR SITES WHERE / LIQUEFACTION OCCURRED
0.4 • / - > • "<,/ • • 0 ere. ro • c0.3 • • •
cri •
Ln 0.2
LI
0. 1
0 1 0 10 20 3 .:, 4C MODIFIED PENETRATION RESISTANCE, N I blows/ft
cOrrelanon bet \\‘'Lli ratio .:atising liquefaction in the field and penelralion
FIGURE 4 (From Seed and ldriss, 1982) 41 for the calculation of the liquefaction potential from penetration data. This is an interactive program which uses site characteristics and earthquake specifications as input. Site characteristics are: layering, density, ground water depths, penetration resistance and grain size information. The earthquake specifications are: magnitude and design peak horizontal surface acceleration. If the penetration data is given as SPT N values, the program will correct them to 60% hammer efficiency. If the penetration data is in cone penetration values (qc), it will be converted to Nso according to the relation suggested by Robertson and Campanella (1985). SPT N values are also corrected for - shallow depth (Seed and Idriss, 1982). The N values are then normalized (equivalent penetration resistance under an effective overburden pressure of 1 kg/cm2 ). The determination of the liquefaction resistance, expressed in terms of a stress ratio, is based on the relations proposed by Seed et al. (1985). The latest version of PETAL, version 3, also provides an estimate of volumetric strains associated with seismic pore-pressure build-ups. Youd and Bennett (1983) have studied sands that did and did not liquefy at two sites during the 1979 Imperial Valley, California, earthquake (M=6.6). They have used SPT tests to evaluate the liquefaction susceptibility and have obtained results which were consistent with the observed field behavior for channel-fill deposits and point-bar deposits. 42
Statistical models have been developed to express the
probability of liquefaction as a function of soil resistance
parameters (Liao et al. 1988). The corrected/normalized SPT
N-values are used as input for soil parameters. The models were derived from a statistical regression procedure from 278
cases of liquefaction and nonliquefaction.
3.2.1.5.4. Piezocone - cone penetra- tion test (CPT)
To compensate for the deficiencies of the SPT test, much
effort has been expended to develop an alternative method for
evaluating the liquefaction potential using the results of
the static cone penetration test (CPT). The CPT test provides
the data more rapidly than the SPT test, gives a continuous
profile of penetration resistance and is less vulnerable to
operator error than the SPT test. CPT tests are mainly used
in Europe and are not widespread in North America.
Martin and Douglas (1981) have reviewed the use of the
CPT test for the evaluation of liquefaction susceptibility.
They have prepared charts showing the correlation between CPT
and SPT values. They concluded that the CPT method is valid
for the prediction of N values or the liquefaction potential.
Correlations in penetration resistance between the SPT
and the CPT have been established and Robertson et al. (1983)
express the relationship as
qc = k N30 (MPa)
where k is a coefficient which increases with increasing
particle size from about 0.2 for a silty soil to about 0.6 43 for gravel. Graphs are often used to permit the conversion of SPT N values to equivalent CPT qc values. The determination of the liquefaction resistance from CPT results is based on the use of charts which are proposed for "normalized" cone resistance. Kasim et al. (1986) have verified the correlation established by Robertson et al. (1983) and have found that it represents a good average for sands with fine contents less than 10%. Iwasaki et al. (1988) performed a series of cone penetration tests in model sand deposits in a calibration chamber. They found that the relation proposed by Robertson and Campanella was verified by the data obtained in their study. Franklin (1986) has also reported on the use of charts to evaluate the liquefaction susceptibility of sands and silty sands. Robertson and Campanella (1985) reviewed existing methods for the evaluation of liquefaction potential using data from the CPT. They consider that CPT data can provide information to identify potential critical areas where a detailed assessment is required. Chin et al. (1988) have presented a historical review on SPT-CPT correlations and point out the importance of correcting the SPT N-value for the energy level. They suggest that the relationship
between the qc/N ratio and D50 proposed by Robertson et al. (1983) can be regarded as a reasonable average. They propose a simple relationship between the qc/N ratio and the fine content for granular soils. Shibata and Teparaksa (1988) have evaluated the behavior of soils during earthquakes using CPT data. They have developed a liquefaction assessment method based on the use of the CPT. They have prepared a chart showing variations in critical CPT values with depth for different earthquake magnitudes, maximum surface accelerations and ground water levels. This chart was calibrated on the basis of data on the observed performance of soils during earthquakes. Tokimatsu (1988) has reviewed the status of penetration testing for the determination of dynamic soil properties. The applicability and limitation of each in-situ test are evaluated on the basis of field performance and laboratory test results. Seed et al. (1988) have examined the effects of prior cyclic- strain history on the liquefaction and penetration resistance of sands using cyclic triaxial tests and cone penetration tests. They found that prior cyclic-strain history increases both liquefaction and cone-sleeve friction penetration resistance but has no significant effect on cone-tip penetration resistance. This suggests that cone-tip penetra- tion resistance is a conservative basis for evaluating the liquefaction resistance. The electric CPT and the Piezocone (CPTU) combine pore pressure measurements with tip resistance and sleeve friction and give more precise and detailed measurements than the mechanical cones. Jamiolkowski et al. (1985) have discussed the use of the electrical cone penetration test to evaluate 45 the risk of liquefaction of natural sand deposits. Canou et al. (1988) carried out an experimental study with a mini- piezocone in large triaxial cell samples of sand. This study indicated that the influence of sand density and penetration rate on piezocone data can be clearly as .sessed. The authors believe that with enough CPTU data it should be possible to define on a chart a mapping of critical zones with respect to the risk of liquefaction in sands. Analysis of SPT and CPT data show that criteria commonly used for sands correctly predict liquefaction behavior at a site they investigated (Youd and Bartlett, 1988). 3.2.1.5.5. Other methods A recently introduced technique for evaluating the liquefaction potential relies on the Vibro-cone (Sasaki et al., 1985). This test seems to provide a more direct assessment of liquefaction resistance. The instrument is similar to the CPT but it incorporates a vibrator to induce vibration at different frequencies during penetration. Arulmoli et al. (1985), Arulanandan and Muraleetharan (1988a, 1988b) have developed a method for evaluating the liquefaction potential which is based on selected electrical conduction parameters and correlations between these and mechanical properties relevant to the analysis of soil liquefaction. This method is nondestructive and allows the pr'ediction of in situ properties without having to take samples. Measurement of the electrical parameters is 46 performed using an electrical probe in a borehole. The method appears to be complex, because of the need of boreholes, and more testing will be required before it can be used on a routine basis.
Tsuchida and Hayashi (1971) developed a criterion for liquefaction based on the identification of the soil type, the SPT N-value and the maximum acceleration at the ground surface as recorded by strong-motion accelerographs. This method therefore relies on accelerograph records which are not always available. Laboratory testing is also used to identify the liquefaction potential (cyclic simple shear tests, cyclic triaxial compression tests). The main problem is in obtaining representative undisturbed samples. The equipment for cyclic testing in the laboratory is also complex and expensive. Because of their complexity these methods will not be considered here. 3.2.1.6. Observation and mapping of the liquefaction potential
Berrill et al. (1987) have observed evidence of liquefaction (sand boils) after the 1968, M=7.1, Inangahua earthquake in New Zealand. They investigated a liquefaction site using SPT, CPT and piezocone tests. The piezocone data were puzzling in that large negative excess pore pressures were recorded in the sand which liquefied. Four methods were used for the prediction of liquefaction using SPT and CPT data and all four correctly predicted liquefaction. Three of 47
the procedures (Seed and Idriss, 1979, Robertson and
Campanella, 1985 and Zhou, 1980) predicted liquefaction by a wide margin while the fourth (Davis and Berrill, 1982) placed
the site on the border of liquefaction. This result is
considered more correct because the liquefaction at the site
investigated was not extensive.
Conte and Dente (1987) also observed liquefaction sites
which were later investigated by the Seed and Idriss method
(1983) based on SPT results. They concluded that the
liquefaction which occurred could be realistically evaluated
and predicted using the SPT N-values.
Kavazanjian et al. (1985) have prepared a map of the
liquefaction potential in San Francisco using SPT N-values
compiled from 350 borehole logs and converted to relative
densities. The liquefaction potential was evaluated by
comparing the conditional probability of liquefaction to the
expected intensity of seismic loading. This probabilistic
evaluation was made using a liquefaction hazard model.
Using historical evidence of ground deformations induced
by liquefaction Youd and Perkins (1987) have prepared
liquefaction hazard maps using a parameter called "the
liquefaction severity index" (LSI) which is related to the
extent and severity of liquefaction phenomena within
liquefaction susceptible soils. They have related together
LSI, earthquake magnitude and epicentral distance for data
from the California coast. The specific relations developed 48 for this area cannot be extrapolated directly to other areas.
Holzer et al. (1988) have investigated a site in the
Cholame valley of California, near Parfield where a M=6 earthquake is expected to occur in the near future. They have identified the stratigraphy at the site using SPT and CPT methods. They evaluated the liquefaction resistance using the usual field procedures and found that the expected earthquake will produce liquefaction of some horizons. They therefore
predicted the liquefaction and formally recorded their
prediction in a publication.
3.2.1.7. Improvement of liquefiable soils
Although the topic of- improvement of liquefiable soils
is outside the scope of this work, a few lines are included
to show that the presence of liquefiable soils in an area
does not imply in all cases that the land cannot be built
upon.
Soils which have a high liquefaction potential under
cyclic loads can be improved by three general methods: by
reducing the buildup of excess pore water pressure, by
facilitating the dissipation of excess pore water pressure
and by increasing the cohesion of the material. The removal
of water by drains (gravel or rock) prevents the buildup of
excess pore water pressure. Drains can also dissipate the
excess pore water pressure almost as fast as it builds up.
Sand compaction reduces the buildup of excess pore water
pressures (Hatanaka. et al., 1987). Direct densification of 49 the sand by methods such as vibroflottation increases the liquefaction resistance. Artificial cementation' of sand will also give the same result (Saxena et al., 1988).
3.2.2. Slope stability - landslides Seismic loading has an adverse effect on the stability of slopes both in soils and in rocks. There have been numerous instances of landslides or rockslides triggered by earthquakes, sometimes with disastrous effects. Some consider that landslides are one of the major causes of damage during earthquakes. This was certainly true of the Alaska (M=8.5) Good Friday earthquake of 1964. In this case liquefaction of a sensitive clay is believed to have played a dominant role and this earthquake marked the beginning of a concentrated effort in research on earthquake effects on soils, an effort which is still underway. Keefer (1984) .has reviewed the types of landslides induced by 40 earthquakes which have occurred in different parts of the world and he ranked them by order of importance (number, size). Soil slumps and soil slides are considered to be very abundant; lateral spreads, block slides and soil avalanches are abundant; rapid flows are moderately common. Lateral spreads and rapid flows often involve liquefaction or failure of sensitive clays. The Alaska Good Friday earthquake of 1964 triggered numerous sensitive clay slides in Anchora- ge. 50
A method of stability analysis of slopes in clay was devised by Arango and Seed (1974). Later, deterministic and probabilistic analyses of the stability of gentle infinite slopes subject to seismically induced excess pore pressures and inertia forces were developed by Hadj-Hamou and Kavazan- jian (1985). Deterministic equations for the factor of safety include seismically induced pore water pressures in the resistance term and the seismic acceleration parallel to the slope in the driving term. The probabilistic analysis gives the probability of instability at the end of each cycle of loading. Analyses of case histories show agreement between the model prediction and the observed behavior. Carrillo and Garcia (1985) analyzed the stability of slopes for the . city of Lima, Peru, using a regional approach. They used a conventional stability analysis method developed by Sarma (1975) which gives the static safety factor as well as a safety factor for various seismic accelerations including the critical acceleration required to make the safety factor equal to one. The coastal area of Lima was divided in zones, according to the slope characteristics, and an analysis was performed for each zone. The zones were then classified according to their stability. 3.2.3. Settlement and subsidence Settlement of loose sandy soil has been observed to occur during earthquakes. Sands tends to densify and settle under cyclic loads. If the sand is saturated excess pore 51 water pressures are generated. Sand will settle when the excess pressures dissipate. If the sand is drained settlement will occur during the earthquake shaking under conditions of constant effective vertical stress. The settlement may have a significant effect on the performance of structures. Tokimatsu and Seed (1987) have proposed a simplified method for estimating probable settlements of either saturated or unsaturated sand deposits subjected to earthquake loads. The SPT N-value and the earthquake magnitude are the main parameters used as input. The results obtained with this simplified method have been compared with several case histories. The method can be used as a first approximation for evaluating the volume changes and settlements of sands. 3.3. The amplification of seismic intensity (site. effects) Site effects resulting in the local amplification of intensity can lead to widely varying levels of damages to
similar structures located close to each other. These effects appear to depend on the nature of the soil deposits overlying the bedrock, on the geometry of these deposits and on the geometry or topography of the bedro-ck at the surface or under the soil deposits. Their study is therefore important and much effort is currently directed to this area of research.
3.3.1. General - theory Site-amplification effects have been observed in many earthquakes, both old and recent. These earthquakes show that
the characteristics of earthquake ground motion in any 5 9 location will vary according to the thickness and the softness of the soil-rock column and to the geometry of the soil-bedrock interface. The practical importance of these site effects is considerable because they can induce wide intensity variations within short distances. These effects ,are often more important at great distances from the epicenter than in its vicinity. The magnitude 7.9 earthquake which destroyed large sectors of Mexico city on september 19, 1985 is a "worst case" example of site effects. There the ground response and the response of many buildings occurred at the same period over the lake-bed zone of Mexico city. The damage resulted from the amplification of the seismic intensity resulting from the nature of the soil. The amplification in such a case varies locally. It is measured in relation to the intensity on bedrock. The surface-soil-to rock amplification is usually related to a specific frequency of the spectrum, often to a narrow band of frequencies. When a soil responds to bedrock ground shaking the peak amplitudes of acceleration, velocity and displacement can be modified so that the ground motions at the surface of a soil deposit differ from the subsurface bedrock ground motion. The soil-to-rock amplification factor describes a frequency- domain effect for the surface ground motion instead of a time-domain effect. The site amplification in the frequency domain is described by the "transfer function". The procedure 53 used to determine the transfer function for a site underlain by a soil deposit over bedrock is to divide the response spectrum of the soil by the corresponding response spectrum of the bedrock. The soil-to-rock amplification factor for a discrete period band is determined from the transfer
function. The amplitude spectrum is usually used. According
to Hays (1989) the transfer function depends on many physical
parameters such as level of dynamic shear strain, shear wave
velocity, density, material damping, thickness, water
content, surface ans sub-surface geometry of the soil-rock
column and the types of seismic waves that excite the soil-
rock column (their wave lengths, amplitudes and directions of
vibration).
The response of a structure to the ground shaking can
increase or decrease in selected period bands depending on
the type of structure, the construction materials, the
dimensions, the physical properties of the soil-rock column
and the wavelengths and amplitudes of the incident seismic
waves. When the dominant period of the bedrock motion, the
fundamental period of vibration of the structure, and the
natural period of the soil column are the same, the condi-
tions are such that the whole ground motion-soil-structure
system can become resonant.
Seed and Idriss (1982) report that during the 1967
(M8=6.4) Caracas, Venezuela, earthquake damage was limited to
tall buildings (greater than 10-12 stories) sited on soft 54 soil at least 160 m thick. For 3- to 5- story buildings, damage was much greater where soil depths ranged from 30 to
50 meters than for soil depths over 100 meters. For 5- to 9- story buildings, the structural damage intensity was slightly higher for soil depths of 50 to 70 meters. For building's over 10 stories the structural damage intensity was several hundred percent higher where soil depths exceeded 160 meters than for soil depths below 140 meters (Figure 5). According to Hays (1989) the dominant site response occurred in the intermediate period band, centered around 1.2 - 1.6 sec. During the 1970 Gediz (Ms=7.0), Turkey earthquake a one- story garage and paint shop collapsed at a distance of 225 km from the epicenter; the responses of the soil and buildings were centered around a 1.2 sec. period. A site amplification factor of 4 was determined in the short to intermediate period band (0.2 - 0.7 sec) for a site underlain by 15 m of alluvium at a distance of 25 km from the epicenter of the 1976 (Ms=6.5) Friuli, Italy earthquake. The peak amplitude of bedrock accelerations ranged from 0.10 to 0.53 g. Tilford et al. (1985) investigated the effects of two earthquakes in Greece and observed that on average, under similar circums- tances, sites located on soil foundations experience about one intensity unit more shaking than sites located on rock. The most recent example of large site amplification occurred during the 1985 Mexico earthquake (Ms=7.9). Mexico city is located 400 km from the epicenter, yet there was 55
100 1 i 1 i i i
90 - N = NO. OF STORIES
N >>14 80 ee
I— 70
LU 60
LU • 50
40
N = 10 TO 14 • 3 0 N = 3 TO 5 (,) 20
N = 5 TO 9 10
I o o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
DEPTH OF SOIL, m
Relationship between structural damage intensity and soil depth in Caracas earthquake of 1967.
FIGURE 5 (From Seed and Idriss, 1982) 56 extensive damage to structures. Surprisingly the value of the peak amplitude of acceleration in the near source region was low (0.18g) while this value was high (0.18g) in the Mexico area. Extensive damage occurred in 5 to 20 story buildings sited in the lake bed zone which is considered to enhance 2 second periods. The largest ground motions were at sites underlain by 35 to 50 m of soft lake-bed deposits having a shear-wave velocity of about 100 m/s (Hays, 1989). The dominant period recorded in this zone was 2 seconds. The lake-bed deposits amplified the peak amplitude of accelera- tion (caused by R waves) by a factor of 5 relative to the level observed over bedrock. According to Singh et al. (1988) the ground motion amplification in the lake bed zone varied from 8 to 50 times that with respect to a hill zone nearby. The similarity of the soil response and the building response resulted in damage and collapse of about 400 buildings which had fundamental periods ranging from 0.5 to about 2 seconds (Seed et al., 1988). Buildings outside of the lake-bed zone performed well. Site amplification was also noted in the San Francisco area following the 1906 earthquake. Buildings over soft sediments sufferred more damage than those over bedrock. The 1971, M=6.5, San Fernando earthquake, near Los Angeles, also yielded observations of site amplification, some of which was attributed to the nature of the deposits and some to the topography of the bedrock. The amplification factors varied 57 from 2 to 5.
Hays ( 1989) mentions that amplifications up to a factor of 10 were observed in Nevada where more than 3000 strong motion records of explosions were obtained. Similar observa-
tions of nuclear-explosion ground motion in the Salt Lake
City - Ogden Provo area showed that ground-shaking is worst
for sites in the center of valleys underlain by thick, soft
silts and clays. These soft soils cause frequency-dependent
amplification of ground motion relative to bedrock with
factors up to 10. Chang ( 1982) made a statistical analysis of
the site characterization by power density spectral (PDS)
functions, in the 0.006- to 10-Hz range for 421 horizontal
ground accelerograms from 89 earthquakes, mostly in the
western United States and Japan. He found that within the
high-frequency range of 2.5 to 10 Hz, the spectrum for the
rock sites contains the highest energy or intensity, that the
spectrum of stiff soils is slightly less than for rock sites
and that the spectra of the soft clay and sand sites are
lower than those of stiff soils. In the low-frequency range
of 0.006 to 2.5 Hz the reverse is true: the soft sites
indicate the highest energy, the stiff soil and rock sites
follow.
The geologic conditions leading to amplification are of
many types. The most common condition is that where a soft
layer overlies bedrock. This is commonly found in sedimentary
basins and alluvial valleys. When the soft layer is horizon- 58 tal and uniform the amplifications can be readily evaluated using a monodimensional model. If the underground bedrock topography is variable the amplifications are difficult to evaluate because they result not only from the nature of the soil but also from the geometry of the top of the bedrock. 3.3.2. Effects related to the nature of the soil Numerous studies on the seismic response of soils have been completed. A few will be referred to in order to indicate the major aspects. Some of the studies are theoreti- cal in nature and rely on the correlation of the dynamic properties of the soils with the intensity amplification. They often use mathematical analysis and numerical modeling methods. Other studies are observational. Dynamic parameters are measured in an area where amplification has been observed. Joyner et al. (1981) have studied the effect of alluvium on strong ground motion by comparing the records of a M=5.9 earthquake in California. One record is from a site directly on bedrock and another is from a site 2 km away on 180 meters of Quaternary alluvium. The amplification factor is of the order of 2 to 3. Johnson and Silva (1981) also investi- gated the effect of unconsolidated sediments on the ground motions during local earthquakes near San Francisco Bay, California. They recorded the soil acceleration in bedrock below the sediments, within the sediments and at the surface of the sediments for two local earthquakes. They observed 59 that the maximum accelerations at the surface are between 1.5 and 4.3 times those in the bedrock. Munguia and Brune (1984) analyzed strong motion and velocity records for earthquakes occurring over a 6 year time span in Baja California North and southern California. Local magnitudes for 60 earthquakes recorded on hard rock and sediments were calculated. For earthquakes with magnitude between 3 and 5.5 most of the values from data registered on sediments exceeded the magnitude values on bedrock by as high as an order of magnitude, or even higher for a few cases. A sediment amplification factor of 3.2 is inferred from the data. Jarpe et al. (1988) have measured the response to earthquake motion of an unsaturated soil in Coalinga, California. They found that the response is linear for frequencies below 10Hz and for accelerations up to 0.7 g. They determined the transfer function at the site for 23 regional and small local earthquakes in the 1- to 10-Hz band and found it to be similar to that of seven strong motion events. The response of the soil is a factor of 2 to 3 times larger than that of a bedrock site. 3.3.3. Effects related to the geometry (bedrock
and surface topography - structure- thickness of the deposits) The internal geometry of soft sediments overlying bedrock can induce amplification of seismic motion. Bard and Bouchon (1985) found that when the geometry affects two 60 dimensions, such as when there are lateral discontinuities or heterogeneities, resonance patterns can develop and induce amplifications which are more severe than those of one- dimensional models (up to 4 times larger). Bard (1988) indicates that the value of fundamental frequency at which the resonance patterns develop, may range from 0.2 Hz for stiff deposits or for very soft materials to 10 Hz or more for thin layers. Hays (1989) indicates that the thickness of the soil column affects the period of the dominant site amplification under conditions of low strain. The topography of the bedrock, even when no overlying soil layer is present, may lead to local intensity amplifica- tion. This is more pronounced at the crest of isolated ridges or knobs and on the top edge of cliffs. These effects are attributed to diffraction and concentrations of seismic waves. There are many observations of damages to buildings located near or on hill tops, Celebi (1987) reports that the march 3, 1985, Chile earthquake was accompanied by topogra- phical amplification and that much of the damage resulted from specific ridge effects affecting mostly buildings located on a hilltop crowned by ridges and canyons. The amplification was also recorded during the aftershocks.
Tucker et al. (1984) and Bard and Tucker (1985) investigated the ridge effects and found that they increase the amplitude of incident signals by a factor as high as eight. 61
According to Géli et al. (1988) and Bard and Méneroud (1987) surface topography affects not only the amplitude but also the frequency contents of the ground motions. Géli et al. (1988) conclude that the amplification is larger on the horizontal than on the vertical components of motion, the amplification is related to the geometry of the topography (steep slopes produce higher amplifications), the amplifica- tion is frequency dependent, and finally that there is no consistent agreement between theory and observations concerning the amplitude of topographic effects (the observed effects are often larger than the theoretical values). Theoretical and numerical models give an insight into the amplification of ground motion at ridge crest (amplifica- tion over "convex" topographies and deamplification over "concave" parts of surface topography such as valley bottoms and mountain bases) and they can be used for prediction purposes. Tong and Kuribayashi (1988) used the boundary element method for studying the response analysis of axisymmetric valleys subjected to incident waves. They concluded that the fundamental resonance amplitudes depend on the shape ratio and the impedance contrast and they proposed empirical formulas for estimating the fundamental resonance frequencies and the maximum fundamental resonance amplitudes at the valley center. (Bard, 1988) insists on the fact that the ability of numerical methods to predict actual effects has never been objectively tested. The only tests 62 have always been a posteriori tests. These methods are very costly to implement.
3.3.4. The determination and mapping of the site ef f ects
There are numerous methods of investigating site effects with the purpose of determining or predicting their amplitu- de. Most are site specific and rely on numerous instrumental measurements. Consequently they are complex and expensive. A few are general, being based on statistical analysis of strong motion data, but they are not accurate and may lead to underestimation of the amplifications (Bard, 1988). Bard
(1988) presents a review of these methods. The specific ones are:
1- Macroseismic observations: these are usually available
after a major earthquake where a detailed analysis of
the damage to buildings can indicate a correlation with
topographical or geotechnical features. These observa-
tions do not lead to quantitative estimates of the
amplification however and they are useful mostly for
microzonation purposes.
Microtremor data: microtremors are related to site
conditions and they can be monitored for site effect
investigations. This is done in Japan mostly but not
elsewhere because the data are difficult to interpret.
This method is reliable only in the long period range
but it cannot predict the amplification value. 63
3- Weak motion data: This method is similar to the previous method but it relies on small magnitude earthquakes, mine or quarry blasts or nuclear tests. The weak motion is measured over various sites and is compared with the motion at a reference site over bedrock. Spectral ratios are used for comparison purposes. This method is widely used. It is considered to be the best method for a reliable estimation of local effects. 4- Strong motion data: If strong motion arrays are available the previous method may be used on the strong motion data. This method relies on the occurrence of strong-earthquakes and is not applicable in areas where these are few and infrequent.
The general methods are usually included as provisions in seismic codes to account for site effects. The influence of surface topography is usually not considered in seismic codes because it is not well understood. The influence of the surf icial deposits over bedrock is considered in some seismic codes through the use of a site specific response spectrum if one is available from strong motion data. In Eastern Canada, no spectrum was available prior to the 1988, november 25, Saguenay earthquake, and the seismic code (in its current edition, 1985) covers the soil effect very
loosely using a soil factor which is arbitrarily defined. For more accurate determinations response spectra from earthqua- kes in California are often used ! Maugeri and Carrubba (1985) have prepared microzonation maps showing local soil amplification using SPT N-values correlated with shear wave velocities. When SPT values are readily available for a specific area this method can be useful. 3.4. Microzonation methods Microzonation studies have been undertaken in many parts of the world in recognition of the necessity to take into consideration the rock ans soil characteristics to arrive at a proper evaluation of seismic damages and possibly to attenuate them. Evernden (1982) has defined a "microzonation map" on the basis of the fact that it is a derivative map which uses data from other geologic, geotechnical and seismological products, on the basis that such a map presents values of a parameter deemed relevant to expressing risk or damage and on the basis that the scale should be sufficent to make it useful. Most of the studies attempt to identify the conditions which are the source of problems such as settlement, slope failures, liquefaction and site effects. Methods have been developed in various countries, namely in Japan, Russia and the United States, for the preparation of microzonation maps. Some are relatively simple and yield general results suitable for regional Studies, others are more complex and yield site- specific results. In between these two extremes are methods suitable for local studies (covering the area of a mid-size 65 city) involving more or less complex methodologies. Some microzonation maps consider only one element (liquefaction,
site amplification, etc..). These have been covered in
previous sections and will not be considered here.
One of the first attempt at seismic microzonation based
on the geological conditions is a map of the Boston area
prepared by I.B. Crosby and shown in Freeman (1932). This map
shows the bedrock topography and indicates the seismic
"stability" of the soils and bedrock for 5 categories ranging
from "Most stable" to "Most unstable".
Talaganov et al. (1982) reported on a method based on
the "dynamic stability" of the soil. The dynamic stability
potential is a function of the geological conditions and the
dynamic effects of the earthquakes (landslides, liquefaction,
settlement). Sugimura et al. ( 1982) have prepared a microzo-
nation map for the city of Tokyo. The procedure followed
includes the gathering of borehole data (about 3000), the
determination of the soil parameters required to compute
seismic response at each site using general relationships, a
response analysis at each site, and the derivation of
parameters such as fundamental period and maximum accelera-
tion. These are classified into several categories upon which
the map is based. Sugimura and Ohkawa ( 1984) presented an
updated version of this map which was still based on the
fundamental period of the soil deposit and the maximum
response acceleration of the ground surface. 66
Mandrescu (1984) reported on a microzonation map prepared for Romania. The main basis of this work is the damage distribution observed in two previous earthquakes. The damage was assigned a number according to the severity and zones were determined for each number or degree. The various hazards were identified for each zone (liquefaction, landslides, etc..). This map is very simple to prepare but the area covered must have been subjected to earthquakes in the not too distant past. Bard et al. (1987) have presented the methodology used in France for seismic microzonation to be used in the risk maps (PER) prepared for the whole of the country. In this method, site effects, the liquefaction potential of sands and the stability of slopes are evaluated. The site effects are determined using simplified methods using shear wave velocities and complex methods based on seismic observation and modeling. The combination of methods allows the determi- nation of precise and very specific amplification values. The liquefaction potential is evaluated on the basis of geologic and morphologic criteria, geometric criteria, granulometric criteria and criteria related . to mechanical properties (mainly from SPT tests). Slope stability is evaluated by conventional stability analyses using a seismic factor. These informations are located on maps in which zones are outlined according to each risk (i.e. liquefaction, landslide). A detailed geolgic knowledge of the areas studied is essential. 6 7
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FIGURE 6 - Seismic microzonation methodology used in France (Bard et al., 1987) 68
Figure 6 shows the various elements involved in the prepara- tion of a seismic microzonation map based on the methodology developed in France. Ayetev and Andoh (1988) have described a microzonation method the purpose of which was to prepare a seismic risk map on the basis of damage degree zones of the area of the city of Accra, Ghana. The microzonation started with soil and bedrock geological maps. Vertical sections were prepared from boreholes showing the surface- and bedrock topography. The liquefaction potential of sands was evaluated, the amplifica- tion of intensity from the groundwater distribution was evaluated using shear wave measurements and the period of vibration of the soil was evaluated using formulas relating the period with depth and shear wave velocity. The effects of previous earthquakes in the area were compiled and a zoning was prepared from this compilation. The most important part of this method is the compilation of previous damages. Ihnen and Hadley (1987) have prepared seismic hazard maps for Puget Sound, Washington, using the expected peak ground accelerations (PGA) as influenced by the site geology.
They show PGA contours for which there is a 5% chance of exceedence in 50 years. Accelerograph records are useful for establishing the range of PGA's on a regional basis. This type of map is valid for earthquakes in the magnitude 4.5 to 7.0 range. 69
Sharma and Kovacs (1982) have prepared a preliminarS- microzonation map of the Memphis area. The methodology used was based on a knowledge of the seismicity of the central
United States, on the selection of a design earthquake, on a response analysis for the various local geolôgical conditions
as identified by boreholes and on. the evaluation of the
liquefaction potential. Figure 7 shows the procedures used in
this work.
Chagnon and Locat (1988) have presented the elements of
a microzonation map for the Quebec city area prepared on the
basis of available information. The principal source of
information was a data base containing 700 borehole records
which had been set up at the Geology Department, Laval
University, for the preparation of a geotechnical map. The
elements considered were slope stability and liquefaction
potential. Site effects were very loosely evaluated on the
basis of the nature of the soils. The liquefaction potential
was determined from empirical methods based on SPT tests and
grain size distribution. A map was prepared for each element
and a synthesis map showing the seismic hazard zones was
compiled from the combination of the elements investigated.
This map was considered suitable as a general guide in urban
planning but was not considered to be precise enough to be
used for hazard mitigation purposes. Figure 8 shows the
methodology followed in the preparation of this map. 70
FROM BOREHOLE DATA FC 0 THE AEA, CETERmINE THE STRATIGRAPHY AND ASSIU REPRESENTA - leE N-VALUES
IDETErmINE PREDOMINANT rer.77P11
SAND rc; RA E 1
USE SEED & IDRISS, 1970 USE SEED 4 IDRISS, 1970 WITH r = 122 (MAX) 2 •
ESTABLISH MODULUS AND DAMPiNC SATIO VERSOS STRAP. RELATIONSPIP
ASSIGN APPROXimATE ShEAR AND DAmPING RATIOS TO EACH LAYER FOR 7ME ANTICIPATED STRAINS
DESIGN EARTHQUAKE WITH APPROPRIATE PARAMETERS SPECIrY bEDP.00K SMEAR WAVE VELOCITi (GR:ATER THAN 600 mis FOR THIS STUDY) AND UNIT WEIGHT
RESPONSE ANALYSIS
1. ACCELERATION TIME HISTORIES Pric EACH LA , ER
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now diagram sommaruing procedures used tol 1!•.e. response analyNis,
FIGURE 7 — Seismic microzonation methodology used by Sharma and Kovacs (1982) for the Memphis area. 7 1
METHODOLOGY FOR THE MICROZONATION OF. THE QUEBEC CITY AREA
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SEISMIC MICOOICIIATION isPi
FIGURE 8 - Seismic microzonation methodology used by Chagnon and Locat (1988) for the Quebec City area. 79
4. THE MICROZONATION OF THE QUEBEC CITY AREA 4.1. Seismic activity in eastern Canada Eastern Canada is subjected to continuous seismic activity. However this activity is not uniform and is concentrated in areas which are known as seismic zones. There are five such zones in Eastern Canada (Basham and Weichert, 1979) and earthquakes from any of these zones may be felt in the Quebec city area (figure 9). But in the past the only earthquakes which have proved to be damaging are those originating from the Charlevoix seismic zone; this was true before the 1988 Saguenay earthquake which was strongly felt and caused mostly minor damage - in the Quebec city area. 4.1.1. The Charlevoix seismic zone
The Charlevoix area in eastern Canada, located from 100 to 150 km east of Quebec city, is a well known seismic zone with a high degree of activity and earthquakes of large magnitude. This is confirmed by the seismic zoning map prepared by the federal department of Energy, Mines and
Resources (Basham et al., 1985) which is used as a basis for the design of buildings in the National Building Code of
Canada, 1985 edition. Since the settlement of this area by the first Europeans in the 16th century, many earthquakes have been felt; a very large number of earthquakes with intensities ranging from weak to moderate to very high have occurred (Nottis, 1983) and earthquakes with 'magnitudes of the order of 7 on the 73
00-1
^ M > 6 • 5 <_ M<6 since 1850 • 4:5M< 5 since 1925' • 3 5 M<4 since 1960 ! M M < 3 since 1970
65• 60'
Figure 9. Zones of earthquake occurrence for the seismically active region of eastern Canada. Time period restrictions on epicentres plotted as a function of magnitude are indicated in the legend. Multiple epicentres are indicated only for magnitudes >5. The intervening area within the bounded region, excluding the Northern Appalachian zone, is defined as a Background zone. The Grand Banks zone is treated as an isolated source in the Atlantic.
(fi-iirc ^n^; lc^cnc fror. ',ishi^.n S 1lcichcrt, 1°7J 74
Richter scale occurred in 1636, 1663, 1791, 1860, 1870 and 1925 (Smith, 1962). The november 25, 1988, Saguenay earth- quake is not included in this list because it originated outside the Charlevoix seismic zone. This recent earthquake, with a magnitude of 6.0, indicated that seismic activity of concern to the Quebec city area is not limited to the Charlevoix zone. There is also a possibility that some of the previous large earthquakes which have been assigned to the Charlevoix zone originated in the Saguenay area like the 1988 event. They were assigned to the Charlevoix area because they were felt strongly there. But it should be kept in mind that the Saguenay area was permanently settled only around 1850 and that no reports of earthquake activity in this area were possible before that time. The geotechnical characteristics of some Quaternary soils from the Saguenay area show that large earthquakes have occurred there in the past. The Quebec city territory may therefore be submitted to the effects of earthquakes from two distinct zones, with seismic waves coming from the north and from the northeast. The epicenters of the damaging earthquakes are usually located from 100 to 150 kilometers from Quebec city. This distance is well within the limits for which liquefaction may occur for earthquakes with magnitude greater than 7 (Finn, 1979). Basic data on the seismicity are not numerous because of the short observation period, the sparse settlement of the area in the past and the absence of adequate field observa- / 5
tions and studies. No information is available on the seismicity prior to. 1534 and nothing is known about the seismicity previous to that date. Very little instrumental information is available before 1950 and the location of the hypocenters and the determination of the magnitudes cannot be considered reliable before that time.
4.1.2. The Quebec area - Limits of the Quebec
Urban Community (Q.U.C.)
The area covered in this report is that of a major part
of the Quebec Urban Community (Communauté Urbaine de Québec-
C.U.Q.) territory with a surface of approximately 350 km2.
Most of this surface is built-up and it includes the whole or
part of the territories of the following municipalities:
Quebec, Sillery, Sainte-Foy, Ville Vanier, Loretteville,
Neufchatel, Charlesbourg, Cap-Rouge, St-Augustin, Montmoren-
cy, Courville, Boischatel and Beauport (see maps). The area
covered is limited to the south-southeast by the St.Lawrence
River. The urban sector of this territory has been expanding
steadily with a present population of about 500,000 (45% of
the surface of the Q.U.C. is now built-up. In 1925, at the
time of the last earthquake the urbanised area was about 16
km2 and most of the population was located in what is now the
historic part of Quebec city. A large part of the expansion
between 1925 and now took place in areas underlain by
unconsolidated deposits. 76
4.2. The Geological conditions - bedrock occurrences- surf icial deposits The geological conditions in the Quebec city area are relatively well-known from the extensive geological mapping undertaken in the past by the Quebec Department of Energy and Resources and by the Geology Department at Laval University. St-Julien and Osborne (1973) mapped the bedrock geology over the whole of the area for the Quebec Department of Energy and Resources. Gélinas (1971) and Lasalle (1974, 1978) have published maps of the surficial deposits. D. Cockburn (1984) prepared a geotechnical map of the territory covered by this report. The urban sector is divided in two major physiographic units. One part of town, along the St.Lawrence
River, is underlain by bedrock forming an elongated ridge which is sometimes called the Quebec Promontory or Upper
Town. To the north at the foot of the ridge is Lower town, on both shores of the St.Charles River. Lower town is underlain by deep (more than 60 m) unconsolidated deposits filling a northeast trending valley in the bedrock. To the north the area is underlain by Precambrian rocks and, in the center and to the south, by Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. The Paleozoic rocks are mostly Trenton limestones and Utica shales of Ordovician age which have been deformed to the south during the Taconic orogeny and are now included in the Appalachian formations. There the rocks are highly deformed, being folded and faulted. A succession of reverse 77 faults, trending northeast and dipping to the southeast have disturbed the Ordovician sediments in the southern part of the area (Quebec promontory). In the Quebec city area these rocks outcrop or are close to the surface (less than 2 m) in upper town and in the vicinity of the cities of Charlesbourg, Montmorency and Beauport. In the northern part of the C.U.Q. territory the bedrock is made up of the igneous and metamor- phic formations of Precambrian age. These rocks are granites and granitic gneisses, rich in quartz, feldspar and biotite. They are affected by deep-seated normal faults trending northeast and dipping abruptly to the southeast. Figure 10 (CACUQ, 1975) shows the distribution of the various rock formations in the area. There are no outcrops in most of lower town where surficial deposits cover an elongated zone, trending northeast, astride the St. Charles River. No neotectonic features have been observed in the area. Wallach and Chagnon (1990, in press) have reported on "pop-ups" of large size on the floor of the Ciment St-Laurent quarry in Beauport. These indicate that regional stresses are active. The surf icial deposits date from the Quaternary period. The oldest are found in the Beauport area and are Pleistocene glacio-lacustrine silts and clays (60,000 years old) covered by the Gentilly till (25,000 years old). The sediments of the Champlain sea which invaded much of the St.Lawrence Lowlands at the end of the last glacial episode (10,000 years B.C.) lie directly over the bedrock or on glacial till and they are Figure 11. Rock formations, from CACUQ, 1975 (Cockburn, 1984) .t .::1 79
found over most of the St.Charles River valley. The Champlain sea sediments consist of remoulded till at the bottom of the stratigraphic column, covered by well-sorted terrace sands and by marine clays and silts (10,000 - 9,000 years B.C.). The marine clays are usually silty. These sediments are in turn covered along the edges of the Champlain sea by the Proto-St.Lawrence sands (Lasalle, 1978), and the recent alluvial deposits laid down by streams and rivers. The most recent deposits are the man-made fills found along the shores of the St.Charles and St.Lawrence Rivers. These fills are usually less than 2 meters thick but near the St.Lawrence River fills up to 12 meters in thickness are found. Along the shores of the St.Lawrence much fill has been added using sandy material dredged from the channel. Near Bassin Louise, behind a pulp and paper mill a fill up to 6 meters thick is made up mostly of wood and organic matter. 4.3. Compilation of geotechnical data (boreholes, soil investigations) Cockburn (1984) prepared a geotechnical map of the territory covered by this report. A geotechnical map is more than a map of the surf icial deposits or of the bedrock geology. It provides information on the mechanical properties of the soils and rocks and shows both the surface topography and the topography of the bedrock under the unconsolidated sediments. It thus provides information on the thickness of the surficial deposits. It also separates the geological 80 units in relation to the difficulties they present for land use. Cockburn (1984) compiled data from about 600 boreholes collected f rom the owners of the information or f rom the consulting firms which were responsible for the investigation works. Valuable information on the three-dimensional distribution of the various geological units was obtained. It was found that more than 60 meters of-unconsolidated deposits cover the bedrock in the lower town of Quebec, in the vicinity of the St.Charles River, and north of Beauport. The thickness of these deposits elsewhere in the area rarely exceeds 20 meters.
The mechanical properties of the rock units vary from very good to poor. The limestones are relatively homogeneous and show compressive strengths of the order of 35-45 MPa
(Cockburn, 1984). The shales are usually disturbed, folded and faulted and have poor mechanical properties. They also weather easily. The granites and granitic gneisses to the north are undisturbed and have strong mechanical properties.
The unconsolidated deposits show a wide range of
properties. The tills and fluvioglacial deposits are very
dense, judging from the high SPT N-values. The marine clays with a silt content of about 50% have an average water
content of 28%, usually lower than the liquid limit, and a
low sensitivity (1 to 4, measured with a field vane). This
material is overconsolidated with preconsolidation pressures
of the order of 500-600 kPa. The terrace sands laid down in 81 the last stages of the Champlain sea are compact at the top of the stratigraphic column and dense at the bottom. The recent alluvial deposits are in a loose state (N-values from 4 to 15). The water table is usually close to the surface, from three to four meters, over most of the area. Near the St.Charles River and along the St.Lawrence the water table is closer to the surface, being less than a meter below. 4.4. Evaluation of the liquefaction potential The evaluation of the liquefaction potential of saturated sands and silts is an important element of seismic microzonation maps. Doré (1984) evaluated the liquefaction potential of susceptible soils in the C.U.Q. territory using the SPT N-values from boreholes. As a first approach he used a simple qualitative geological method in which the various soil units were classified arbitrarily according to their degree of susceptibility to liquefaction. Youd and Perkins (1978) had proposed a classification of the liquefaction susceptibility of soils based on their nature, conditions of deposition and age. Silts and sands are the most susceptible soils and the youngest deposits are the most likely to liquefy. Finn (1979) had proposed a similar classification. Doré (1984) established the following classification: 82
Deposit Liq. Potential
hydraulic fills high
recent alluvial deposits high
terrace deposits moderate
proglacial lake sands weak
Such a simple classification provides only a preliminary indication of the extent of the liquefaction potential (see figure 11), which is not very precise and can only be used as a general guide.
His second approach was more systematic. He used the borehole data compiled by Cockburn (1984), with the addition of more recent borehole data, and selected from these the records showing SPT N-values. He examined 'about 700 borehole records distributed over the C.U.Q. territory and he selected about 400 which had SPT N-values. These values were evaluated using a method proposed by Nishiyama (1977) which is based on the relationship between the N-values and depth. This method used the N-values directly without applying correc-
tions for depth and energy levels. Doré was able to identify
the sectors in the C.U.Q. territory where liquefaction was
likely to occur. These sectors were very similar to those
identified by the above-mentioned simple geological classifi-
cation, but the use of the SPT N-values from boreholes also SEAUPOHT
SAINT-EMILE / ' I e• tsst . •. ." • ',
CHAFILÇSITDURS
LEINETTLyILLE ••,:"' • ". e • • ,
, Ae- •
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LES SAULE 0,111411Alib.‘ r
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' SAINTE-FOI' e' ;.7r\ ) Carte d 'évaluation préliminaire du potentiel de liquéfaction 1 (selon la nature el Fige des dépôts). VA Liquéfaction probable 1.1 Liquéfaction possible
Figure 11. Preliminary map of the liquefaction potential (Doré, 1984) VERTICAL SECTION - LIQUEFACTION POTENTIAL
(DUFFERIN-MONTMORENCY AXIS)
■••
SCALE : Hor. lcm = 35m Vert. Icrn .. 5.5m
high liquefaction potential ------low liquefaction potential
Figure 12. Vertical section showing the liquefaction potential (Chagnon and Locat, 1988) 85 allowed the determination of the liquefaction potential at depth, thus providing a three-dimensional picture (figure 12). The liquefaction potential was considered to be valid for an earthquake of magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale with an epicenter about 120 km away from the C.U.Q. territory. One of the objectives of this work was to use simple geophysical techniques to evaluate the liquefaction poten- tial. The measurement of shear waves using seismic refraction equipment has been reported on by a few authors for this very purpose (see section 3.2.1.5.2, p. 32). The most reliable methods are those which measure the shear waves in boreholes but they are not simple, require relatively expensive equipment and boreholes have to be drilled. Measurements from the surface also require expensive equipment but are simpler because no drilling is needed. We have attempted to measure shear wave velocities in the field using a seismic refraction apparatus such as the EG&G GEOMETRICS (Model ES-1225) exploration seismograph using conventional seismic refraction techniques and techniques designed to measure shear waves using horizontal geophones and source of shear waves. Measurements were made at various locations in the Quebec city area. Reasonable values for sand layers close to the surface were obtained (350 m/s for dense sand) but no reliable values for sand layers at depth could be obtained, especially when the stratigraphy was complex. The reproduci- bility of the various techniques was not good (LaRoche et Van 86
Havre, 1987). An important problem concerned the use of an appropriate energy source. We relied on techniques which have proved successful elsewhere but could not obtain satisfactory results here using hammers or seismic guns. Complex and powerful sources have been developed and reported on (Edel- mann, 1985, Liu et al., 1988) but they were too costly to be considered here. In view of these results we concluded that only more elaborate techniques could be used with any degree of confidence and because these were outside the objectives of this project we did not pursue the matter any further. The literature review has shown that the most commonly used method for evaluating the liquefaction potential is based on the use of the SPT N-values. Various methods have been developed since 1970 and they have constantly improved the reliability of the determinations. The use of the Cone Penetration Test (CPT) and the piezocone is becoming common but it relies on correlations with the SPT test and data from these tests are not abundant. Berrill and Davis (1987) claim that some methods, such as the energy dissipation method (using SPT or piezocone values) are more precise but we consider that for the purpose of regional mapping the use of SPT values as proposed by Seed and Idriss (1982) are reliable enough and are the most simple to use considering that a large quantity of these values is usually available at low cost in any built-up area. As mentioned previously, data from many boreholes (685) were available for the Quebec city area 87 and SPT N-values were common for the granular soils (365 borehole records). This information was analyzed using the
PETAL3 software (Chen, 1988) which incorporates the latest developments in the use of SPT N-values for the determination of the liquefaction potential. The liquefaction potential map was prepared on the basis of these determinations. Actually we compared the results obtained via PETAL3 to those obtained
previously by Doré (1984) using the Nishiyama (1977) method
and by calculations based on the Seed and Idriss (1982) method. The results are similar for all methods but the area
of high liquefaction susceptibility is less extensive using
PETAL3. This is because the determination is made for an
earthquake of a specific magnitude. We determined the
liquefaction potential for two magnitudes, 6 and 7, and the
boundaries of the areas where the soils are liquefiable are
shown on the map of the liquefaction potential at the back of
this report. We used a base map at a scale of 1:20000. As
could be expected the major area of high liquefaction
potential is in the Lower town of Quebec city on both shores
of the St.Charles River. This liquefaction susceptible zone
extends southwest almost to the western limit of the area. A
few isolated sectors are scattered over the C.U.Q. territory.
It should be mentioned that no case of liquefaction has ever
been observed or reported on within the limits of the area
under study. The examination of aerial photographs did not
yield any evidence of liquefaction. One of the reasons may be 88 that the area is so extensively built-up that the evidence, if it exists, is now covered and hidden.
4.5. Slope stability
Cockburn (1984) compiled information on the angles of the slopes, on the previous landslides and on the corrective works which have been undertaken from time to time. This information provides the basis for the evaluation of the regional slope stability problems which might be related to earthquake activity.
The steepest slopes (more than 15%) are in bedrock. On the south shore of the Quebec Promontory near Petit Champlain street, in an area with a high population density, many rockfalls have occurred in the past, being rèsponsible for more than 85 deaths from 1836 to 1889. None of these landslides have been linked with earthquakes (Chagnon et al.,
1979). In the long term earthquake activity may contribute to the dislocation and weakening of the rock-and thus increase the risk of rockfalls. The slope above Petit Champlain street has been stabilized with drains and rock anchors around 1926.
Screens have also been installed between the houses at the bottom of the slope and the upper part to intercept minor rockfalls which still occur from time to time. No major rockfall has occurred since the corrective works were completed. Further west, along Champlain boulevard, near the
Pierre Laporte bridge, sandstones and schists dipping 45-60° south slid onto the boulevard around 1977 and corrective 89 measures had to be implemented (Chagnon et al., 1979). The unstable material was removed from the slope and rock bolts with a steel mesh were installed. No movement has been observed afterwards. On the other side of the Promontory, toward Lower town, no stability problems are known and no landslides have occurred. The slopes are usually gentler than on the St.Lawrence River side and the dip of the rock strata is toward the slope and not downslope as is the case on the other side. The unconsolidated deposits are relatively stable and few landslides have ever been observed. A study of aerial photographs has shown few indications of landslide activity. For this study we have examined various photographic coverages, the oldest dating from 1950. No evidence of large sensitive clay slides, which are so common in the St.Lawrence Lowlands, has been observed. Only minor slumps have been found on the undercut shores inside some meanders of the St.Charles River and tributaries. These are indicated on the combined slope stability and intensity amplification map at the end of this report. Both shores of the St.Charles River have been stabilized by retaining walls, for a distance of about 3 kilometers upstream from the St.Lawrence River and no stability problems are anticipated there. We have indicated on the map the areas where the slopes are steep (15 and 25%) both in the soil and in bedrock, and 90 the sites where landslides are known to have occurred in the past. These slopes are in bedrock along Cap Diamant, Cap Rouge, the Montmorency and St.Charles Rivers. A few unstable slopes in soils are found along the shores - of the St.Charles and Lorette Rivers. We consider that these areas are the ones most likely to know landslide activity during a major earthquake. These slopes are now relatively stable and care should be taken not to decrease their stability by improper land-use practices. No slope stability analyses have been undertaken for this work because the soil parameters needed for such analyses are not available. Furthermore landslides are not and have never been a problem in the C.U.Q. territory. The hazard from large rockfalls, such as those which were so devastating in the last century, has been eliminated by corrective works and prevention measures. For seismic microzonation purposes in areas where landslides are a known problem and are numerous we suggest that stability analysis tàking into account cyclic loads be completed. The methods of analysis have been reviewed elsewhere in this report. 91
4.6. Amplification of seismic intensity
4.6.1. General considerations
The amplification of seismic intensity is a very important element of seismic microzonation. The various methods used to evaluate this element were discussed in section 3.3.4, page 62 of this report. There are no simple inexpensive methods which allow a precise quantitative evaluation. Most methods rely on field measurements using complex equipment and are expensive to implement. There are however less precise and less expensive methods which are better suited to regional evaluations of a general nature. A simple procedure which is very efficient in areas of high seismic activity is the detailed study of the effects of previous earthquakes and of the geotechnical conditions at the affected sites. This yields information on the areas where damage is more extensive as a result of the nature of the underlying soils and of the bedrock topography. The damages can be classified and a value of intensity can be assigned to each class.
In order to refine the definition of the seismic amplification zones the bedrock topography and the limits of
the areas underlain by unconsolidated deposits can be taken
into account. In the areas of high amplification as indicated by the survey of damages from previous earthquakes the nature
and thickness of the soil should be investigated and
established. 9 2 4.6.2. Damages in previous earthquakes in the Quebec area A survey of damage from previous earthquakes in the Quebec city area has been undertaken in order to locate and identify the structures which were affected. A search was made in the University Library, in the archives of the various papers (Le Soleil, L'Action, The Gazette, L'Evéne- ment, The Quebec Morning Chronicle, etc..), the archives of the major religious orders (Ursulines, Augustines, the Quebec Seminary), the archives of the City of Quebec, the National Archives, from insurance companies and from historical documents such as "Les Relations des Jésuites" by Rouillard (1981) and Chagnon and Boivin (1989). The 1988 Saguenay earthquake was strongly felt in the Quebec city area and caused minor damages, mostly in the lower part of town. The Quebec Civil Protection Agency has collected and processed the compensation claims sent in by those who have suffered financial losses from this earthqua- ke. The forms used by the claimants describe the type of damage in great detail and cost evaluation are provided. We had hoped to be able to use this information in the prepara- tion of the microzonation map. But it had to remain confiden- tial until all the claims had been settled and access to the information was still denied at the time of writing this report. We will complete this extremely important part of the work whenever the information is released. 93
However, much has been written in the local papers about the most obvious damages and we have been able to review much of what has been published. More information was obtained from the site visit report prepared for the Canadian National Committee on Earthquake Engineering by Mitchell et al. (1989). We also surveyed and inspected some of the damage ourselves after the earthquake. We therefore had a limited amount of information as to the type and severity of the damages but without cost evaluations. The damage could not be classified on the basis of cost or severity. We plotted the locations of the damages from the 1988 Saguenay earthquake and also from previous earthquakes on the map showing the intensity amplification (at the - back of this report). As a rule the most severe damage and the most severely felt motions were in Lower town where thick layers of soils such as clay and saturated sand fill a linear depression in the bedrock to a great depth (more than 60 meters). This is also where damage was reported in previous earthquakes. The most severely affected areas in Lower town were those covered by the most recent deposits, such as alluvial soils in the vicinity of St. Charles River. Saint-François d'Assise hospital, located near the shore of the St. Charles suffered much damage. Plaster walls were cracked, two chimneys were damaged, and a 6,000 lb. elevator counterweight was derailed and impacted against one side of the steel guide-rail support causing a shear failure of the reinforced 94 concrete beam to which the guide-rails were attached by steel brackets (Mitchell et al., 1989). The total cost of the damages, as reported in the local newspapers, is of the order of $3,000,000. Another area of heavy damage was at the Place Fleur-de-Lys shopping center where ceiling tiles fell in great numbers, shelves spilled their contents and sometimes fell down and where large plateglass windows were broken. Place Fleur-de-Lys is located near the St. Charles River in an area covered with soft soils. In the same area the Hippodrome (horse racing track), located on boulevard du Colisée, lost a masonry wall linking two towers on top of the building and supported by a very flexible light steel frame. A shower of bricks fell in front of the main entrance to the building. Away from the St. Charles River, but over soft soils, the damages were lighter and consisted mostly of broken chimneys and cracked walls. Further west, always in Lower town and in the vicinity of St.Charles River, the Christ-Roi hospital suffered minor damage. Some buildings near boulevard Charest and boulevard Du Vallon were also slightly affected (cracked plaster walls, fallen ceiling tiles). The sites of major damages are shown on the intensity amplification map. An examination of the soil conditions as indicated on the geotechnical map prepared by Cockburn (1984) and the borehole records for the sites of damages show that thick layers of marine clay are usually present. They 95 apparently magnify the intensity by an appreciable factor compared to the intensity on bedrock sites nearby where the earthquake not only did not cause damage but was also lightli- felt. We have outlined all the areas where clay layers are important (over 2 meters) for the territory of the C.U.U.
Site effects should contribute to intensity amplification there. We have not been able to establish the effect of topography. The bedrock topography under the clay and sand deposit may contribute to the intensity amplification but
this cannot be determined from simple surface observations.
Complex and expensive methods such as those outlined by Bard
(1988) have to be used to obtain precise quantitative results
in view of the complexity of the stratigraphy and topography.
4.7. Regional seismic hazard map
Doré (1984) prepared a regional seismic hazard map which
was a composite map in which all the microzonation elements
(slope stability, liquefaction potential and intensity
amplification) were superposed and combined. By adding up the
risks resulting from the presence of one, two, three or none
of the elements he identified zones which were numbered from
0, for no risk, to 4, for maximum risk. This yielded a very
detailed map on which the various risks could be identified.
This method, however, may give a distorted picture of
the real seismic hazard and possibly misleading information
because the different risk elements are often independent
from each other. In some cases they can be conjugated, such 96 as when layers of sand overlying thick clay deposits are liquefied because of the intensity amplification due to the nature of the clay or such as when liquefaction results in landslides. In many instances the risk elements will not influence each other. For instance liquefaction will not increase or decrease the site effects due to the nature of the underlying material. For these reasons it is concluded that each risk element should be represented separately. For the purposes of this work two maps of the C.U.Q. territory have been produced: one on which the liquefaction potential for earthquakes of magnitudes 6 and 7 is shown and (Erne which shows the areas susceptible to landslide activity during earthquakes and areas where the intensity can be amplified because of the nature of the underlying soils. 97 5. DISCUSSION 5.1. General relations The method developed for the microzonation map of the Quebec city area is based on simple and inexpensive procedu- res. It can be applied to any medium to large city where detailed information in the form of aerial photographs, geological maps (bedrock and surficial deposits), geotechni- cal maps and borehole records is readily available. Analysis of historical documents for information on previous earthqua- kes is important. If no major earthquakes have occurred in the past, the seismic activity is low and the preparation of a seismic microzonation map may not be called for. The most time-consuming activity is the collection and compilation of data. There aré costs attached to this but they are minimal compared to the cost of drilling boreholes or taking measurements of various paràmeters at depth. 5.2. The limitations of the method Simple methods such as the ones proposed here cannot yield precise quantitative results. The information provided is valuable and can be used as a guide for land-use and emergency planning. It can be considered as a first step in the process of seismic microzonation, a step which has to be taken even when more precise information is necessary. If site-specific information is required it should be obtained by more direct and expensive methods such as were indicated in the review of the literature. 98
The quantity of information to be collected has to be large in order to cover a sizeable area adequately. Further- more the information has to be distributed evenly over the area instead of being clustered in a few well-investigated sectors. In such a case, field work will be necessary to compensate for the lack of information and this will influence the final cost of the project. 99
6. GENERAL METHODOLOGY PROPOSED Seismic microzonation on a regional scale should ideally be based on the following: a- Sufficient knowledge of the historic seismic activity (dates, location of epicenters, depth of focus, magnitude, etc..). b- Geologic conditions of the area under study. Knowledge of the tectonic setting is of particular importance (presence of faults, activity of faults, neotectonism, etc...). A map of the bedrock geology should be available. c- Geology of the surficial deposits (nature, age, conditions of deposition, thickness, mechanical properties). Knowledge of the distribution (three-
dimensional) is necessary. d- Selected parameters related to specific behavior (i.e. SPT N-values, velocity of shear waves for liquefiable soils) should be readily available. They are necessary even for a preliminary evaluation and they will have to be obtained by direct means if they are not already available. 100 The following procedure for the preparation of regional seismic microzonation maps is suggested: 1- Collect and compile the available information on: a- Historic seismic activity, with special attention to the local effects of previous earthquakes. The effects of previous earthquakes on soils can
sometimes be seen on aerial photographs which should be examined. b- Geological conditions. All documents pertaining to the bedrock and surf icial deposits should be gathered. Aerial photographs should be examined. c- Geotechnical conditions. All reports of investiga- tions, foundation studies, etc.. should be collected. Of particular interest are the borehole logs which should be compiled and stored in a data bank. Geotechnical maps should be consulted if available. This step is time-consuming and sufficient time should be allowed for it. d- The collected information on the geological conditions should be summarized on a map on which the location of boreholes should also be plotted. The locations of the effects (damages) of previous earthquakes should also be shown on this map (or on a separate map if too numerous). 101 2- The liquefaction potential of the granular soils should be evaluated summarily on the basis of the geological context and a map showing the extent of the areas susceptible to liquefaction should be prepared. The examination of aerial photographs, specially of old coverages, may be useful at this point. A more detailed analysis of the liquefaction potential should later be made using simple methods (SPT N-values from the collected boreholes) for earthquakes of magnitudes such as are likely to occur. The results should be plotted on a map. 3- Slope angles should be determined for all slopes in the
area from topographic maps. Steep slopes (15% or more) should be identified. The location of old inactive and active landslides should also be plotted on a map. The examination of aerial photographs and of public records should provide valuable information on landslide activity. If landslides of any type are abundant, further investigation should be made on the stability of slopes. If soil or rock properties are known and the required parameters are available, stability analyses taking seismic loads into account should be performed. 4- An evaluation of the expected intensity amplification should be made. A simple procedure involves a knowledge of the effects of previous earthquakes and of the nature, thickness and geometry of soils such as clays 102
and silty clays. In areas of high relief the effects due
to topography should also be considered although there
is no simple way to evaluate them. A semi-quantitative
evaluation of the amplification can be made for various
locations from a study of the damages resulting from
previous earthquakes. These damages will usually be.
more severe in areas underlain by important thicknesdses
of soft soils such as clay. If the damage information is
precise and abundant, it may be possible to classify it
along a scale of amplification valid for each location.
The lowest amplification will be on bedrock and the
highest in those areas where the soil units or the
topography control it. If the stratigraphy is"known for
the area under study it will be possible to extrapolate
and extend the limits of the areas of intensity
amplification even if no data on damages from previous
earthquake is available for all of the area. This is
usually the case because the expansion of urban areas
increases the surface of the built-up areas to locations
for which no information is available because they were
not urbanized at the time of previous earthquakes.
5- Maps should be prepared at a scale which allows the
identification of the sites where the information is
available. For a medium to large-size urban area the
scale should vary from 1:10000 to 1:25000. The microzo-
nation elements (slope stability, soil liquefaction, 103
intensity amplification) should be represented separa- tely on one or more map depending on the quantity of information. The graphic representation of each element should be kept simple. A survey of various types of microzonation maps leads to the conclusion that the different elements should not be combined or grouped so as to produce a synthetic hazard map. A report should be produced to explain the procedure followed and to explain the geological and geotechnical background. The cost of regional seismic microzonation maps of the type proposed here will vary according to the size of the territory covered and the quantity of data available. Most of the cost is absorbed by the salaries of the personnel involved in the project. For a city of 2,000 - 3,000, or a city the size of Baie
St.Paul, the cost should be around $50,000 and the time required for completing the study should be about 5 months. For a city of 200,000 - 500,000 the amount of information available will be greater and the time required for collec- ting will tbe longer than for a small city. The total cost of such a map should be from $150,000 to $300,000 and the time required should be from 18 months to 36 months. 104
7- URBAN AREAS IN CANADA WHERE MICROZONATION IS REQUIRED There are not many large urban centers within highly active seismic zones in Canada. An examination of the earthquake probability map of Canada, such as shown in the National Building Code of Canada, 1985 edition, shows that the areas of high probability are located on or near both coasts of the country. Therefore large cities in seismically vulnerable areas are the most likely targets for microzona- tion. On the west coast of Canada, the two major cities for which seismic microzonation is required are Victoria and Vancouver (including the adjacent municipalities). A 'preliminary map of the city of Victoria now exists (Wuorinen, 1976) but it does not include the major seismic microzonation elements. This map should be updated. Vancouver which is underlain by deltaic and alluvial sediments has been positively identified by Smolka and Berz (1989) as a major city where more should be learned about the subsoil conditions with particular reference to the possibi- lity of the resonance effect (also called the Mexico effect) which was responsible for the intensity amplification during the 1985 Mexico earthquake. Much information about the elements of microzonation should be available. On the east coast the major cities close to centers of earthquake activity are: Halifax which is close to the Grand 105 Banks seismic zone, Quebec which is close to the Charlevoix zone, Montreal and Ottawa which are close to the Western Quebec seismic zone. A seismic microzonation map of the Quebec city area has been prepared by Doré (1984), Chagnon and Locat (1988) and as part of this report. The next step for this area would be to obtain more precise site-specific determinations for the liquefaction potential and intensity amplification through the use of more complex techniques. There are many smaller towns within each seismic zone where microzonation is called for. On both coasts any city of more than 3,000 inhabitants should be mapped, particularly if they are built on unconsolidated deposits. On the east coast the cities of Sydney, Saint John and Fredericton should be mapped. In the province of Quebec the cities of Baie-St.Paul and La Malbaie are right in the center of the Charlevoix zone and would benefit from microzonation. 106
8. CONCLUSIONS
Seismic microzonation maps can be completed on a regional scale using simple inexpensive means. They are not precise enough for site-specific applications but they can be used as a first step toward more precise work. They are useful guides in the land-use planning process and in the planning of emergency measures.
Many cities in Canada would benefit from microzonation mapping because they are within range of seismic activity which can result in destructive damages within their limits. 107
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Tokimatsu, K., 1988, Penetration tests for dynamic problems, Penetration Testing, ISOPT-1, DeRuiter, editor, Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 117-136.
Tokimatsu, K. and Seed, H.B., 1987, Evaluation of settlements in sands due to earthquake shaking, Jour. of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 113, No. 8, pp. 861-878.
Tong, J. and Kuribayashi, E., 1988, The three-dimensional resonance of axisym- metric sediment-filled valleys, Soils and Foundations, 28, No. 4, pp. 130- 146.
Tsuchida, H. and Hayashi, S., 1971, Estimation of liquefaction potential of sandy soils, Third Joint Meeting of U.S. and Japan Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects, UJNR, Tokyo, pp. 1-16.
Tucker, B.E., King, J.L., Hatzfeld, D. and Nersesov, I.L., 1984, Observations of hard-rock site effects, Bull. Seismological Society of America, 74, No. 1, pp. 121-136.
Unesco, 1980, La protection contre le risque sismique, GEDIT, série "Catastrophes naturelles", Belgique, 366 p.
Vaid, Y.P., Chern, J.C. and Tumi, H., 1985, Confining Pressure, Grain Angularity, and Liquefaction, Jour. Geot. Engineering Division, ASCE, 111, No. 10, pp. 1229-1235.
Wallach, J. and Chagnon, J.Y., 1990, The occurrence of pop-ups in the Quebec city area, manuscript accepted for publication, Can. Journal of Earth Sciences. 117
Wang, Z.Q., 1981, Macroscopic approach to soil liquefaction, Int. Conf. on Recent Advances in Geot. Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, Rolla, Missouri, 1, pp. 179-185.
Wuorinen, V., 1976, Seismic microzonation of Victoria - A social response to risk, in Victoria, Physical Environment and Development, edited by Harold D. Foster, Western Geographical Series, 12, U. of Victoria, pp. 185-219.
Yasuda, S. and Tohno, I., 1988, Sites of reliquefaction caused by the 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake, Soils and Foundations, 28, No. 2, pp. 61-72.
Yoshimi, Y., Hatanaka, M., Oh-Oka, H. and Makihara, Y., 1985, Liquefaction of sands sampled by in situ freezing, Procs. 11th ICSMFE, San Francisco, A.A. Balkema, 4, pp. 1927-1934.
Youd, T.L., 1973, Liquefaction, flow, and associated ground failure, Geologic Survey Circular 688, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
Youd, T.L., 1984, Recurrence of Liquefaction at the Same Site, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, San Francisco, CA, III, pp. 231-238.
Youd, T.L. and Bartlett, S.F., 1988, US Case histories of Liquefaction-induced Ground Displacement, Procs. First Japan-U.S. Workshop on Liquefaction, Large Ground Deformation and their Effects on Lifeline Facilities, Nov. 1988, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 22-31. -
Youd, T.L. and Bennett, M.J., 1983, Liquefaction sites, Imperial Valley, California, Jour. of Geotechnical Eng., ASCE, 109, No. 3, pp. 440-457.
Youd, T.L. and Perkins, M., (1978), Mapping Liquefaction-induced Ground Failure Potential, Jour. Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, 104, No. GT4, pp. 433-446.
Youd, T.L. and Perkins, M., (1987), Mapping of Liquefaction Severity Index, Jour. Geotechnical Eng. Division, ASCE, 113, No. 11, pp. 1374-1382.
Zhou, S, 1980, Evaluation of liquefaction of sand by static cone penetration test, Procs. 7th World Conf. Earthquake Engineering, Istanbul, 3, pp. 156- 162. _A. NNEX I
BI BLIOGR.A_PELY SEISMIC MICROZONATION - BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. GENERAL
Anonymous, 1986, Learning lessons from the rubble of Mexico City, Engineering News-Record (USA), 217, no. 10, pp. 20-28.
Beavers, J., editor, 1986, Proceedings of the third U.S. National Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Aug. 24-28, Charleston, SC, Earthquake Eng. Res. Inst., El Cerrito, CA, US., 2480 p.
Freeman,* J.R., 1932, Earthquake damage and earthquake insurance, McGraw- Hill Book Company Inc., New-York, 904 p.
Kanai, K., 1983, Engineering seismology, Univ. of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, Japan, 251 p.
Margerum, T., 1980, We're not ready for the big quake; what local governments can do, Assoc. Bay Area Goy., California, 36p.
Mayer-Rosa, D., 1986, Tremblements de terre; origine, risque et aide [Earthquakes; origin, risk and aid], UNESCO, Comm. Natl. Suisse, Berne, 24 p.
Okamoto,* S., 1984, Introduction to earthquake engineering, second ed., University of Tokyo Press, 629p.
Proceedings of the Eight World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Eng. Research Inst., July 21-28, 1984, San Francisco, USA, Prentice-Hall, 216 p., 1986.
Wong, Z.Q., 1982, Seismic wave field and its damaging effect, Proc. 4th lut. Congr. Int. Ass. Eng. Geol., IAEG, Dec. 1982, New Delhi, India; A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 8, pp. 173-179.
2. SOIL DYNAMICS
2.1 General
Dobry, R., 1987, Dynamic properties and response of soft soil deposits, General Reporter, Int. Symp. on Geot. Eng. of Soft Soils, Mexico, august 87.
Seed,* H.B., Wong, R.T., Idriss, I.M. and Tokimatsu, 1986, Moduli and damping factors for dynamic analyses of cohesionless soils, Jour. Geot. Eng., 112, No. 11, pp. 1016-1032.
Stewart, H.E., 1987, Soil dynamics in earthquake engineering, Engineering Cornell Quarterly, 21, no. 3, pp. 28-33.
Whitman,* R.V. and Ishihara, K., 1981, Soil dynamics - General report, X ICSMFE, Stockholm, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 4, pp. 471-484. 2
Yoshimi, Y., Richart, R.E., Prakash, S., Barkan, D.D. and Ilyichev, V.A., 1977, Soil dynamics and its application to foundation engineering, State-of-the-art Report, Procs. 9th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. & Found. Eng., Tokyo, 2, pp. 605-650.
2.2 Determination of dynamic parameters
Saha, S. and Chattopadhyay, B.C., 1984, Evaluation of dynamic soil parameters, Proc. 8th African Re. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 1984, Univ. of Zimbabwe, Harare, A.A. Balkema, 1, pp. 115-122.
Zen,* K. and Higuchi, Y., 1984, Prediction of vibratory shear modulus and damping ratio for cohesive soils, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, San Francisco, Prentice-Hall Inc., N.J., III, pp. 23-30.
2.3 Clays vs. seismic loads
Andréasson,* B.A., 1981, Dynamic deformation characteristics of a soft clay, Procs. Int. Conf. on Rec. Advances in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dynamics, Rolla, Missouri, 1, pp. 65-70.
Azzouz,* A.S., Malek, A.M. and Baligh, M.M., 1989, Cyclic behavior of clays in undrained simple shear, Jour. Geot. Eng.,ASCE, 115, No. 5, pp. 637-657.
Baladi,* G.Y. and Lentz, R.W., , The effects of time dependent stress- path on the plastic and elastic deformation of sand and clay soils subjected to dynamic loading,
Bianchini,* G.F. and Saada, A.S., 1981, Effect of anisotropy on the dynamic response of clay soils, Procs. X ICSMFE, Stockholm, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 3, pp. 189-192.
Diaz-Rodriguez,* J.A., 1989, Behavior of Mexico City clay subjected to undrained repeated loading, Can. Geot. Jour., 26, No. 1, pp. 159-162.
Ejezie, S.U., 1984, Probabilistic evaluation of predicted soil behaviour under cyclic loading, D. Thesis, Carnegie-Mellon Univ., Pittsburgh, 294p. Diss. Abstr. Int. Order No. DA-84-25814.
Idriss, I.M., Dobry, R. & Singh, R.D., 1978, Nonlinear behavior of soft clays during cyclic loading, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., ASCE, 104, No. GT 12, Proc. Paper 14265, pp. 1427-1447.
Jaime, A. and Romo, M.P., 1988, Correlations between dynamic and static properties of Mexico City clay, Earthquake Spectra, 4, No. 4, pp. 787-804.
Koutsoftas,* A.M., 1978, Effect of cyclic loads on undrained strength of two marine clays, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Procs. ASCE,104, No. GT5, pp. 609-620. 3
Kovacs,* W.D., Seed, H.B. and Chan, C.K ., 1971, Dynamic moduli and damping ratios for a soft clay, Jour. Soil Mech. a. Found. Div., Procs. ASCE, 97, No. SM1, pp. 59-75.
Lefebvre,* G., LeBoeuf, D. and Demers, B., 1989, Stability threshold for cyclic loading of saturated clay, Can. Geot. Jour., 26, No. 1, pp. 122-131.
Macky, T.A. and Saada, A.S., 1984, Dynamics of anisotropie clays under large strains, J. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 110, No. GT4, pp. 487- 504.
Marcuson,* W.F. and Wahls, H. E., 1972, Time effects on dynamic shear modulus of clays, Jour. Soil Mech. a. Found. Div., Procs. ASCE, 98, No. SM12, pp. 1359-1373.
Massarsch, K.R., 1979, The stability of layered clay soils, Nat. Paper, Procs. of the 7th Europ. Conf. on Soil Mech. and Found. Eng., 1, pp. 45-51.
Matsui, M., 1988, A constitutive model for cyclic viscoplasticity of soils, Soils and Foundations, 28, No. 4, pp. 19-37.
Matsui,* T., Ohara, H. and Ito, T., 1980, Cyclic stress-strain history and shear characteristics of clay, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Procs. ASCE 106, No. GT10, pp. 1101-1120.
Meimon,* Y. and licher, P.Y., 1980, Mechanical behaviour of clays under cyclic loading, Procs. Int. Symp. on Soils under Cyclic and Trans. Loading, Swansea, 1, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 77-88.
Pecker,* A., Walter, J.P. et Sigismond, J., 1983, Réponse sismique d'une couche de vase molle, Revue Fr. de Géotechnique, 25, pp. 27-44.
Romo, M.P., 1987, Dynamic properties of Mexico clay, Symp. on Geot. Eng. on Soft Soils, Mexico, august 87.
Romo, M.P., Jaime, A. and Resendiz, D., 1988, General soil conditions and clay properties in the Valley of Mexico, Earthquake Spectra, 4, No. 4, pp. 731-752.
Saada,* A.S., Bianchini, G.F. and Shook, L.P., 1978, The dynamic response of anisotropie clay, Proc. ASCE, Geot. Eng. Div., Spec. Conf. "Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dyn.", Pasadena, Ca., ASCE Publ. 2, pp. 777-801.
Sheu,* W.Y. and Chang, N.Y., 1987, Cyclic behavior of a clay: Experiment and modelling, in Soil Dynamics and Liquefaction, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey, in Geot. Engineering, 42, pp. 269-282.
Togrol, E. and Guler, E., 1984, Effect of repeated loading on the strength of clay, Int. J. Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng., 3, No. 4, pp. 184-190. 4
Trudeau,* P.J., Whitman, R.V. and Christian, J.T., 197 , Shear wave velocity and modulus of a marine clay, Boston Soc. of Civ. Eng., pp. 12-25. Vucetic, M. and Dobry, R., 1988, Degradation of marine clays under cyclic loading, Jour. of Geot. Eng., ASCE, 114, No. 2, pp. 133-149.
Zhinkin,* G.N. and Zarubina, L.P., 1970, Influence of vibrodynamic action on the elastic properties of clay soils, Soil Mech. a. Found., No. 2, pp. 24-25, translated from the Russian.
3. STRONG GROUND MOTIONS
3.1 Determination
Chang,* F.K., 1984, Analysis of strong-motion data from the New Hampshire earthquake of 18 january 1982, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, CA, Prentice-Hall, Inc., IV, pp. 37-43.
Joyner, W.B. and Boore, D.M., 1988, Measurement, characterization and prediction of strong ground motion, Procs. Earthq. Eng. and Soil Dynamics II; recent advances in ground-motion evaluation, 20, pp. 43-102.
Krinitzsky, E.L. and Chang, F.K., 1988, Intensity-related earthquake ground motions, Bull. Assoc. of Eng. Geologists, 25, No. 4, pp. 425-435.
Krinitzsky, E.L., Chang, F.K. and Nuttli, 0.W., 1988, Magnitude-related earthquake ground motions, Bull. Assoc. of Eng. Geologists, 25, No. 4, pp. 399-423.
Ordaz, M., Singh, S.K., Reinoso, E., Lermo, J., Espinosa, J.M. and Dominguez, T., 1988, Estimation of response spectra in the lake bed zone of the Valley of Mexico, Earthquake Spectra, 4, No. 4, pp. 815-834.
3.2 Attenuation - relations
Burger, R.W., Somerville, P.O., Barker, J.S., Herrmann, R.B. and Helmberger, D.V., 1987, The effect of crustal structure on strong ground motion attenuation relations in eastern North America, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 77, No. 2, pp. 420-439.
Chavez,* M. and Castro, R., 1988, Attenuation of Modified Mercalli intensity with distance in Mexico, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 78, No. 6, pp. 1875-1884. Dolgoff, A., 1988, Recurrence of exceedence of threshold seismic ground motion from earthquake recurrence, ground-motion attenuation, and hypocentral-depth relations, Bull. Assoc. of Eng. Geol., 25, No. 1, pp. 31-37. 5
Gupta, I.N. and McLaughlin, K.L., 1987, Attenuation of ground motion in the Eastern United States, Bull. Seism. Soc. of Amer., 77, No. 2, pp. 366-383.
Nuttli, 0.W. and Herrmann, R.B., 1984, A comparison of methods of estimating the attenuation of earthquake strong ground motion, Proc. Int. Conf. "Case Histories in Geot. Eng.", Missouri-Rolla Univ., 1, pp. 531-534.
3.3 Numeric models
Bolt, B.A., editor, 1987, Seismic strong motion synthetics, Computational Techniques, Acad. Press, London, U.K., 328 p.
Evernden, J.F. & Thomson, J.M., 1988, Predictive model for important ground motion parameters associated with large and great earthquakes, USGS, Bulletin 1838, 27 p.
Turkstra, C.J. & Tallin, A.G., 1988, A re-evaluation of design spectra for seismic damage control, Natl. Center for Earthquake Eng. Research, Buffalo, N.Y., Techn. Rept. NCEER-88-0016, 51 p.
3.4 Evaluation and prediction of displacements
Ambraseys, N.N. and Menu, J.M., 1988, Earthquake-induced ground displacements, Earthq. Eng. a. Structural Dynamics, 16, No. 7, pp. 985-1006.
Apsel,* R.J., Frazier, G.A., Jurkevics, A. & Fried, J.C., 1981, Ground motion predictions for the Los Angeles Basin for a major San Andreas earthquake (HA & NB), U.S.G.S., 0E-81-0276, 217 p. ($28).
Araya,* R. and Saragoni, G.R., 1984, Earthquake accelerogram destructiveness potential factor, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 835-842.
Boore, D.M. and Atkinson, G.M., 1987, Stochastic prediction of ground motion and spectral response parameters at hard-rock sites in eastern North America, Bull. Seism. Soc. America, 77, No. 2, pp. 440-467.
Borcherdt, R.D. et al., 1972, Ground motion prediction, Int. conf. on microzonation for safer construction - Research and application, Seattle, Wash., Procs., II, p. 862.
Campbell,* K.W., 1982, A preliminary methodology for the regional zonation of peak ground acceleration, Procs. 3rd lut. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, I, pp. 365-376.
Campbell, K.W., Toro, G.R. and McGuire, R.K., 1988, An investigation into earthquake ground motion characteristics in eastern North America, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 78, No. 6, pp. 2098-2104. 6
Christoulas, S.G., Tsiambaos, G.K. and Sabatakakis, N.S., 1985, Engineering geological conditions and the effects of 1981 earthquake in Athens, Greece, Eng. Geol., Amsterdam, 22, No. 2, pp. 141-155.
Finn,* W.D. and Nichols, A.M., 1988, Seismic response of long-period sites: lessons from the september 19, 1985, Mexican earthquake, Can. Geot. Jour., 25, no. 1, pp. 128-137.
Hamada,* M., Towhata, I., Yasuda, S. and Isoyama, R., 1987, Study on permanent ground displacement induced by seismic liquefaction, Computers and Geotechnics, 4, pp. 197-220.
Hamada,* M., Yasuda, S. and Isoyama, R., 1987, Permanent ground displacement induced by soil liquefaction during 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu and the 1964 Niigata earthquakes, Procs 5th Can. Conf. Earthquake Eng., Ottawa, pp. 533- 542.
Hamada,* M., Yasuda, S. and Isoyama, R., 1987, Quantitative analyses on liquefaction induced permanent ground displacement and its effects on earthquake damage, Procs. 5th Can. Conf. Earthquake Eng., Ottawa, pp. 501-509.
Hamada, M., Kubo, K. and Isoyama, R., 1987, Earthquake damage caused by liquefaction induced permanent ground displacement, in Recent Advances in lifeline earthquake Engineering, T. Ariman, ed., Dev. in Geot. Eng., 49, pp. 3-19.
Hays,* W.W., 1980, Procedures for estimating earthquake ground motions, U.S.G.S. Prof. Paper 1114, 77p.
Jennings,* P.C. and Kanamori, H., 1984, The use of strong-motion instruments to determine local magnitude, Procs. 8th World Conf. Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 859-866.
Joyner, W.B., 1986, Predictive mapping of earthquake ground motion, Procs. Conf. XXXII, U.S.G.S., Open-File Report 86-0401, pp. 202-213.
Kamiyama,* M. and Yanagisawa, E., 1986, A statistical model for estimating response spectra of strong earthquake ground motions with emphasis on local soil conditions, Soils and Foundations, 26, No. 2, pp. 16-32.
Katayama, T., 1982, An engineering prediction model of acceleration response spectra and its application to seismic hazard mapping, Earthquake Eng. and Struct. Dynamics, 10, 1, pp. 149-163.
Kausel, E. and Pais, A., 1987, Stochastic deconvolution of earthquake motions, Jour. of Eng. Mechanics, 113, No. 2, pp. 266-277.
Kavazan,jian, E., Echezuria, H. and McCann, M.W., 1985, Root mean square (RMS) acceleration hazard for San Francisco, USA, Soil Dyn. a. Earthq. Eng., 4, No. 3, pp. 106-123. 7
Ohsaki,* Y., Watabe, M., Tohdo, M. and Ohkawa, I., 1984, Characteristics of surface ground motions considering the various property combinations of subsoils and earthquakes, Procs. 8th World Conf. Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 801-808.
O'Rourke,* M.J., Castro, G. and Hossain, I., 1984, Horizontal soil strain due to seismic waves, J. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 110, No. GT9, pp. 1173-1187.
Sharma,* M.P. and Brady, A.G., 1984, Characterization of earthquake ground motion, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 851-858.
Sotiropoulos, D.A., 1983, On the syntheses of ground motions from earthquakes, D. Thesis, Univ. of California, San Diego Campus, USA, 125p., Diss Abstr. Int. Order No. DA-84-01885.
Thenhaus, P.C., 1986, Seismic source zones in probabilistic estimation of the earthquake ground motion hazard; a classification with key issues, Procs. Conf. XXXIV, U.S.G.S., Open-File 86-0185, pp. 53-71.
Toki, K., Sato, T. and Sato, K., 1987, Dynamic behaviour and identification of non-uniform ground by the discrete wave number method, Soil Dyn. a. Earthq. Eng., 6, No. 2, pp. 116-123.
Toriumi,* I., Ohba, S. and Murai, N., 1984, Earthquake motion characteristics of Osaka Plain, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 761-768.
Whitman, R.V., 1985, Experiments with earthquake ground motion simulation, Proc. Symp. "Applic. of centrifuge modelling to geot. design", April 1984, Manchester, UK; A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 281-299.
Yamada, Y., Noda, S. and Ohwaki, T., 1984, Evaluation of ground motion near source region during the 1979 Imperial valley earthquake, (in Japanese), Proc. Japan. Soc. Civil Eng., No. 344, pp. 303-312.
3.5 Analysis of regional seismic hazard
Acharya,* H.K., Lucks, A.S. and Christian, J.T., 1982, Seismic hazard in Northeastern United States, Procs. Soil Dyn. & Earthq. Eng., Southampton, 2, pp. 979-996.
Bell,* E.J., Trexler, D.T. & Bell, J.W., 1978, Computer simulated composite earthquake hazard model for Reno, Nevada, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. microzonation for safer construction - Research and application, 1, U.S.A., pp. 471-482.
Bender, B. and Campbell, K.W., 1989, A note on the selection of minimum magnitude for use in seismic hazard analysis, Bull. Seism. Soc. America, 79, No. 1, pp. 199-204. 8
Hays,* W.W., 1984, Technical problems in the construction of a map to zone the earthquake ground-shaking hazard in the United States, Eng. Geol., 20, pp. 13-23.
Ohta, Y., 1985, An evaluation of regional seismic risk potential in Japan as emphasized in disaster sequences, Jour. of Natural Disaster Sci., 7, No. 2, pp. 95-111.
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4. EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES ON SOILS
4.1 Liquefaction
4.1.1 General - theory
Abraham, J., Wechmann, O. and Iturbe, R., 1973, Sand liquefaction, Ingeniera, Tacuba No. 5, Mexico, 43, no. 3, pp. 255-274.
Ambraseys, N.N. and Sarma, S.K., 1969, Liquefaction of soil induced by earthquakes, Bull. Seism. Soc. of Amer., 59, No. 2, pp. 651-664.
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Berrill, J.B. and Davis, R.O., 1985, Energy dissipation and seismic liquefaction of sands: revised model, Soils a. Found., 25, No. 2, pp. 106-118.
Biot, M.A., 1941, General theory of three-dimensional consolidation, Jour. of Applied Physics, 12.
Blazquez, R.M., Krizek, R.J. and Bazant, Z.P., 1980, Site factors controlling liquefaction, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 106, No. GT7, pp. 785-801.
Bogoevski, T. and Kozovaev, K., 1984, Impact of some factors on development of deformations in sand and its liquefaction, (in Russian), Inz. geol. 6, No. 1, pp. 37-42. 9
Byrne,* P.M., 1987, Characteristic response of soil to earthquake loading, in "Earthquake Geotechnique", The Vancouver Geot. Soc., 31p.
Campanella,* R.G. and Lim, B.S., 1981, Liquefaction characteristics of undisturbed soils, Procs. Int. Conf. on Recent Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. I, pp. 227-230.
Carter, D.P. and Seed, H.B., 1988, Liquefaction potential of sand deposits under low levels of excitation, Earthquake Eng. Research Center, 1 College of Engineering, U. of California, Berkeley, CA., Rep. No. UCB/EERC-88/11, 309 p.
Casagrande, A., 1979, Liquefaction and cyclic deformation of sands, a critical review, Harvard Univ., Soil Mech. Ser., No. 88, 27p.
Castro,* G., 1987, On the behavior of soils during earthquakes - Liquefaction, in Soil Dynamics and Liquefaction, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey, in Geot. Eng., 42, pp. 169-204.
Castro,* G. and Poulos, S.J., 1977, Factors affecting liquefaction and cyclic mobility, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 103, No. GT6, pp. 501-516.
Chang,* N.Y., Yeh, S.T. and Kaufman, L.P., 1982, Liquefaction potential of clean and silty sands, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microzonation Conference, Seattle, II, pp. 1017-1032.
Chang,* P.W. and Chae, Y.S., 1987, A parametric study of effect of vibration on granular soils, in Soil Dynamics and Liquefaction, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey, in Geot. Eng., 42, pp. 137-151.
Chern, J-C., 1985, Undrained response of saturated sands with emphasis on liquefaction and cyclic mobility, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of British Columbia, Can., (Natl. Libr. Can., Ottawa).
Chou, L.Y., 1983, A probabilistic approach to evaluation of liquefaction potential, Procs. 4th Int. Conf. "Applic. Statistics a. Prob. in Soil a. Structural Eng.", Firenze, Italy, 2, pp. 1453-1464.
Chugh,* A.K. and Von Thun, J.L., 1985, Pore pressure response analysis for earthquakes, Procs. Fifth Int. Conf. on Numer. Methods in Geomechanics, Nagoya, 3, pp. 1367-1378.
Chung, K.Y. and Wong, L.H., 1982, Liquefaction potential of soils with plastic fines, Procs. Soil Dyn. and Earthquake Eng., Southampton, 2, pp. 887-897.
Costes,* N.C., Marshall, G.C. and Sture, S., 1981, The potential of in- space research on liquefaction phenomena and related spill behavior, Procs. Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. a. Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. III, pp. 929-959. 10
Das,* Braja M., 1983, Fundamentals of Soil Dynamics, Elsevier, New York, 399p.
Davis, R.O. & Berrill, J.B., 1982, Energy dissipation and seismic liquefaction in sands, Earthq. Eng. & Struct. Dynamics, 10, No. 1, pp. 59-68.
DeGregorio, V.B., 1988, The influence of grain size, grain shape and sample fabric on the static liquefaction of saturated granular materials, Ph.D. Thesis, Clarkson Univ., Potsdam, NY, 212 p.
Dezfulian,* H., 1984, Effects of silt content on dynamic properties of sandy soils, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, Prentice-Hall Inc., N.J., III, pp. 63-70.
Dikman,* S.U. and Ghaboussi, J., 1984, Effective stress analysis of seismic response and liquefaction: theory, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 110, No. GT5, pp.628-644.
Dobry, R., 1987, Some basic aspects of soil liquefaction during earthquakes, Procs. Symp. on Seismic Hazards, Ground Motions, Soil- Liq. and Eng. Practice in E. North Amer., Tuxedo, New York, Techn. Rep. NCEER-87-0025, pp. 387-402.
Dobry,* R. and Ladd, R.S., 1980, Discussion of soil liquefaction and cyclic mobility evaluation for level ground during earthquakes (1) and liquefaction potential (2): Science versus practice, (1) B. Seed, Proc. Paper 14380, (2) R.B. Peck, Proc. Paper 14418, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 106, No. GT6, pp. 720-724.
Douglas,* B.J., 1981, Discussion on "Liquefaction of Soils", Procs. Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. a. Soil Dynamics, Rolla, Missouri, Vol. III, p. 982.
Fang, H.Q., Zhao, S.D. and Huang, Z.L., 1982, Collateral effect and basic patterns of seismic liquefaction, Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Int. Ass. Eng. Geol., IAEG, Dec. 1982, New Delhi, India; A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 8, pp. 181-195.
Finn,* W.D.L., 1981, Liquefaction potential; Developments since 1976, Procs. Int. Conf. on Recent Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dynamics, Rolla, Missouri, Vol. II, pp. 655-681.
Finn,* W.D.L., 1982, Dynamic analysis and liquefaction - Emerging trends, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, Vol. II, pp. 909-927.
Finn, W.D.L., 1985, Soil liquefaction: recent developments in practice, Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. "Soil Dynamics a. Earthquake Eng.", Southampton- Woburn, MA, USA, pp. 1-43. 11
Finn, W.D., Byrne, P.M. and Martin, G.R., 1976, Seismic response and liquefaction of sands, Jour.,Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 102, No. GT8, pp. 841-856.
Finn, W.D.L., Lee, K.W., Maartman, C.H. & Lo, R., 1978, Cyclic Pore Pressure under Anisotropic Conditions, ASCE, Spec. Conf. on Earthquake Eng & Soil Dynamics, 1,
Finn,* W.D.L. and Atkinson, G.L., 1985, Probability of seismically induced liquefaction in British sector of North Sea, in Earthquake Engineering in Britain, T. Telford, London, pp. 365-377.
Frydman, S., Hendron, D., Horn, H., Steinbach, J., Baker, R. and Shaal, B., 1980, Liquefaction study of cemented sand, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 106, No. GT3, pp. 275-297.
Grant, W.P., 1988, Uncertainties in liquefaction hazard analyses, in Procs. Conf. XLII; a workshop on evaluation of earthquake hazards and risk in the Puget Sound and Portland areas, W.W. Hays, ed., USGS, OF 88-0541, pp. 171-177.
Guettler,* U., Thiel, G. and Jessberger, H.L., 1987, Cyclic hardening of sand during earthquake events, in Soil Dynamics and Liquefaction, A. Cakmak, editor, Elsevier, Dev. in Geot. Eng., 42, pp. 107-122.
Gupta, M.K. and Gangopadhyay, C.R., 1973, Liquefaction characteristics of sand clay mixtures, Symp. "Behaviour of earth and earth structures subjected to earthquakes and other dynamic loads", Univ. Roorke, India, 1, pp. 104-110.
Haldar, A. and Chern, S., 1985, Probabilistic pore pressure-induced structural damage, Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. "Soil Dynamics a. Earthquake Eng.", Southampton-Woburn, MA, USA, pp. 3-12.
Haldar,* A. and Chern, S., 1987, Anisotropy in liquefaction risk analysis, in Structures and Stochastic Methods, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dev. in Geot. Engineering, 45, pp. 385-399.
Haldar,* A. and Chern, S., 1987, Soil-structure interaction in earthquake- induced liquefaction, Procs. 5th Can. Conf. Earthquake Eng., Ottawa, pp. 493-499.
Holzer, T.L., Bennett, M., Youd, T. and Chen, A.T.F., 1986, Field investigation to identify a site for monitoring liquefaction, Cholane Valley, Calif., O.F. Report, U.S.G.S., 34p.
Imai, T., Okubo, T., Tonouchi, K. et al., 1984, Disasters due to the Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake and their relationship with soil condition, seismic motion and liquefaction, Tsuchi-to-kiso, 32, No. 9, pp. 49-52 (in Japanese). 12
Ishihara,* K., 1978, On determination of liquefaction parameters, Report of a workshop discussion, Procs. Dynamical Methods in Soil and Rock Mechanics, Karlsruhe, 1977, G. Gudehus, ed., A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 2, pp. 189-193.
Ishihara, K. and Yamazaki, A., 1984, Analysis of wave-induced liquefaction in seabed deposits of sand, Soils a. Found., 24, No. 3, pp. 85-100.
Iwabushi, J., 1986, The influence of cementation on liquefaction resistance of sands, D. Thesis, Virginia Polytech. Inst. and State Univ., Blacksburg, VA, 215 p.
Katada, T., 1987, Dynamic relative displacement between liquefied area and non-liquefied area, in Recent Adv. in Lifeline Earthq. Eng., T. Ariman, ed., Dey, in Geot. Eng., 49, pp. 51-62.
Katada, T., Hakuno, M. & Takagi, T., 1981, Numerical analysis of the effect of the local liquefaction on underground structures, Bull, of the Earthquake Research Inst., 56, 4, pp. 731-740 (in Japanese).
Katada,* T. and Hakuno, M., 1982, On-line experimental analysis of surface ground in liquefaction process, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microzonation Conference, Seattle, II, pp. 993-1004.
Kramer,* S.L. and Seed, H.B., 1988, Initiation of soil liquefaction under static loading conditions, Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 114, No. 4, pp. 412-430.
Kuribayashi, E. & Tatsuoka, F., 1975, Brief review of liquefaction during earthquakes in Japan, Soils and Found. Jour., 15, No. 4, pp. 81-92.
Lew,* M., 1984, Risk and mitigation of liquefaction hazard, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 183-190.
Lin,* C.Y.K., Smucha, S.S. and Ferris, W.R., 1982, Influence of stress history on liquefaction potential, Procs. 3rd Int. earthquake Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, Vol. II, pp. 1040-1053.
Martin,* G.R., Finn, W.D.L. and Seed, H.B., 1975, Fundamentals of liquefaction under cyclic loading, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 101, No. GT5, pp. 423-438.
Masaki,* K., Taniguchi, H. and IIda, K., 1988, Seismic ground motion and damage caused by large earthquakes in Nagoya, Japan, Procs. Natural and Man-made Hazards, M.I. El-Sabh and T.S. Murty, eds., D. Reidel Publishing, pp. 81-93.
Midorikawa,* S. and Wakamatsu, K., 1988, Intensity of earthquake ground motion at liquefied sites, Soils and Foundations, 28, No. 2, pp. 73- 84. 13
Mohamad, R. and Dobry, R., 1983, Discussion on "Effect of static shear on resistance to liquefaction", Soils a. Found., 23, No. 4, pp. 139-143.
Mon, K., 1977, Factors affecting the liquefaction characteristics of sands, D. Thesis, Univ. California, Berkeley Campus, 216p.
Morris, D.V., 1983, A note on earthquake-induced liquefaction, Géotechnique, 33, No. 4, pp. 451-454.
Nemat-Nasser,* S. and Takahashi, K., 1984, Liquefaction and fabric of sand, J. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 110, No. GT9, pp. 1291-1306. Peck,* R.B., 1979, Liquefaction potential: Science versus practice, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 105, No. GT3, pp. 393-398, Proc. Paper 14418.
Perlea, V. and Perlea, M., 1984, Dynamic stability of sandy soils (in Romanian), Editura-Technica, Bucharest, Romania, 336p.
Peterson,* I., 1985, Liquid sand; the liquidlike behavior of soils during major earthquakes causes considerable damage, Science News (Wash.), 128, No. 15, pp. 234-235, 238.
Prakash,* S. and Puri, V.K., 1982, Liquefaction of loessial soils, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, II, pp.1101-1107.
Prévost, J.H. and Abdel-Ghaffar, A.M., 1985, Non-linear hysteretic dynamic response of soil systems, Jour. Eng. Mech., Proc. ASCE 111, No. EM6, pp. 696-713.
Puri, V.K., 1984, Liquefaction behaviour and dynamic properties of loessial (silty) soils, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Missouri, Rolla, Miss., 320 p. (Diss. Abstr. Int. Order-No. DA-84-24813).
Pyke, R.M., Knupple, L.A. and Lee, K.L., 1978, Liquefaction potential of hydraulic fills, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 104, No. GT11, pp. 1335-1354, Proc. Paper 14133.
Rinne,* E.E., 1987, Assessing the effects of potential liquefaction - A practising engineer's perspective, in Soil Dynamics and Liquefaction, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey, in Geot. Engineering, 42, pp. 245-251.
Rollins, K.M., 1987, The influence of buildings on potential liquefaction damage, Doct. Thesis, Univ. of Calif., Berkeley, CA., 385p.
Seed,* H.B., 1977, Evaluation of soil liquefaction effects on level ground during earthquakes - state-of-the-art, ASCE Ann. Conv., Philadelphia, sept. 76, Preprint No. 2752, pp. 1-104.
Seed,* H.B., 1979, Soil liquefaction and cyclic mobility evaluation for level ground during earthquakes, Jour. Geot. Eng. div., Proc. ASCE 105, No. GT2, pp. 201-255, Proc. Paper 14380. 14
Seed, H.B., 1983, Recent developments in the evaluation of soil liquefaction, Fourth annual ISET lecture, Bull. Indian Soc. of Earthquake Technology, 20, Nos. 3-4, pp. 53-77.
Seed,* H.B., 1986, Design problems in soil liquefaction, Report No. UCB/EERC-86/02.
Seed, H.B. et al., 1972, Soil condition and building damage in 1967 Caracas earthquake, ASCE, Jour. Soil Mech. and Found. Div., 98, No. 8, pp. 787-806.
Seed, H.B. and Idriss, I.M., 1967, Analysis of soil liquefaction: Niigata earthquake, Jour. Soil Mech. and Found. Div., ASCE, No. SM3, pp. 83- 107.
Seed,* H.B. and Idriss, I.M., 1982, Ground Motions and Soil Liquefaction during Earthquakes, Earthq. Eng. Research Inst., California, 134p.
Seed, H.B., Mori, K. and Chan, C.K., 1977, Influence of seismic history on liquefaction of sands, Jour. Geot. Eng. div., Proc. ASCE 103, No. GT4, pp. 257-270.
Seed,* R.B. and Jong, H., 1987, Factors affecting post liquefaction strength assessment, Procs. 5th Can. Conf. Earthquake Eng., Ottawa, pp. 483-492.
Sherif, M.A., Ishibashi, I. and Tsuchiya, C., 1977, Saturation effects on initial soil liquefaction, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 103, No. GT8, Techn. note, pp. 914-917.
Sherif,* M.A. and Ishibashi, I., 1979, Prediction of soil liquefaction during earthquakes, Procs. 2nd U.S. Nat. Conf. on Earthquake Eng., Stanford, California, pp. 1036-1046.
Soydemir,* C., 1982, Liquefaction and related effects for microzonation, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf. Seattle, US, Vol. II, pp. 1121- 1128.
Suzuki, T. and Yoki, S., 1984, Effects of preshearing on liquefaction characteristics of saturated sand subjected to cyclic loading, Soils a. Found., 24, No. 2, pp. 16-28.
Tatsuoka, F., 1983, Discussion on "Effect of static shear on resistance to liquefaction", Soils a. Found., 23, No. 3, pp. 130-133.
Taylor, R.K. and Morrell, G.R., 1979, Fine-grained colliery discard and its susceptibility to liquefaction and flow under cyclic stress, Eng. Geol., 14, No. 4, pp. 219-229. 15
Tonouchi,* K., 1984, Effects of liquefaction on damage to wooden houses during earthquakes, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, CA, Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 215-222.
Towhata,* I. and Islam, S., 1987, Prediction of lateral displacement of anchored bulkheads induced by seismic liquefaction, Soils a. Found., 27, No. 4, pp. 137-147.
Vaid, Y.P. and Finn, W.D.L., 1979, Static shear and liquefaction potential, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 105, No. GT10, pp. 1233- 1246.
Vaid, Y.P. and Chern, J.C., 1985, Effect of static shear on resistance to liquefaction; closure, Soils and Foundations, 25, No. 3, pp. 154-156.
Watanabe, S., Haryu, T., Kutsuzawa, S. and Kaji, Y., 1984, The relationship between the phenomenon of liquefaction and the soil condition in the Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake, (in Japanese), Tsuchi- to-Kiso, 32, No. 9, pp. 35-40.
Whitman,* R.V., 1971, Resistance of soil to liquefaction and settlement, Soils and Found., 11, No. 4, pp. 59-68.
Whitman,* R.V., 1978, Effective peak acceleration, Frocs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., Vol. III, pp. 1247-1255.
Whitman,* R.V., 1985, On liquefaction, Procs. 11th ICSMFE, San Francisco, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 4, pp. 1923-1926.
Whitman, R.V., 1987, Liquefaction; the state of the art, Bull. New Zealand Soc. for Earthq. Eng., 20, No. 3, pp. 145-158.
Whitman, R.V. and Lambe, P.C., 1982, Liquefaction: Consequences for a structure, Procs. Soil Dyn. a. Earthquake Eng. Conf., Southampton, 2, Pp. 941-949.
Yasuda,* S. and Tohno, I., 1988, Sites of reliquefaction caused by the 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake, Soils and Foundations, 28, No. 2, pp. 61-72.
Yoshimi, Y. and Tsuchi-To-Kiso, 1985, Liquefaction of sand deposits, Soil Mech. and Found. Eng., 33, No. 8, pp. 3-8.
Zen,* K., Umehara, Y. and Ohneda, H., 1985, Evaluation of drainage effect in sand liquefaction, Frocs. 11th ICSMFE, San Francisco, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 4, pp. 1931-1934.
Zienkiewicz, O.C. and Shiomi, T., 1984, Dynamic behaviour of saturated porous media; the generalized Biot formulation and its numerical solution, Int. J. Analyt. Methods Geomech., 8, No. 1, pp. 71-96. 16
4.1.2 Behavior of liquefiable soils
Alarcon-Guzman, A., 1986, Cyclic stress-strain and liquefaction characteristics of sands; (volumes I and II), Doct. Thesis, Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN.
Alarcon-Guzman, A., Leonards, G.A. and Chameau, J.L., 1988, Undrained monotonic and cyclic strength of sands, Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 114, No. 10, pp. 1089-1109. Finn,* W.D.L. and Bhatia, S.K., 1981, Prediction of seismic porewater pressures,Procs. X ICSMFE, Stockholm, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 3, pp. 201-206. Godecke, H.J., 1977, Liquefaction impulse loads on cohesive soils, (in German), Vortr. Baugrundtag. Dt. Ges. Erd-u. Grundb., Nurnberg, F.R. Germany, pp. 71-113.
Harp, E.L., Sarmiento, J. and Cranswick, E., 1984, Seismic-induced pore- water pressure records from the Mammoth lakes, California, earthquake sequence of 25 to 27 May 1980, Seism. Soc. Amer., Bull., 74, No. 4, pp. 1381-1393.
Hatanaka, M., Sugimoto, M. and Suzuki, Y., 1985, Liquefaction resistance of two alluvial volcanic soils sampled by in situ freezing, Soils and Found., 25, No. 3, pp. 49-63.
Holzer,* T.L., Youd, T.L. and Bennett, M.J., 1989, In Situ Measurement of Pore Pressure Build-Up During Liquefaction, Procs. 20th Joint Meeting of the U.S.-Japan Coop. Program in Nat. Res., Panel on Wind and Seismic effects, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NIST SP 760, pp. 118-130.
Holzer, T.L., Youd, T.L. & Hanks, T.C., 1989, Dynamics of liquefaction during the 1987 Superstition Hills, California, earthquake, Science, 244, No. 4900, pp. 56-59. Ishibashi,* I., Sherif, M.A. and Cheng, W.L., 1981, Effect of material properties on soil liquefaction, Procs. Int. Conf. on Recent Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. I, pp. 231- .
Ishihara,* K., 1977, Pore water pressure response and liquefaction of sand deposits during earthquakes, Procs. of DSMR 77, Karlsruhe, 2, pp. 161-188. Ishihara,* K., 1981, Measurements of insitu pore water pressures during earthquakes, Procs. Int. Conf. on Recent Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. I, pp. 523-528. Ishihara,* K., 1981, Pore water pressure rise during earthquakes, Procs. Int. Conf. on rec. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. III, pp. 1201-1204. 17
Ishihara, K., Sodekawa, M. and Tanaka, Y., 1978, Effects of overconsolidation on liquefaction characteristics of sands containing fines, ASTM Spec. Techn. Publ. No. STP654, pp. 246-264.
Ishihara, K. and Takatsu, H., 1979, Effects of overconsolidation and Ko condition on the liquefaction characteristics of sands, Soil and Found., 19, No. 4, pp. 60-68.
Katsikas,* C.A. and Wylie, E.B., 1982, Soil liquefaction with 2-D pore pressure variations, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microzonation Conference, Seattle, II, pp. 1005-1016. Maslov, N.N. and Ivanov, P.L., 1985, Liquefaction conditions for saturated cohesionless soils, Procs. 11th ICSMFE, San Francisco, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 4, pp. 1905-1908.
Nakamura,* S., Ishihara, K., Tabita, Y. and Yanagisawa, 1985, Effect of surface wave on the liquefaction potential of saturated sandy deposits, Procs. Fifth Int. Conf. on Numerical Methods in Geomechanics, Nagoya, 3, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 1379-1386.
O-Hara, S., Kotsubo, S., and Yamamoto, T., 1985, Pore pressure developed in saturated sand subjected to cyclic shear stress under partial- drainage conditions, Soils and Found., 25, No. 2, pp. 45-56.
Oka, F., 1984, Prediction of pore water pressure during earthquakes in southern Kyoto area, Japan, Proc. Int. Conf. "Case Histories in Geotechn. Eng.", St. Louis, MO, Missouri-Rolla Univ., 1, pp. 469-474.
Sato,* T., Shibata, T. and Kosaka, M., 1980, Dynamic behaviour and liquefaction of saturated sandy soil, Proc. Int. Symp. "Soils under cyclic a. transient loading", Swansea, UK, A.A. Balkema, 2, pp. 523- 532.
Seed, H.B., Martin, P.P. and Lysmer, J., 1976, Pore-water pressure changes during soil liquefaction, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 102, No. GT4, pp. 323-346. Tatsuoka,* F., Maeda, S., Ochi, K. and Fujii, S., 1986, Prediction of cyclic undrained strength of sand subjected to irregular loadings, Soils and Foundations, 26, No. 2, pp. 73-90.
Vaid,* Y.P., Byrne, P.M. and Hughes, J.M.O., 1981, Dilation angle and liquefaction potential, Procs. Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. a. Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. I, pp. 161-165. Vaid,* Y.P., Chern, J.C. and Tumi, N., 1983, Effect of confining pressure and particle angularity on resistance to liquefaction, Procs. 4th Can. Conf. Earthquake Eng., Vancouver, pp. 341-351. 18
Vaid,* Y.P., Chern, J.C. and Tumi, H., 1985, Confining pressure, grain angularity, and liquefaction, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 111, No. GT10, Techn. Note, pp. 1229-1235.
Vucetic, M., 1986, Pore pressure buildup and liquefaction at level sandy sites during earthquakes, Ph.D. Thesis, Rennselaer Polytech. Inst., Troy, NY, 665 p. (from Univ. Microfilms).
Wang,* W.S., 1981, Saturated sands under cyclic loading, Procs. X ICSMFE, Stockholm, 3, pp. 323-326..
Yanagisawa,* E., Ohmiya, H. and Shimizu, T., 1987, Seismic response of pore water pressure in surface sand layer, in Soil Dynamics and Liquefaction, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey, in Geot. Engineering, 42, pp. 221-229.
Yokel,* F.Y., Dobry, R., Powell, D.J. et al., 1980, Liquefaction of sands during earthquakes - the cyclic strain approach, Proc. Int. Symp. "Soils under cyclic a. transient loading", Swansea, UK, A.A. Balkema, 2, pp. 571-580.
Yoshimi, Y., 1977, Liquefaction and cyclic deformation of soils under undrained conditions, State-of-the-Art Report, Procs. 9th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. and Found. Eng., Tokyo, 2, pp. 613-623.
Zeevaert, L., 1983, Seismic pore water pressure analysis confronted with field measurements in fine sand, Soils a. Found., 23, No. 4, pp. 119- 126. 4.1.3 Laboratory tests
Alba,* P. De., Seed, H.B. and Chan, C.K., 1976, Sand liquefaction in large-scale simple shear tests, J. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 102, No. GT9, pp. 909-927.
Amato, V.E. and Wolfe, W.E., 1986, Large scale liquefaction tests on saturated sand, Procs. 8th European Conf. on Earthq. Eng., 2, pp. 5.3/17-5.3/24.
Baldi, G. and Nova, R., 1984, Effects of the membrane penetration on the R liquefaction tests, (Italian), ISMES News, No. 196, 12p.
Dierichs, D. and Forster, W., 1985, Results of liquefaction tests under static conditions, Proc. XI Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., San Francisco, USA, A.A. Balkema, 2, pp. 437-441.
El Hosri,* M.S., Biarez, J. and Hicher, P.Y., 1984, Liquefaction characteristics of silty clay, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, Ca, Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 277-284. 19
Ferritto, J.M., Forrest, J.B. and Wu, G., 1979, A compilation of cyclic triaxial liquefaction test data, ASTM Geot. Test Jour., 2, No. 2, pp. 106-113.
Finn,* W.D.L., Yogendrakumar, M., Yoshida, N. and Yoshida, H., 1987, Analysis of porewater pressures in seismic centrifuge tests, in Soil Dynamics and Liquefaction, A. Cakmak, editor, Elsevier, Dev. in Geot. Eng., 42, pp. 71-85.
Hatanaka,* M., Suzuki, Y., Kawasaki, T. and Endo, M., 1988, Cyclic undrained shear properties of high quality undisturbed Tokyo gravel, Soils and Foundations, 28, No. 4, pp. 57-68.
Ho, C.L., Sarmiento, J.S. and Kavazanjian, E., 1988, Stabilization of liquefiable samples during transport, ASTM Geot. Testing Jour., 11, No. 1, pp. 72-74.
Ishihara,* K. and Yamada, Y., 1981, Liquefaction tests using a true triaxial apparatus, Procs. X ICSMFE, Stockholm, 3, pp. 235-238.
Koga,* Y., Taniguchi, E., Koseki, J. and Morishita, T., 1989, Sand liquefaction tests using a geotechnical dynamic centrifuge, Procs. 20th Joint Meeting of the U.S.-Japan Coop. Program in Nat. Res., Panel on Wind and Seismic effects, U.S. DEpt. of Commerce, NIST SP 760, pp. 110-117.
Kuerbis,* R. and Vaid, Y.P., 1988, Sand sample preparation - The slurry deposition method, Soils and Foundations, 28, No. 4, pp. 107-118.
Martin,* G.R., Finn, W.D.L. and Seed, H.B., 1978, Effects of system compliance on liquefaction tests, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 104, No.GT4, pp. 463-479.
Mori,* H. 1986, Recent development in sampling of granular soils in Japan, Procs. 4th Int. Geot. Seminar, Singapore, pp. 13-20.
Mori,* K., Seed, H.B. and Chan, C.K., 1978, Influence of sample disturbance on sand response to cyclic loading, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 104, No. GT3, pp. 323-339.
Morris,* D.V., 1983, An apparatus for investigating earthquake-induced liquefaction experimentally, Can. Geot. Jour., 20, No. 4, pp. 840- 845.
0-Hara,* S. and Yamamoto, T., 1984, Experimental study on liquefaction of saturated soils using a shaking table, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, Prentice-Hall, III, pp. 143-150.
Raju,* V.S. and Venkataramana, K., 1980, Undrained triaxial tests to assess liquefaction potential of sands - effect of membrane penetration, Proc. Int. Symp. "Soils under cyclic and transient loading", Swansea, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 2, pp. 483-494. 20
Symes,* M.J., Shibuya, S., Hight, D.W. and Gens, A., 1985, Liquefaction with cyclic principal stress rotation, Frocs. 11th ICSMFE, San Francisco, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 4, pp. 1919-1922.
Tokimatsu, K. and Yoshimi, Y., 1982, Liquefaction of sand due to multidirectional shear, Soils and Foundations, 22, No. 3, pp. 126- 130.
Tokimatsu,* K. and Nakamura, K., 1986, A liquefaction test without membrane penetration effects, Soils and Folindations,-26, No. 4, pp. 127-138.
Tokimatsu,* K. and Nakamura, K., 1987, A simplified correction for membrane compliance in liquefaction tests, Soils and Foundations, 27, No. 4, pp. 111-122.
Tseng, R.J.Y., 1974, A study of liquefaction of sand by torsion shear test, D. Thesis, Univ. Kentucky, Lexington, 135p.
Wang,* W.S., Chang, Y.B. and Zuo, X.H., 1984, Liquefaction characteristics of saturated sand-gravels under vibration and cyclic loading, Procs. 8' World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, CA, Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 269-276.
Yoshimi,* Y., Hatanaka, M., Oh-Oka, H. and Makihara, Y., 1985, Liquefaction of sands sampled by in situ freezing, Procs. 11th ICSMFE, San Francisco, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 4, pp. 1927-1930. 4.1.4 The liquefaction potential 4.1.4.1 Determination - Methods 4.1.4.1.1 Shear waves measurements
Abbis, C.P., 1981, Shear wave measurements of the elasticity of the ground, Géotechnique, 31, No. 1, pp. 91-104.
Abbis, C.P. and Ashby, K.D., 1983, Determination of ground moduli by a seismic noise technique on land and on the sea bed, Géotechnique, 33, No. 4, pp. 445-450.
Alba,* P. de., Baldwin, K., Janoo, V., Roe, G. and Celikkol, B., 1984, Elastic-wave velocities and liquefaction potential, ASTM Geot. Test Jour., 7, No 2, pp. 77-87.
Anderson,* D.G. and Richart, F.E.,Jr., 1974, Temperature effect on shear wave velocity in clays, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div. ASCE, 100, No. GT12, pp. 1316-1320.
Andréasson,* B.A., 1981, Dynamic deformation characteristics of a soft clay, Procs. Int. Conf. on Rec. Advances in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dynamics, Rolla, Missouri, 1, pp. 65-70. 21
Bertrand, Y., Bozetto, P., Lakshamanan, J. and Sanchez, M., 1987, The use of the Sheargun and Sismopressiomètre in seismic studies, First Break, 5, No. 9, pp. 335-342.
Bodare,* A. and Massarsch, K.R., 1984, Determination of shear wave velocity by different cross-hole methods, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, Prentice-Hall, III, pp. 39-45.
Brabham,* P.J. and Goulty, N.R., 1988, Seismic refraction profiling of rockhead in the Coal Measures of northern England, Quart. Jour. of Eng. Geology, London, 21, pp. 201-206.
Brunson, B.A. & Johnson, R.K., 1980, Laboratory measurements of shear wave attenuation in saturated sand, Jour. of the Acoustical Soc. of Amer., 68, 5, pp. 1371-1375.
Carillo, O.R., 1985, Seismic risk assessment in Venezuela, in Special Issue for 4th Seminar on Seismology and Earthq. Eng., Bull. of the Int. Inst. of Seism. and Earthq. Eng., 21, pp. 115-124.
Crice, Douglas, , Shear Waves, Techniques and Systems, Geometrics/Nimbus, CA., 30 p.
Ershov, I.A., 1965, Comparison of seismic wave velocities in the soils with amplitudes and periods of the ground vibrations for seismic microzoning, Procs. Inst. Phys. Earth, No. 36, Moscow, p. 203.
Feng, G.D., Zhang, B.S., Qian, B.S., Zhao, L.Z. and Rimoldi, H.V., 1986, Applications of elastic wave in engineering geological investigations, Procs. fifth Int. Cgr., I.A.E.G., Buenos Aires, 5, no. 1, pp. 347-353.
Gazetas, G. and Yegian, M.K., 1979, Shear and Rayleigh waves in soil dynamics, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Procs. ASCE 105, No. GT12, pp. 1455- 1470.
Hamilton,* E.L., 1976, Shear-wave velocity versus depth in marine sediments: A review, Geophysics, 41, No. 5, pp. 985-996.
Hardin,* B.O. and Richart, F.E., 1963, Elastic wave velocities in granular soils, Jour. Soil Mech. a. Found. Div., Procs. ASCE, 89, No. SM1, pp. 33-65.
Hoar, R.J., 1982, Field measurement of seismic wave velocity and attenuation for dynamic analyses, Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. of Texas, Austin, TX, USA, 524p.
Hoar,* R.J. and Stokoe, K.H., 1981, Crosshole measurement and analysis of shear waves, Procs. X ICSMFE, Stockholm, 3, pp. 223-226. 22
Hoar,* R.J. and Stokoe, K.H., 1984, Field and laboratory measurements of material damping of soil in shear, Procs. 8th World. Conf. en Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 47-54. Imai,* T., 1977, P- and S-wave velocities of the ground in Japan, 9th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. a. Found. Engineering, Tokyo, 2, pp. 257-260. Imai, T. and Tonouchi, K., 1980, Determining dynamic deformation characteristics of soils by in-situ measurements and laboratory testing, Procs. 7th W. Conf. on Earthquake Eng., Istanbul, 3, No. 7, pp. 289-296.
Jones,* R., 1958, In-situ measurement of the dynamic properties of soil by vibration methods, Geotechnique, 8, pp. 1-21. Kudo,* K. and Shima, E., 1970, Attenuation of shear waves in soil, Bull. Earthquake Research Inst., 48, pp. 145-158.
Larkin,* T .J. and Taylor, P.W., Comparison of down-hole and laboratory shear wave velocities, Can. Geot. Jour., 16, pp. 152-162. Lawrence, F.V., 1965, Ultrasonic shear wave velocities in sand and clay, Dept. of Civil Eng., MIT Research Report R65-05, Soils Publ. No. 175.
Liu,* H.P., Warrick, R.E., Westerlund, R.E., Fletcher, J.B. and Maxwell, G.L., 1988, An air-powered impulsive shear-wave source with repeatable signals, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 78, No. 1, pp. 355-369.
Marcuson,* W.F., Ballard, R.F. and Cooper, S.S., 1978, Comparison of penetration resistance values to in situ shear wave velocities, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microz. for Safer Construction - Res. a. Appl., San Francisco, vol. II, pp. 1013-1023.
McEvilly,* T.V. and Clymer, R.W., 1981, In-situ seismic wave velocity monitoring, U.S.G.S., 0 E-81-0285, 9p. ($11).
Miller, C.H. and Odum, J.K., 1986, A review of concepts and techniques for obtaining shear-wave velocities from measured Rayleigh- and compressional-wave velocities at engineering sites, Bull. Ass. of Eng. Geol., 23, No. 3, pp. 317-324.
Moony, F.M., 1973, Shear waves in Engineering Seismology, Handbook of Engineering Geophysics, Bison Instruments.
Moony, F.M., 1974, Seismic shear waves in engineering, Jour. of Geot. Eng. Div., Procs. ASCE 100, No. GT8, pp.905-923.
Murphy,* V.J., 1978, Geophysical engineering investigative techniques for site characterization, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, California, 1, pp. 153-178. 23
Nacci, V.A., and Taylor, R.J., 1968, Influence of clay structure on elastic wave velocities, Albuquerque, N. Mexico, Univ. New Mexico Press, pp. 491-502.
Nakagawa, K., Shimizu, K., Nirei, H., Tohno, I., Aoki, S. and Momikura, Y., 1986, A proposal to evaluate liquefaction resistance by development of a new in-situ testing technique, in Urban Geology and Ground Liquefaction, Hem. Geol. Soc. of Japan, 27, pp. 169-180, (in Japanese).
Nazarian,* S. and Stokoe, K.H., 1984, In situ shear wave velocities from spectral analysis of surface waves, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Engineering, San Francisco, Prentice-Hall, III, 31-38.
Nishio,* S. and Tamaoki, K., 1988, Measurement of shear wave velocities in diluvial gravel samples under triaxial conditions, Soils a. Found., 28, No. 2, pp. 35-48.
Ohsaki, Y. and Iwasaki, R., 1973, On dynamic shear moduli and Poisson's ratio of soil deposits, Soils and Foundations, 13, No. 4, pp. 61-73.
Ohta, T., Hara, A., Niwa, M. and Sakano, T., 1972, Elastic moduli of soil deposits estimated by N-values, Procs. 7th Annual Conf., The Japanese Soc. of Soil Mech. a. Found. Eng., (in Japanese).
Ohta,* Y., Goto, N., Yamamizu, F. and Takahashi, H., 1980, S-wave velocity measurements in deep soil deposit and bedrock by means of an elaborated down-hole method, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 70, No. 1, pp. 363-377.
Omi, M. and Kaneko, K., 1984, Experimental study on generation of SH waves by the plank hammering technique, Tsuchi-to-kiso, 32, No. 12 (in Japanese).
Ohya, S. and Clemence, S.P., 1986, In Situ P and S wave velocity measurement, Procs. In Situ '86, A Specialty Conference; Use of In Situ Tests in Geotechnical Engineering", 6, pp. 1218-1235. Richart,* F.E., 1975, Some effects of dynamic soil properties on soil- structure interaction, Jour. Geot. Eng., Procs. ASCE, 101, No. GT12, pp. 1197-1240.
Richart, F.E., (1977), Dynamic stress-strain relationships for soils, State-of-the-art Report, Procs. 9th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. & Found. Eng., Tokyo, 2, pp. 605-612.
Robertson, P.K., Campanella, R.G., Gillespie, D. and Rice, A., 1985, Seismic CPT to measure in-situ shear wave velocity, Procs . Special Session on Measurement and Use of Shear Wave Velocity, pp . 34-48.
Robertson,* P.K., Campanella, R.G., Gillespie, D. and Rice, A. , 1986, Seismic CPT to measure in situ shear wave velocity, Jour. Geot. Eng., 112, No. 8, pp. 791-803. 24
Rodrigues,* L.F., 1981, Shear wave studies by crosshole method, Procs. X ICSMFE, Stockholm, 3, pp. 283-286.
Schwarz,* S.D. and Musser, J.M., 1972, Various techniques for making in situ shear wave velocity measurements -- A description and evaluation, Procs. of the lut. Conf. on Microzonation for Safer Construction, Research and Application, Vol. 2, Seattle, WA, pp. 593- 608.
Shou, P., Liu, Z. and Xu, Y., 1980, Application of shear wave velocity on seismic microzoning, Procs. 7th W. Conf. on Earthq. Eng., Istanbul, 1, pp. 163-168. Sires, P.C., 1987, Shear-wave velocity and attenuation analysis of liquefiable soils in the south Truckee Meadows, Washoe County, Nevada, M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of Nevada, Reno, 157 p. Stokoe, K.H. and Richart, F.E. Jr., 1973, In situ and laboratory shear wave velocities, 8th Int. Conf. on Soil Mech. and Found. Eng., 1.2, pp. 403-409. Stokoe, K.H. & Woods, R.D., 1972, In Situ Shear Wave Velocity by Crosshole Method, Jour. of the Soil Mech. and Found. Div., Procs., ASCE, vol. 98, No. SM5, pp. 443-460. Tokimatsu,* K., Yamazaki, T. and Yoshimi, Y., 1986, Soil liquefaction evaluation by elastic shear moduli, Soils a. Found., 26, No. 1, pp. 25-35. Tonouchi,* K., Sakayama, T. & Imai, T, 1983, S wave velocity in the ground and the damping factor, Bull. I.A.E.G., Paris, Nos. 26-27, pp. 327- 334.
Wilson, R.C., Warrick, R.E. and Bennett, M.J., 1978, Seismic velocities of San Francisco Bayshore sediments, ASCE, pp. 1016-1023.
Wong, I.H., and Clemence, S.P., 1986, Analysis of liquefaction potential by insitu testing, Procs. "In Situ '86; A Specialty Conference; Use of In Situ Tests in Geotechnical Engineering", 6, pp. 1050-1062.
Woods, R.D., ed., 1985, Measurement and use of shear wave velocity for evaluating dynamic soil properties, Amer. Soc. civ. Eng., 78p.
, Woods, R.D. and Stokoe, K.H., 1985, Shallow seismic exploration in soil dynamics, Richart Commemorative Lectures, Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., pp. 120-156.
Wu,* S., Gray, D.H. and Richart, F.E., 1984, Capillary effects on dynamic modulus of sands and silts, Jour. Geot. Eng., 110, No. 9, pp. 1188- 1203. 25
Wyllie,* M.R.J., Gardner, G.H.F. and Gregory, A.R., 1962, Studies of elastic wave attenuation in porous media, Geophysics, 27, No. 5, pp. 569-589.
4.1.4.1.2 SPT test
Alarcon,* A., Leonards, G.A., Arulanandan, K., Muraleetharan, K., De Alba, P., Dennis, N.D., Kutter, B.L., Pilecki, T.J., Pyke, R., Poulos, S.J., Castro, G. and France, J.W., 1988, Liquefaction evaluation procedure; Discussions and Closure, Jour. Geot. Eng., Procs, ASCE 114, No. 2, pp. 232-259.
Bazaraa, A.R., 1982, Standard penetration test, Found. Eng., 1, pp. 65-72.
Bennett, M.J. et al., 1979, Subsurface investigation of liquefaction, Imperial Valley Earthquake, California, U.S. Geol. Survey, Open-File Report 81-502,
Bergdahl, U. and Eriksson, U., 1983, Estimation of soil characteristics from penetration test results - a literature survey (in Swedish), Stat. Geot. Inst., Rapp., No. 22, 96p.
Broms,* B.B., 1986, Penetration tests, Procs. 4th Int. Geot. Seminar, Field Instr. and In-Situ Measurements, Singapore, pp. 21-49.
Cattanach,* J.D., 1987, Liquefaction evaluation of a dam founded on slide debris using Becker penetration tests, in "Earthquake Geotechnique", The Vancouver Geotechnical Society, 18p.
Chen, A.T.F., 1984, PETALS; penetration testing and liquefaction, an interactive computer program, USGS, Open-File Report No. 84-0290, 24 p.
Chen,* A.T.F., 1988, PETAL3: Penetration testing and liquefaction; an interactive computer program, USGS, Open-File Report No. OF 88-540, 34 p . Chin,* C.T., Duann, S.W. and Kao, T., 1988, SPT-CPT correlations for granular soils, Procs. First Int. Symp. on Penetration Testing/ISOPT- 1, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 2, pp. 335-339.
Corté, J.F., 1982, Liquéfaction et essais de pénétration S.P.T., Bull , de liaison Lab. Ponts et Chaussées, Paris, No. 122, pp. 103-113.
Dezfulian,* H. and Prager, S.R., 1978, Use of penetration data for evaluation of liquefaction potential, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., Vol. II, pp. 873-884.
Formazin, J. and Hausner, H., 1985, Correlations between soil parameters and penetration testing results, Proc. XI Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., San Francisco, USA, A.A. Balkema, 2, pp. 459-463. 26
Hynes-Griffin,* M.E. and Franklin, A.G., 1989, Overburden Correction for Blowcounts in Gravels, Procs. 20th Joint Meeting of the U.S.-Japan Coop. Program in Nat. Res., Panel on Wind and Seismic effects, N.J. Raufaste, ed., U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NIST SP 760, pp. 100-109.
Kasim,* A.G., Chu, M.Y. and Jensen, C.N., 1986, Field correlation of cone and Standard Penetration tests, Jour. Geot. Eng., 112, No. 3, pp. 368-372.
Kokusho,* T., Yoshida, Y. and Nagasaki, K., 1985, Liquefaction strength evaluation of dense sand layer, Procs. 11th ICSMFE, San Francisco, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 4, pp. 1897-1900.
Kovacs,* W.D., Yokel, F.Y., Salomone, L.A. and Holtz, R.D., 1984, Liquefaction potential and the international SPT, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, CA, Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 263-268.
Larrière, A., 1982, Static and dynamic penetration tests, Found. Eng., 1, pp. 55-64.
Liao,* S.C. and Whitman, R., 1986, Overburden correction factors for SPT in sand, Jour. Geot. Eng., 112, No. 3, pp. 373-377.
Liao,* S.C., Veneziano, D. and Whitman, R.V., 1987, Regression models for evaluating liquefaction probability, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE, 114, No.4, pp. 389-411.
Marcuson,* W.F. and Bieganousky, W.A., 1976, Laboratory Standard Penetration Tests on fine sands, in "Liquefaction problems in geotechnical engineering", Ann. Conv. ASCE, Philadelphia, Preprint 2752, pp. 255-284.
Maugeri,* M. and Carrubba, P., 1985, Microzoning using SPT data, Procs. 11th ICSMFE, San Francisco, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 4, pp. 1831- 1836.
Nishiyama, H. et al., 1977, Practical method of predicting sand liquefaction, Proc. 9th Int. Conf. on Soil Mech. and Found. Eng., Tokyo, 2, pp. 305-308.
Ohsaki, Y., 1970, Effects of sand compaction on liquefaction during the Tokachi-Oki earthquake, Soils and Foundations, Vol. X, No. 2.
Ohsaki, Y., 1972, Japanese Microzonation Methods, Procs. Int. Conf. on Microzonation, 1, pp. 161-182.
Poulos,* S.J., Castro, G. and France, J.W., 1985, Liquefaction evaluation procedure, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE, 111, No. GT6, pp. 772- 792. 27
Robertson,* P.K., Campanella, R.G. and Wightman, A., 1983, SPT-CPT Correlations, Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 109, No. 11, pp. 1449-1459.
Schmertmann, J.H., 1978, Use SPT to measure dynamic soil properties, ASTM Spec. Tech. Publ., No. STP 654, pp. 341-355.
Schmertmann, J.H., Tavenas, F.A. and Zolkov, E., 1972, Simplified procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction potential, Disc. of Procs. Paper 8371, ASCE, Soil Mech. and Found. Div., No. SM 4.
Seed, H.B. and Peacock, W.H., 1971, Test procedure for measuring soil liquefaction characteristics, Jour. Soil Mech. and Found. Eng. Div., ASCE, 97, No. SM8.
Seed, Bolton, H., Idriss, I.M. and Arango, I., 1983, Evaluation of liquefaction potential using field performance data, Jour. Geot. Eng., (ASCE), 109, No.3, pp. 458-482.
Seed,* H.B., Tokimatsu, K., Harder, L.F. and Chung, R.M., 1984, The influence of SPT procedures in soil liquefaction resistance evaluations, Univ. of California, Report No. UCB/EERC-84-15.
Seed, H.B., Tokimatsu, K., Harder, L.F. and Chung, R.M., 1985, Influence of SPT procedures in soil liquefaction resistance evaluations, Jour. of Geot. Eng., 111, No. 12, pp. 1425-1445.
Skempton, A.W., 1986, Standard penetration test procedures and the effects in sands of overburden pressure, relative density, particle size, ageing and overconsolidation, Géotechnique, 36, No. 3, pp. 425-447.
Soydemir,* C., 1987, Liquefaction criteria for New England considering local SPT practice and fines content, Procs. 5th Can. Conf. Earthquake Eng., Ottawa, pp. 519-525.
Soydemir,* C. , 1987, Liquefaction criteria for New England: A design engineer s overview, Procs. Symposium on Seismic Hazards, Ground Motions, Soil-Liquefaction and Engineering Practice in Eastern North America, NCEER, Buffalo, Techn. Rep. NCEER-87-0025, pp. 433-438.
Soydemir,* C. and LeCount, P.L., 1984, Foundation design for potential liquefaction: A case study, Procs. 8Th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 191-198.
Tatsuoka, F., Iwasaki, T., Tokida, K., Yasuda, S., Hirose, M., Imai, T. and Kon-no, M., 1980, Standard Penetration Tests and soil liquefaction potential evaluation, Soils and Found., 20, No. 4, pp. 95-111.
Tokimatsu,* K., 1988, Penetration tests for dynamic problems, Procs. First Int. Symp. on Penetration Testing/ISOPT-1, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 2, pp. 117-136. 28
Tokimatsu, K. and Hosaka, Y., 1986, Effects of sample disturbance on dynamic properties of sand, Soils a. Found., 26, No. 1, pp. 53-64.
Tokimatsu,* K. and Yoshimi, Y., 1981, Field correlation of soil liquefaction with SPT and grain size, Procs. Int. Conf. on Rec. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. I, pp. 203-208.
Tokimatsu, K. and Yoshimi, Y., 1983, Empirical correlation of soil liquefaction based on SPT N-value and fines content, Soils a. Found., 23, No. 4, pp.56-74.
Tokimatsu,* K. and Yoshimi, Y., 1984, Criteria of soil liquefaction with SPT and fines content, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, CA, Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 255-262.
Wightàan,* A., Morrison, K.I. and Sy, A., 1987, Seismic risk and ground improvement, in "Earthquake Geotechnique", The Vancouver Geot. Soc., 31p.
Yoshimi, Y. and Tokimatsu, K., 1983, SPT practice survey and comparative tests, Soils a. Found., 23, No. 3, pp. 105-111.
Youd,* T.L. & Bennett, M.J., 1983, Liquefaction sites, Imperial Valley, California, Jour. of Geot. Eng., (ASCE), 109, 3, pp. 440-457.
4.1.4.1.3 Piezocone - penetrometer
Been, K., Crooks, J.H.A., Becker, D.E. and Jefferies, M.G., 1986, The cone penetration test in sands; Part I, State parameter interpretation, Géotechnique, 36, No. 6, pp. 239-249.
Campanella, R.G., Robertson, P.K., Gillespie, D.G. and Grieg, J., 1985, Recent developments in in-situ testing of soils, Procs. 11th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Found. Eng., San Francisco; A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam-Boston, 2, pp. 849-854.
Campanella,* R.G., Robertson, P.K., Gillespie, D., Laing, N. and Kurfurst, P., 1987, Seismic cone penetration testing in the near offshore of the MacKenzie Delta, Can. Geot. J., 24, No. 1, pp. 154-159.
Canou,* J., El Hachem, M., Kattan, A. and Juran, I., 1988, Mini piezocone (M-CPTU) investigation related to sand liquefaction analysis, Procs. First Int. Symp. on Penetration Testing/ISOPT-1, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 2, pp. 699-706.
Douglas, B.J., Olsen, R.S. and Martin, G.R., 1981, Evaluation of the cone penetrometer test for SPT-liquefaction assessment, in "In situ Testing to Evaluate Liquefaction Susceptibility", ASCE Nat. Conv., St.Louis, MO. 29
Finn, W.D.L., Woeller, D.J., Davies, M.P., Luternauer, J.L., Hunter, J.A. and Pullan, S.E., 1989, New approaches for assessing liquefaction potential of the FRaser River delta, British Columbia, in Cordillera and Pacific Margin, Geological Survey of Canada, Rep. No. 89-1E, pp. 221-231.
Franklin,* A.G., 1986, Use of the piezocone for evaluating soil liquefaction potential, Procs. 8th Eur. Conf. on Earthq. Eng., 2, pp. 5.3/33-5.3/40.
Gillespie,* D., Howie, J. and Campanella, R.G., 1987, The assessment of liquefaction susceptibility using the seismic cone penetrometer, in "Earthquake Geotechnique", The Vancouver Geot. Soc., Poster session, 6p.
Harder,* L.F., Shibata, T., Robertson, P.K. and Campanella, R.G., 1987, Liquefaction potential of sands using the CPT; discussion and closure, Jour. of Geot. Eng., 113, No. 6, pp. 673-678.
Iwasaki,* K., Tanizawa, F., Zhou, S. and Tatsuoka, F., 1988, Cone resistance and liquefaction strength of sand, Procs. First Int. Symp. on Penetration Testing, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 2, pp. 785-791.
Jamiolkowski,* M., Baldi, G., Bellotti, R., Ghionna, V. and Pasqualini, E., 1985, Penetration resistance and liquefaction of sands, Procs. 11th ICSMFE, San Francisco, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 4, pp. 1891- 1896.
Kisimoto,* K., 1982, In-situ measurement of Qs-value in soil deposit, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microz. Conf., Seattle, II, pp. 661-669.
Martin,* G.R. & Douglas, B.J., 1981, Evaluation of the cone penetrometer for liquefaction hazard assessment, U.S.G.S., OF-81-0284, 289 p., ($42.50).
Miura, S., Toki, S. and Tanizawa, F., 1984, Cone penetration characteristics and its correlation to static and cyclic deformation- strength behaviours of anisotropic sand, Soils and Found., 24, No. 2, pp. 58-74. Norton, W.E., 1983, In-situ determination of liquefaction potential using the PQS probe, US Army Waterways Exper. Stn., Vicksburg, Final Rep. No. GL-83-15, 97p.
Olsen,* R.S., 1984, Liquefaction analysis using the cone penetrometer test, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, Ca, Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 247-254.
Robertson,* P.K. and Campanella, R.G., 1983, Interpretation of cone penetration tests, Part I: sand, Ca. Geot. Jour, 20, No. 4, pp. 718- 733. 30
Robertson,* P.K. and Campanella, R.G., 1983, Interpretation of cone penetration tests. Part II: clay, Can. Geot. Jour., 20, No. 4, pp. 734-745.
Robertson, P.K., Campanella, R.G., Gillespie, D. and Rice, A., 1986, Seismic CPT to measure in situ shear wave velocity, Jour. Geot. Eng., 112, No. 8, pp. 791-803.
Robertson,* P.K. and Campanella, R.G., 1985, Liquefaction potential of sands using the cone penetration test (CPT), Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 111, No. GT3, pp. 384-403.
Schmertmann, J.H., 1978, Study of feasibility of using Wissa-type piezometer probe to identify liquefaction potential of saturated fine sands, US Army waterw. Exp. Stn., Vicksburg, Techn. Report No. S-78, 2, 73p.
Seed,* R.B., Lee, S.R. and Jong, H.L., 1988, Penetration and liquefaction resistances: Prior seismic history effects, Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 114, No. 6, pp. 691-697.
Shibata,* T. and Teparaksa, W., 1988, Evaluation of liquefaction potentials of soils using cone penetration tests, Soils a. Found., 28, No. 2, pp. 49-60.
Spitzley, J.E., Keaton, J. and Sarmiento, J., 1983, Use of the cone penetrometer for evaluation of liquefaction potential, Proc. of the 20th Boise Symp. "Eng. Geol. and Soils Eng.", April 1983, Idaho, USA, pp. 33-46.
Sweeny, B.P.,1987, Liquefaction evaluation using a miniature cone penetrometer and a large scale calibration chamber,Doctoral Thesis, Stanford Univ., CA, 299 p.
Torstensson, B.A., 1975, Pore pressure sounding instrument, Discussion, Procs. ASCE Special Conf. on insitu measurement of soil properties, Raleigh, 2, pp. 48-54.
Updike, R.G. and Ulery, C.A., 1986, A geotechnical cross-section of downtown Anchorage; an assessment using the electric-cone-penetration test, Report of Investigations, Alaska, Div. of Geol. & Geoph. Surveys, 86-3, 41 p.
Zhou,* S.G., 1981, Influence of fines on evaluating liquefaction of sand by CPT, Procs. Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Earthq. Eng. a. Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. I, pp. 167-172. 31
4.1.4.1.4 Various methods
Arakawa,* T., Tokida, K. and Kimata, T., 1984, Estimation procedure of liquefaction potential and its application to earthquake resistant design, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, CA, Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 239-246.
Arulanandan,* K., Harvey, S.J. and Chak, J.S., 1981, Electrical characterization of soil for in-situ measurement of liquefaction potential, Procs. Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. III, pp. 1223-1229.
Arulanandan,* K. and Muraleetharan, K.K., 1988, Level ground soil- liquefaction analysis using in situ properties: I, Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 114, No. 7, pp. 753-770.
Arulanandan,* K. and Muraleetharan, K.K., 1988, Level ground soil- liquefaction analysis using in situ properties: II, Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 114, No. 7, pp. 771-790.
Arulmoli,* K., Arulanandan, K. and Seed, B.H., 1985, New method for evaluating liquefaction potential, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE, 111, No. GT1, pp. 95-114.
Arya,* A.S., Nandakumaran, P., Puri, V.K. and Mukerjee, S., 1978, Verification of liquefaction potential by field blast tests, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., Vol. II, pp. 865-872.
ASCE - GT (1978), Definition of terms related to liquefaction, Committee on Soil Dynamics of the Geot. Eng. Div., ASCE, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., ASCE 104, No. GT9.
Atkinson,* G.M., Finn, W.D.L. and Charlwood, R.G., 1984, Simple computation of liquefaction probability for seismic hazard applications, Earthquake Spectra, 1, No. 1, pp. 107-123.
Balthaus, H. and Simons, H., 1984, In-situ measurement of dynamical soil properties, (in German), Geotechnik, 7, No. 4, pp. 196-202.
Chang, N.Y. and Ko, H.Y., 1982, Effects of grain size distribution on dynamic properties and liquefaction potential of granular soils, Colorado Univ. Dept. Civ. Urban Eng., Denver, USA, Res. Report R82- 103, 358p.
Corté,* J.F., 1987, Evaluation des propriétés des sols vis-à-vis du risque sismique, Bull, liaison labo. P. et Ch., Nos. 150/151, pp. 152-157.
Davis,* R.O. and Berrill, J.B., 1981, Assessment of liquefaction potential based on seismic energy dissipation, Procs. Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. a. Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. I, pp. 187- 190. 32
De Herrera,* M.A., Zsutty, T.C. and Aboim, C.A., 1980, The analysis of liquefaction potential based on probabilistic ground motions, Procs. Int. Symp. on Soils under Cyclic and Trans. Loadings, Swansea, 2, pp. 517-521.
Dezfulian, H. and Marachi, N.D., 1982, Evaluation of dynamic soil properties for geotechnical earthquake engineering purposes, Procs. 7th Eur. Conf. on Earthq. Eng., Athens.
Dezfulian, H. and Marachi, N.D., 1984, Liquefaction potential of silty sand site, Proc. Int. Conf. "Case Histories in Geot. Eng.", Missouri- Rolla Univ., MO, USA, 1, pp. 455-457.
Dupas, J.M., Doré, M. and Pecker, A., 1979, Choice of the factor of safety in a liquefaction analysis, Procs. 7th Eur. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., Brighton, UK, Inst. Civ. Eng., London, 1, pp. 147-153.
Ferritto, J.M. and Forrest, J.B., 1977, Determination of seismically induced soil liquefaction potential at proposed bridge sites. I: Theoretical considerations - II: Planning guide for evaluation of liquefaction, US Naval Constr. Battalion Center, Civ. Eng. Lab., Point Mugu, Calif., 93043, NTIS-PB-282354/282355/AS, 305 + 134 pp.
Finn,* W.D.L., 1988, Liquefaction potential of level ground: Deterministic and probabilistic assessment, Computers and Geotechnics, 5, pp. 3-37.
Forrest,* J.B., Ferritto, J.M. and Wu, G., 1981, Site analysis for seismic soil liquefaction potential, Procs. Int. Conf. on Recent Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dynamics, Rolla, Missouri, Vol. I, pp. 155-160.
Ghaboussi,* J. and Dikmen, S.U., 1984, Effective stress analysis of seismic response and liquefaction: case studies, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE, 110, No. GT5, pp. 645-658.
Gu,* W. and Wang, Y., 1984, An apporoach to the quadratic nonlinear formulae for predicting earthquake liquefaction potential by stepwise discriminant analysis, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, Prentice-Hall Inc., III, pp. 119- 126.
Haldar, A. and Tang, W.H., 1979, Probabilistic evaluation of liquefaction potential, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 105, No. GT2, pp. 145- 163.
Hoshiya, M., Saito, E. and Yamazaki, A., 1985, An equivalently linearized dynamic response analysis method for liquefaction of multi-layered sandy deposits, Proc. Japan Soc. Civ. Eng., No. 356, pp. 353-360.
Ishihara,* K., 1977, Simple method of analysis for liquefaction of sand deposits during earthquakes, Soils and Foundations, 17, No. 3, pp. 1- 17. 33
Iwasaki,* T., Tatsuoka, F., Tokida, K. and Yasuda, S., 1978, A practical method for assessing soil liquefaction potential based on case studies at various sites in Japan, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., Vol. II, pp. 885-896.
Iwasaki, T., Tokida, K., McGuire, R.K., & Tatsuoka, F., 1981, Assessment of the probability of liquefaction of uncompacted sandy deposits, in Structural Safety and Reliability; Procs. of ICOSSAR'81, the 3rd int. conf., Developments in Civil Engineering, 4, pp. 231-240.
Iwasaki,* T., Tokida, K. and Tatsuoka, F., 1981, Soil liquefaction potential evaluation with the use of the simplified procedure, Procs. Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. I, pp. 209-214.
Iwasaki,* T., Arakawa, T. and Tokida, K., 1982, Simplified procedure for assessing soil liquefaction during earthquakes, Procs. Soil Dyn. and Earthquake Eng. Conf., Southampton, UK, 2, pp. 925-939.
Iwasaki, T., Arakawa, T. and Tokida, K., 1984, Simplified procedure for assessing soil liquefaction during earthquakes, Soil Dyn. a. Earthquake Eng., 3, No. 1, pp. 49-58.
Jang, S.J., 1986, Evaluation of liquefaction potential using fuzzy set mathematics, Procs. Third U.S. Nat. Conf. on Earthq. Engineering, 4, pp. 2705-2715.
Kavazanjian,* E. and Ho, C.L., 1984, Non-linear probabilistic evaluation of the number of equivalent uniform cycles for liquefaction analyses, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, Prentice- Hall, Inc., III, pp. 175-182.
Kotoda,* K., Wakamatsu, K. and Midorikawa, S., 1988, Seismic microzoning on soil liquefaction potential based on geomorphological land classification, Soils and Foundations, 28, No. 2, pp. 127-143.
Kropp,* A.L., 1983, A probabilistic evaluation of a riverfront site, Procs. 4th Can. Conf. "Earthquake Engineering", Vancouver, pp. 322- 331.
Lakshmanan,* J. and Bertrand, Guy, 1985, In-situ determination of dynamic soil properties, in "Génie parasismique", V. Davidovici, editor, pp. 337-353.
Liao,* S.S.C., Veneziano, D. and Whitman, R.V., 1988, Regression models for evaluating liquefaction probability, Jour. of Geot. Eng., 114, No. 4, pp. 389-411.
Lou, Y., 1985, A method for two-dimensional effective stress analysis of sand liquefaction under earthquake, (in Chinese), Jour. Hydr. Eng., No. 2, pp. 56-59. 34
Matsuzawa, H., Ishibashi, I and Kawamura, M., 1985, Dynamic soil and water pressures of submerged soils, Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 111, No. 10, pp. 1161-1176.
0-Hara,* S. and Yamamoto, T., 1986, Evaluation of soil liquefaction potentials in partially drained conditions; discussion, Soils a. Found., 26, No. 1, pp. 129-130.
Oner,* M., 1984, Analysis of fabric changes during cyclic loading of granular soils, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, San Francisco, Prentice-Hall Inc., N.J., III, pp. 55-62.
Pilecki, T.J., Strachan, P.A., Seed, H.B., Idriss, I.M., Arango, I., 1985, Evaluation of liquefaction potential using field performance data, Discussions and closure, Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 111, No. 11, pp. 1343-1346.
Pilecki,* T., and Arulanandan, K., 1987, New method for evaluating liquefaction potential; discussion and closure, Jour. of Geot. Eng., Proc. ASCE, 113, No. 4, pp. 399-401.
Pires,* J.E.A., Wen, Y.K. and Ang, A., 1984, Probabilistic analysis of seismic safety against liquefaction, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, Prentice-Hall Inc., III, pp. 159-166.
Poulos, S.J., Robinsky, E.I. and Keller, T.O., 1985, Liquefaction resistance of thickened tailings, Jour. Geot. Eng., 111, No. 12, pp. 1380-1394.
Prévost, J.H., 1986, Effective stress analysis of seismic response site, Int. J. Num. and Anal. Methods in Geomechanics, 10, No. 6, pp. 653- 665.
Roe, G.V., 1981, An acoustic method for identifying sand fabric and liquefaction potential, Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of New Hampshire, Durban, NH., U.S.A.
Roe,* G.V., De Alba, P.A. and Celikkol,B., 1981, Acoustic identification of liquefaction potential, Procs. Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. I, pp. 199-202.
Scott, R.F., 1986, Solidification and consolidation of a liquefied sand column, Soils and Foundations, 26, No. 4, pp. 23-31.
Seed, H.B. and Idriss, I.M., 1971, Simplified procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction potential, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Proc. ASCE 97, No. SM9, pp. 1249-1273.
Seed, H.B., 1976, Evaluation of soil liquefaction effects on level ground during earthquakes, State-of-the-Art Paper, ASCE, National Convention, Philadelphia, pp. 1-104. 35
Seed, H.B., 1979, Soil liquefaction and cyclic mobility evaluation for level ground during earthquakes, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., ASCE, 105, No. GT2.
Strachan, P., 1981, An investigation of the correlation between geophysical and dynamic properties of sand, Procs. Oceans 81, pp. 399-403.
Talaganov, K., 1986, Testing and analysis of liquefaction potential by cyclic strain excitation, Procs. 8th Eur. Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, 2, pp. 5.3/25-5.3/32.
Tinsley, J.G., Youd, T.L., Perkins, D.M. and Chen, A.T.F., 1985, Evaluating liquefaction potential, Evaluating Earthquake Hazards in the Los Angeles region, an Earth Science Perspective, Prof. Paper 1360, U.S.G.S.
Umehara, Y., Zen, K. and Hamada, K., Evaluation of soil liquefaction potentials in partially drained conditions, Soils a. Found., 25, No. 2, pp. 57-72.
Valera,* J.E. and Donovan, N.C., 1976, Comparison of methods for liquefaction evaluation, ASCE Ann. Conv., Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 76, Preprint No. 2752, pp. 359-388.
Valera,* J.E. and Donovan, N.C., 1977, Soil liquefaction procedures - a review, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 103, No. GT6, pp. 607-625.
Vicente, E.E., 1983, Pore water pressure increase in loose saturated sand at level sites during three directional earthquake loadings, Ph.D. Thesis, Rennselaer Polyt. Inst., Troy, NY, (110, 8th Str., USA, 12181), 272 p. (Diss. Abstr. Int. Order No. DA-84-09522).
Wang,* Zhong-Qi, 1981, Macroscopic approach to soil liquefaction, Procs. Int. Conf. on Rec. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dynamics, Rolla, Missouri, Vol. I, pp. 179-185.
Watts,* B.D., Sy, A., and Rogers, B., 1988, Foundation liquefaction assessment at Amauligak F-24, Beaufort sea, 41 8 t Can. Geot. Conference, Kitchener, Ont., Preprint Volume, pp. 314-325.
Yamamura, K. and Kega, Y., 1974, Estimation of liquefaction potential by means of explosion test, Joint Panel Conf. of the U.S./Japan Coop. Program in Nat. Resources, No. 6, Natl. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. Yegian,* M.K., 1984, Probabilistic seismic hazard analysis for pore pressure build-up in sands, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, Prentice-Hall Inc., III, pp. 167-174. 36
Yegian,* M.K. and Whitman, R.V., 1978, Risk analysis for ground failure by liquefaction, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div. Proc. ASCE 104, No. GT7, Proc. Paper 13900, pp. 921-938.
Yegian,* M.K. and Vitelli, B.M., 1981, Analysis for liquefaction, Procs. Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. a. Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. I, pp. 173-177.
Yokota,* K., Imai, T. and Tonouchi, K., 1982, Geotechnical and geophysical methods for evaluating dynamic soil properties at various sites in Japan, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, Vol. II, pp. 1129-1144.
Yoshimi, Y., 1985, Liquefaction of sand deposits, (in Japanese), Tsuchi- to-Kiso, 33, No. 8.
Zengwu,* Liu, 1982, Use of average weighted shear modulus in microzonation, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microzonation Conf., Seattle, USA, III, pp. 1355-1366.
Zengwu, L., 1985, The average shear modulus method for seismic microzonation, Shuiwendizhi Gongchengdizhi (Hydr. & eng. geol.), No. 6, pp. 21-24. 4.1.4.2 Observation and mapping of potential
Academy of Building Research, China, 1986, The mammoth Tangshan earthquakes of 1976 building damage photo album, China Acad. Publ., China, 256p.
Anderson,* L.R. and Keaton, J.R., 1982, Development of a liquefaction potential map, Procs. Soil Dyn. a. Earthquake Eng. Conf., Southampton, UK, 2, pp. 899-910.
Bergeman, C.A., 1986, Liquefaction potential of soils for Charleston, South Carolina, Procs. Third U.S. National Conf. on Earthq. Eng., 4, pp. 2653-2666. Berrill,* J.B., Ooi, E.C.T. and Foray, P.Y., 1987, Seismic liquefaction in the Inangahua, New Zealand earthquake, Procs. 9th Eur. Conf. on Soil Mech. a. Found. Engineering, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 2, 4p. (6.1). Berrill, J.B., Bienvenu, V.C. and Callaghan, M.W., 1988, Liquefaction in the Buller region in the 1929 and 1968 earthquakes, Bull. New Zealand National Soc. for Earthquake Eng., 21, No. 3, pp. 174-189.
Budhu,* M., Vijayakumar, V., Giese, R.F. and Baumgras, L., 1987, Liquefaction potential for New York State: A preliminary Report on sites in Manhattan and Buffalo, Nat. Center for Earthq. Eng. Research, Buffalo, Tech. Rep. NCEER-87-0009, 53p. 37
Budhu,* M., Vijayakumar, V., Giese, R.F. and Baumgras, L., 1987, Liquefaction potential of soils in portions of Upper Manhattan and Buffalo, Procs. Symp. on Seismic Hazards, Ground Motions, Soil- Liquef. and Eng. Practice in E. North Amer., Buffalo, Tech. Rep. NCEER-87-0025, pp.451-466.
Byrne,* P.M., 1978, An evaluation of the liquefaction potential of the Fraser delta, Can. Geot. Jour., 15, No. 1, pp. 32-46.
Byrne,* P.M. and Anderson, D.L., 1983, Earthquake design in Richmond, Procs. 4th Can. Conf. Earthquake Eng., pp. 312-319.
Byrne,* P.M., Anderson, D.L. and Atukorala, U., 1987, Seismic risk at Vancouver International Airport, Procs., 5th Can. Conf. Earthquake Eng., Ottawa, pp. 577-586.
Carrillo-Gil,* A., 1981, Comparative studies of soil liquefaction potential during the 1970 Peru earthquake, Procs. Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dynamics, Rolla, Missouri, Vol. II, pp. 687-689.
Carson, S.E., 1987, Liquefaction susceptibility in the San Bernadino Valley and vicinity, California, M.Sc. Thesis, Calif. State University, Hayward, CA, 101 p.
Chen, A.T.F., 1985, RELA; Regional liquefaction assessment, an interactive computer program, USGS, Open-File Report No. 85-0468, 21 p.
Collett, T.F., 1986, An estimation of the extent of liquefaction and associated damage potential in Richmond, Southwest British Columbia, B.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of British Columbia, Vancouver, 75p.
Combellick, R.A., 1984, Potential for earthquake-induced liquefaction in the Fairbanks-Nenana area, Alaska, Div. of Geol. & Geoph. Surveys, Alaska, Report of Investigations, 84-5, 10p.
Conte,* E. and Dente, G., 1987, Case histories of liquefaction during Southern Italy 1980 earthquake, Procs. 9th Eur. Conf. on Soil Mechs. a. Found. Engineering, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 2, 4p. (6.2).
Coric, S. and Manojlovic, M., 1981, Liquefaction phenomena in Montenegro coastal region (eng. & fr. abstract), Bull. Bur. Rech. Géol. Min., Orléans, 1980/1981, sect. IV, No. 2, pp. 101-104.
Davis, R.O. and Berrill, J.B., 1983, Comparison of a liquefaction theory with field observations, Géotechnique, 33, No. 4, pp. 455-460.
De Alba,* P.A., 1981, Discussion on "Macroscopic approach to soil liquefaction", by Wang, Z.Q., Procs. Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. a. Soil Dynamics, Rolla, Missouri, Vol. III, p. 972. 38
Diaz-Rodriguez,* J.A., 1984, Liquefaction in the Mexicali Valley during the earthquake of june 9, 1980, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, CA, Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 223-230.
Dixon,* S.J. and Burke, J.W., 1973, Liquefaction case history, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Proc. ASCE 99, No. SM11, pp. 921-937.
Donovan, N.C. and Singh, S., 1978, Liquefaction criteria for Trans-Alaska pipeline, J. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 104, No. GT4, pp. 447-462.
Elton, D. J. and Hadj-Hamou, T., 1988, A liquefaction potential map for Charleston, South Carolina, Auburn Univ., Civ. Eng. Dept., Rep. No. GT-88-1, 67 p.
Finch, M.O., 1987, Liquefaction potential of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, California, M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of Calif., Davis, CA, 466 p.
Franks,* C.A.M., 1988, Engineering geological aspects of the Edgecumbe, New Zealand earthquake of 2 March 1987, Quart. Jour. of Engineering Geology, London, 21, pp. 337-345.
Fu, S. and Tatsuoka, F., 1984, Soil liquefaction during Haicheng and Tangshan earthquake in China: a review, Soils a. Found., 24, No. 4, pp. 11-29.
Gazetas,* G. and Botsis, J., 1981, Local soil effects and liquefaction in the 1978 Thessaloniki earthquakes, Frocs. Int. Conf. on Recent Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dynamics, Rolla, Missouri, Vol. III, pp. 1205-1214.
Gilbert, P.A., 1976, Case histories of liquefaction failures, US Army Waterw. Exp. Stn., Vicksburg, Final Report No. S-76-4, 24 pp.
Holzer,* T.L., Bennett, M.J., Youd, T.L. and Chen, A.T.F., 1988, Parkfield, California, liquefaction prediction, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 78, No. 1, pp. 385-389.
Holzer, T.L., Youd, T.L., Bennett, M.J. and Stepp, J.C., 1987, Parkfield liquefaction and ground motion experiment (abstr.), Eos, Trans., Amer. Geophysical Union abstracts, 68, no. 44, p. 1350.
Hopper, M.G., Algermissen, S.T. and Dobrovolny, E.E., 1983, Estimation of earthquake effects associated with a great earthquake in the New Madrid seismic zone, U.S. Geol. Survey, Open-File Report 83-0179, 101 P. Hopper, M.G., (editor), 1985, Estimation of earthquake effects associated with large earthquakes in the New Madrid seismic zone, U.S. Geol. Survey, Open-File Report 85-0457, 140 p. 39
Ishihara,* K., Anazawa, Y. and Kuwano, J., 1987, Pore water pressures and ground motions monitored during the 1985 Chiba-Ibaragi earthquake, Soils and Found., 27, No. 3, pp. 13-30.
Ishihara,* K. and Ogawa, K., 1978, Liquefaction susceptibility map of downtown Tokyo, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., Vol. II, pp. 897-910.
Iwasaki,* T., Tokida, K., Tatsuoka, F., Watanabe, S., Yasuda, S. and Sato, H., 1982, Microzonation for soil liquefaction potential using simplified methods, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, III, pp. 1319-1330.
Jaime,* A., Montanez, L. and Romo, M.P., 1981, Liquefaction of the Enmedio Island soil deposits, Procs. Int. Conf. on Rec. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. a. Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. I, pp. 529-534.
Jaime,* A., Romo, M.P. and Montanez, L., 1981, Observed and predicted liquefaction of a sand stratum, Procs. Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. a. Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. I, pp. 505-510.
Kotoda,* K., Wakamatsu, K. and Midorikawa, S., 1988, Seismic microzoning on soil liquefaction potential based on geomorphological land classification, Soils a. Found., 28, No. 2, pp. 127-143.
Krishna,* J., 1981, Geotechnical and strong motion aspects of recent Indian earthquakes, Procs. Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Eng. a. Soil Dynamics, Rolla, Missouri, Vol. II, pp. 845-848.
Maugeri, M. and Carrubba, P., 1985, Microzoning using SPT data, Procs. 11th ICSMFE, San Francisco, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 4, pp. 1831- 1836.
Kavazanjian,* E., Roth, R.A. and Echezuria, H., 1985, Liquefaction potential mapping for San Francisco, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE, 111, No. GT1, pp. 54-76.
Kuribayashi, E. and Tatsuoka, F., 1977, History of earthquake-induced soil liquefaction in Japan, Bull. Publ. Works Res. Inst., Report No. 31, 26p.
Matti, J.C. and Carson, S.E., 1986, Liquefaction susceptibility in the San Bernardino Valley and vicinity, Southern California; a preliminary evaluation, U.S.G.S., Open-File Report OF 86-0562, 60p.
Men Fu-Lu,* 1982, Effect of deep-deposited groundwater layer on microzonation, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microz. Conference, Seattle, I, pp. 185-194.
Norris, G.M., 1988, Liquefaction at the Meloland overcressing during the Imperial Valley earthquake of 1979, Bull. Ass. Eng. Geol., 25, No. 2, pp. 235-247. 40
Obermeier, S.F., 1984, Liquefaction potential in the Central Mississippi Valley, Procs. Symp. New Madrid Seismic Zone, U.S.G.S., Open File Report 84-0770, pp. 391-446.
Obermeier, S.F., 1988, Liquefaction potential in the central Mississippi Valley, U.S.G.S., Rep. No. B 1832, 21p.
Obermeier, S.F., Weems, R.E. and Jacobson, R.B., 1987, Earthquake-induced liquefaction features in the coastal South Carolina region, U.S.G.S., OF 87-0504, 20p.
Perkins, J.B., 1986, The San Francisco Bay area; on shaky ground, Assoc. Bay area Goy., Oakland, CA., 32p.
Power,* M.S., Dawson, A.W., Streiff, D.W., Perman, R.C. and Haley, S.C., 1982, Evaluation of liquefaction susceptibility in the San Diego, California, urban area, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Micr. Conf., Seattle, USA, Vol. II, pp. 956-967.
Reimnitz,* E. and Marshall, N.F., 1965, Effects of the Alaska Earthquake and Tsunami on Recent Deltaic Sediments, Jour. of Geophysical Research, 70, No. 10, pp. 2363-2376.
Roth, R.A. and Kavazanjian, E., 1984, Liquefaction susceptibility mapping for San Francisco, California, USA, Ass. Eng. Geol. Bull., 21, No. 4, pp. 459-478.
Seed,* H.B., Arango, I., Chan, C.K., Gomez-Masso, A. and Grant Ascoli, R., 1981, Earthquake-induced liquefaction near lake Amatitlan, Guatemala, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 107, No. GT4, pp. 501-518, Proc. Paper 16212.
Siro,* L., 1976, Liquefaction of sands in Friuli during May 6 and September 15, 1976 earthquakes, Boll. di geof. teorica ed applicata, 19, No. 72, pp. 909-932.
Talaganov,* K., Petrovski, J. and Mihailov, V., 1981, Soil liquefaction - seismic risk analysis based on post 1979 earthquake observations in Montenegro, Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. a. Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, pp. 691-697.
Tohno, I. and Shamato, Y., 1985, Liquefaction damage to the ground during the 1983 Nihonkaichubu (Japan Sea) earthquake in Akita prefecture, Tohoku, Japan, Jour. Nat. Disaster Sci., 7, No. 2, pp 67-93.
Tohno, I. and Shamato, Y., 1986, Liquefaction damage to the ground during the 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu (Japan Sea) earthquake in Aomori prefecture, Tohoku, Japan, Jour. of Nat. Disaster Sci., 8, No. 1, pp. 85-116. 41
Wang,* Zhong-Qi, Fang, Hong-Qi and Zhao, Shu-Dong, 1983, Macroscopic features of earthquake induced soil liquefaction and its influence on ground damage, Can. Geot. J., 20, pp. 61-68.
Wagner, J.R., 1984, Liquefaction potential evaluation for Arcadia dam, Oklahoma, USA, Proc. Int Conf. "on Case Histories in Geotech. Eng.", May 1984, St. Louis, MO, USA; Missouri-Rolla Univ. Eng. Res. Lab., 1, pp. 425-432.
Yanagisawa, E., 1983, Damage to structures due to liquefaction in the Japan sea earthquake 1983, Int. Jour. Disaster Studies and Pract.,7, No. 4, pp. 259-265.
Yoshimi, Y., 1984, Some unusual features of the Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake, Tsuchi-to-kiso, 32, No. 9, pp. 5-6.
Youd,* T.L., 1984, Recurrence of liquefaction at the same site, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, CA., Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 231-238.
Youd,* T.L. and Hoose, S.N., 1976, Liquefaction during 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 102, No. GT5, pp. 425- 439.
Youd,* T.L., Tinsley, J.C., Perkins, D.M., King, E.J. and Preston, R.F., 1978, Liquefaction potential map of San Fernando valley, California, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation for Safety Construction - Research and Applications, V, 1, pp. 268-278.
Youd, T.L. and Perkins, D.M., 1978, Mapping liquefaction-induced ground failure potential, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., ASCE 104, No. GT4, pp. 433- 446. Youd,* T.L., Tinsley, J.C., Perkins, D.M., King, E.J. and Preston, R.F., 1978, Liquefaction potential map of San Fernando valley, California, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, California, Vol. I, pp. 267-279. Youd, T.L., Harp, E.L., Keefer, D.K. and Wilson, R.C., 1985, Liquefaction in the Borah Peak, Idaho earthquake of oct. 28, 1983, Earthquake Spectra, 2, No. 1, pp. 71-89.
Youd, T.L. & Perkins, J.B., 1987, Map showing liquefaction susceptibility of San Mateo County, California, U.S.G.S. 0E-86-0425, California I- 1257-G. ($3.10).
Youd, T.L. and Perkins, D.M., Mapping of liquefaction severity index, Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 113, No. 11, pp. 1374-1392. 42
4.1.5 Modelling
Ansal,* A.M., Bazant, Z.P. and Krizek, R.J., 1980, Endochronic models for soils, Procs. Int. Symp. on Soils under Cyclic and Tr. Loading, Swansea, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 1, pp. 475-476.
Ansal, A.M., Ansal, H.K. and Krizek, R., 1984, Modelling cyclic elastic behaviour of sands, Jour. Soil Dyn. a. Earthq. Eng., 6, No. 2, pp. 90-99.
Arulanandan,* K., Anandarajah, A. and Abghari, A., 1983, Centrifugal modeling of soil liquefaction susceptibility, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Procs. ASCE, 109, No. 3, pp. 281-300.
Bardet, J.P., 1984, Application of plasticity theory to soil behaviour: a new sand model, D. Thesis, Cal. Inst. Techn., Pasadena, Calif., 207p. Diss. Abstr. Int. Order No. DA-84-04506.
Bazant,* Z.P. and Krizek, R.J., 1976, Endochronic constitutive law for liquefaction of sand, Jour. Eng. Mech. Div., Procs. ASCE, 102, No. EM2, pp. 225-238.
Been K. and Jefferies, M.G., 1985, A state parameter for sands, Géotechnique, 35, No. 2, pp. 99-112.
Berrill, J.B. and Davis, R.O., 1985, Energy dissipation and seismic liquefaction of sands: revised model, Soils and Found., 25, No. 2, pp. 106-118.
Blazquez,* R., 1978, Endochronic model for liquefaction of sand deposits as inelastic two-phase media, Ph. D. Thesis, Northwestern Univ., Evanston, Chicago, Ill., USA, 226p. (Diss. Abstract Int. Order No. 7903227).
Bottino, C. and Civita, M., 1986, A computer semi-quantitative model for microzonation of hazard from interconnection of engineering- geological features and urban sub-service network, Procs. 5th Int. Congr. I.A.E.G., Buenos Aires, Argentina, 5, no. 3, pp. 1731-1740.
Bouckovalas, G., Whitman, R.V. and Marr, W.A., 1984, Permanent displacement of sand with cyclic loading, J. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 110, No. GT11, pp. 1606-1623.
Bouckovalas, G. and Hoeg, K., 1987, Computational model for saturated sand subjected to cyclic loading, Soils and Foundations, 27, No. 4, pp. 34-44.
Cakmak, A.S., Sherif, R.I. and Ellis, G., 1985, Modelling earthquake ground motions in California using parametric time series methods, Soil Dyn. a. Earthq. Eng., 4, No. 3, pp. 124-131. 43
Charlie,* W.A., Doehring, D.O. and Veyera, G.E., 1987, Computer modelling of P-wave induced liquefaction, (Abstract), COGS Computer Contributions, 3, No. 2, pp. 49-50.
Coe, C.J., Prevost, J.H. and Scanlan, R.H., 1985, Dynamic stress wave reflections/attenuation: earthquake simulation in centrifuge soil models, Earthquake Eng. a. Struct. Dyn., 13, No. 1, pp. 109-128.
De Herrera,* M.A., Zsutty, T.C. and Aboim, C.A., 1980, The analysis of liquefaction potential based on probabilistic ground motions, Procs. Int. Symp. on Soils under Cyclic a. Tr. Loading, Swansea, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 2, pp. 517-521.
Elzaroughi,* A.A., 1978, Application of endochronic constitutive law to one-dimensional liquefaction of sand, D. Thesis, Northwestern Univ., Evanston, Chicago, Ill., USA, 176 p. (Diss. Abstract Int. Order No. 7903253).
Finn,* W.D.L., Lee, K.W. and Martin, G.R., 1977, An effective stress model for liquefaction, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 103, No. GT6, pp. 517-533. Also in "Liquefaction problems in geotechnical engineering", Ann. Conv. ASCE, Philadelphia, 1976, Preprint 2752, pp. 169-198.
Gyebi, O.K., 1987, Finite element model for viscoplastic soil under dynamic loads, Ph.D. Thesis, Columbia University, NY, 89p.
Haldar, A. and Miller, F.J., 1982, Probabilistic evaluation of liquefaction in a 3-D soil deposit, Procs. Conf. Soil Dynamics and Earthq. Eng., Southampton, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 2, pp. 607-618.
Haldar, A. and Miller, F.J., 1984, Statistical evaluation of cyclic strength of sand, J. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 110, No. GT12, pp. 1785-1802.
Hirai,* H., 1987, An anisotropic hardening model for sand subjected to cyclic loading, in Soil dynamics and Liquefaction, A. Cakmak, editor, Elsevier, Dev. in Geot. Eng., 42, pp. 53-67.
Hirai, H. and Satake, M., 1984, Liquefaction analysis of sand deposits by an elastic-plastic constitutive model, Proc. Japan Soc. Civ. Eng., No. 352, pp. 187-196.
Hoshiya,* M. and Saito, E., 1986, Linearized liquefaction process by Kalman filter, Jour. Geot. Eng., 112, No. 2, pp. 155-169.
Hushmand,* B., Crouse, C.B. and Martin, G., 1987, Site response and liquefaction studies involving the centrifuge, in Structures and Stochastic Methods, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dev. in Geot. Eng. 45, pp. 3-24. 44
Ishihara,* K., Yoshida, N. and Tsujino, S., 1985, Modelling of stress- strain relations of soils in cyclic loading, Procs. 5th Int. Conf. on "Numerical Methods in Geomechanics", 1985, Nagoya, Japan, A.A. Balkema, 1, pp. 373-380.
Kagawa, T., and Kraft, L.M., 1981, Modeling the liquefaction process, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 107, No. GT12, pp. 1593-1607 - Proc. Paper No. 16709.
Katsikas,* C.A. and Wylie, E.B., 1982, Sand liquefaction: Inelastic effective stress model, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Procs. ASCE, 108, No. GT1, pp. 63-81.
Lee, K.W., 1975, Mechanical model for the analysis of liquefaction of horizontal soil deposits, D. Thesis, Univ. of British Columbia, Nat. Libr. of Canada, 395 Wellington st., Ottawa.
Liao, S., Veneziano, D. and Whitman, R.V., 1988, Regression models for evaluating liquefaction probability, Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 114, No. 4, pp. 389-411.
Lin,* J.S., Whitman, R.V. and Vanmarcke, E.H., 1983, Equivalent stationary motion for liquefaction study, Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 109, No. 8, pp. 1117-1121.
Liou,* C.P., Streeter, V.L. and Richart, F.E., 1977, A numerical model for liquefaction, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 103, No. GT6, pp. 589-606. Also in "Liquefaction problems in geotechnical engineering", Ann. Conv. ASCE, Philadelphia, 1976, Preprint 2752, pp. 313-341.
Matsuoka, H. and Koyama, H., 1985, A constitutive model for sands under cyclic shear stresses, Proc. XI lut. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., San Francisco, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 2, pp. 575-578.
Matsuoka, H., Koyama, H. and Yamazaki, H., 1985, A constitutive equation for sands and its application to analyses of rotational stress paths and liquefaction resistance, Soils a. Found., 25, No. 1, pp. 27-42.
Matsuoka,* H., Yamazaki, H. and Koyama, H., 1985, A constitutive model of soils for estimating liquefaction resistances, Procs. Fifth Int. Conf. on Numerical Methods in Geomechanics, Nagoya, pp. 381-388.
Nagaraj, B.K., 1986, Modelling of normal and shear behavior of interface in dynamic soil-structure interaction, Doct. Thesis, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 305 p.
Pastor, M., Zienkiewicz, O.C. and Leung, K.H., 1985, Simple model for transient soil loading in earthquake analysis - II: non-associative models for sands, Int. J. Numer. Analyt. Meth. Geomech., 9, No. 5, pp. 477-498. 45
Pietruszczak,* S. and Poorooshasb, H.B., 1985, Modeling of liquefaction and cyclic mobility effects in sand, Procs. Fifth Int. Conf. on Num. Methods in Geomechanics, Nagoya, 4, pp. 1867-1874.
Pietruszczak, S. and Stolle, D.F.E., 1987, Modelling of sand behaviour under earthquake excitation, Int. Jour. for Num. and Anal. Methods in Geomechanics, 11, No. 3, pp. 221-240.
Poorooshasb,* H.B. and Pietruszczak, S., 1986, A generalized flow theory for sand, Soils and Found., 26, No. 2, pp. 1-15.
Prévost, J.H., 1985, A simple plasticity theory for frictional cohesionless soils, Soil Dyn. a. Earthq. Eng., 4, No. 1, pp. 9-17.
Schofield,* A.N., 1981, Dynamic and earthquake geotechnical centrifuge modelling, Procs. Int. Conf. on R. Adv. in Geot. Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dyn., Rolla, Missouri, Vol. III, pp. 1081-1097.
Shen, Z.J., 1985, A visco-elastic model for liquefaction of sands, Proc. XI Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., San Frasncisco, U.S.A., A.A. Balkema, 2, pp. 659-662.
Shimizu, K., Shimada, M. and Katayama, T., 1983, A study on the non-linear response of soft soil deposit, Proc. 7th Asian Reg. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., Israel Inst. Techn., Haifa, 1, pp. 366-370.
Shiomi,* T., Yamamoto, S. and Matsumoto, T., 1985, Application of numerical method on liquefaction problems, Procs. Fifth Int. Conf. on Numer. Methods in Geomechanics, Nagoya, 3, pp. 1393-1400.
Shiomi,* T., Tsukuni, S., Hatanaka, M., Tanaka, Y., Suzuki, Y. and Hirose, T., 1987, Simulation analysis of ground liquefaction induced by earthquake, Computers and Geotechnics, 4, pp. 221-245.
Sladen,* J.A. and Oswell, J.M., 1989, The behaviour of very loose sand in the triaxial compression test, Can. Geot. Jour., 26, No. 1, pp. 103- 113.
Stoll,* R.D., 1978, Damping in saturated soil, ASCE Specialty Conf. on Earthquake Eng. a. Soil Dynamics, 1, pp. 960-974.
Towhata,* I., 1986, Discussion of "Energy dissipation and seismic liquefaction of sands; revised model", Soils a. Found., 26, No. 1, pp. 134-135.
Toro, G.R. and McGuire, R.K., 1987, An investigation into earthquake ground motion characteristics in eastern North America, Bull. Seism. Soc. of Amer., 77, No. 2, pp. 468-489. 46
Wang, J. and Kavazanjian, E., 1987, A nonstationary probabilistic model for pore pressure development and site response due to seismic excitation, John A. Blume Earthquake Eng. Center, Dept. of Civ. Eng., Stanford Univ., Report 84, 191 p.
Whitman,* R.V. and Klapperich, H., 1987, Model tests for earthquake simulation of geotechnical problems, in Soil Dynamics and Liquefaction, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey, in Geot. Eng., 42, pp. 323-336.
Yamazaki,* F., Towhata, I. and Ishihara, K., 1985, Numerical model for liquefaction problem under multi-directional shearing on horizontal plane, Procs. Fifth Int. Conf. on Num. Methods in Geomechanics, Nagoya, pp: 399-406.
Zaman, M.M. and Laguros, J.G., 1985, On the modeling of soil liquefaction by finite element method, in Variational methods in geosciences, Developments in Geomathematics, 5, pp. 291-296.
Zienkiewicz,* 0.C., Chang, C.T., Hinton, E. et al., 1980, Effective stress dynamic modelling for soil structures including drainage and liquefaction, Proc. Int. Symp. "Soils under cyclic and transient loading", Swansea, UK, A.A. Balkema, 2, pp. 551-554.
4.1.6 Liquefaction induced by blasts
Charlie,* W., Shinn, J., Blouin, S., Melzer, S. and Martin, J., 1980, Blast induced soil liquefaction - phenomena and evaluation, Proc. Int. Symp. "Soils under cyclic a. transient loading", Swansea, UK, A.A. Balkema, 2, pp. 533-542.
Charlie, W.A., Veyera, G.E., Abt, S.R. and Patrone, H.D., 1983, Blast induced soil liquefaction, Procs. of the Symposium on the Interaction of Non-Nuclear Munitions with structures, Coord. Univ. of Florida, Graduate Eng. Center, Elgin AFB Florida.
Charlie, W.A., Veyera, G.E. and Abt, S.R., 1985, Predicting blast induced porewater pressure increases in soil - a review, Civ. Eng. f. Pract. Design Engrs.,4, No. 4, pp. 311-328.
Charlie, W.A. and Veyera, G.E., 1985, Explosive induced porewater pressure increases,Procs. 11 Int. Conf. Soil Mech. a. Found. Eng., San Francisco, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 1, pp. 997-1000.
Veyera, G.E. and Charlie, W.A., 1984, Shock-induced porewater pressure increases in soils, Proc. Int. Symp. "Dynamic Soil-Structure Interaction", Univ. Minnesota, Minneapolis, A.A. Balkema, publ., pp. 139-144.
Veyera,* G.E. and Charlie, W.A., 1987, Liquefaction of shock loaded saturated sand, in Soil Dynamics and Liquefaction, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey, in Geot. Eng., 42, pp. 205-219. 47
4.1.7 Improvement of liquefiable soils
Bhandari,* R.K.M., 1981, Dynamic consolidation of liquefiable sands, Procs. Int. Conf. on Recent Adv. in Geot. Eng. and Soil Dynamics, Rolla, Missouri, Vol. II, pp. 857-860.
Bolognesi,* A.J.L., 1984, Chimney drains to control seismic pore pressures, Jour. Geot. Eng., 110, No. 9, pp. 1342-1364.
Donovan,* N.C., Becker, A.M. and Lau, G.Y.F., 1984, Liquefaction mitigation by site improvement- A case study, Procs. 8th W. Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, 1, pp. 693-700.
Dowding, C.H. and Hryciw, R.D., 1986, A laboratory study of blast densification of saturated sand, Procs. ASCE 112, No. 2.
Fraser,* D., 1987, Reducing liquefaction potential by vibro-replacement, in "Earthquake Geotechnique", The Vancouver Geot. Soc., Poster Session, 10p.
Gambin,* M.P., Capelle, J.F. et Dumas, J.C., 1979, La consolidation dynamique: une technique permettant de diminuer les risques de liquéfaction de sols fins saturés en cas de tremblement de terre, Proc. 3rd Can. Conf. "Earthquake Engineering", Montréal, 1, pp. 117- 146.
Gu, B., Hu, Z. and Wang, W., 1984, Verification and evaluation of the result of liquefiable soil treated with vibroflotation, Proc. Int. Conf. "Case Histories in Geot. Eng.", Rolla-Missouri Univ.,MO, USA, 1, pp. 485-490.
Massarsch,* K.R. and Londberg, B., 1984, Deep compaction by VIBRO WING method, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp 103-110.
Nakata, K., Terauchi, K. and Sendai, Y., 1984, An experimental sand liquefaction prevention method, Tsuchi-to-Kiso, 32, No. 12.
Nataraja,* M.S. and Cook, B.E., 1983, Influence of sampling, testing and analytical methods on factors of safety against seismic liquefaction, Procs. 4th Can. Conf. Earthquake Eng., Vancouver, pp. 403-412.
Salas, J.A. and Ortiz, U.A., 1983, Ground improvement in relation to the liquefaction risk (in Spanish), Bol. Inf. Lab. Carret. y Geotechn., No. 156, pp. 3-15.
Sasaki, Y. and Taniguchi, E., 1982, Shaking table tests on gravel drains to prevent liquefaction of sand deposits, Soils and Foundations, 22, No. 3, pp. 1-14. 48
Saxena,* S.K., Reddy, K.R. and Avramidis, A.S., 1988, Liquefaction resistance of artificially cemented sand, Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 114, No. 12, pp. 1395-1413.
Schmertmann,* J.H., 1987, Large-scale cyclic shear bin to evaluate methods for mitigating liquefaction hazard; discussion, Soils and Found., 27, No. 1, pp. 104-105.
Scott,* R.F., 1986, Solidification and consolidation of a liquefied sand column, Soils and Foundations, 26, No. 4, pp. 23-31.
Shifeng,* W., 1984, Experimental study on liquefaction-inhibiting effect of gravel drains, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, CA., Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 207-214.
Tanaka, Y., Kokusho, T., Esashi, Y. et al., 1984, On preventing liquefaction of level ground using gravel pits, (in Japanese), Proc. Japan Soc. Civ. Eng., No. 352, pp. 89-98.
Yoshimi, Y., Hosokawa, Y., Kuwabara, F. and Tokimatsu, K., 1987, Large- scale cyclic shear bin to evaluate methods for mitigating liquefaction hazard; closure, Soils and Foundations, 27, No. 2, pp. 73-74.
Zhang,* Y., Cai, Z. et Yan, G., 1988, Traitement par vibroflottation des sols de fondation sableux liquéfiables, Bull. liaison Labo. P. et Ch., No. 156, pp. 13-20.
4.2 Landslides
Agnesi, V., Carrara, A., Macaluso, T., Monteleone, S, Pipitone, G. and Sorriso-Valvo, M., 1982, Preliminary observations of slope instability phenomena induced by the earthquake of November 1980 on the upper valley of the Sele river, Italy, Geai. Appl. Idrogeol., 17, No. 1, pp. 79-93.
Andrus, R.D. and Youd, T.L., 1987, Subsurface investigation of a liquefaction-induced lateral spread, Thousand Springs Valley, Idaho, Misc. Paper GL (Vicksburg) 87-8, 132 P. Arango,* I. and Seed, H.B., 1974, Seismic stability and Deformation of clay slopes, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div. ASCE, 100, No. GT2, pp. 139-156.
Arulanandan,* K., Yogachandran, C., Muraleetharan, K.K., Kutter, B.L. and Chang, G.S., 1988, Seismically induced flow slide on centrifuge, Jour. of Geot. Eng., ASCE, 114, No. 12, pp. 1442-1449.
Asada,*, A. and Mari, Y., 1984, A method for estimating and increasing the stability of man-made housing sites during earthquakes, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, CA, Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 461-468. 49
Bardet, J.P. and Scott, R.F., 1985, Seismic stability of fractured rock masses with the distinct element method, Proc. 26th US Symp. Rock Mech. "Res. a. Eng. Applic. i. Rock Masses", S. Dakota School of Mines a. Technol., Rapid City, S.D., USA, A.A. Balkema, 1, pp. 139- 149.
Broms, B.B., 1978, Translatory slips in soft clays, Procs. of int. conf. on evaluation and prediction of subsidence, Pensacola, pp. 167-187.
Carrillo,* A. and Garcia, E., 1985, A study on stability of natural cliffs with seismic effects, Procs. 11th ICSMFE, San Francisco, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 4, pp. 1937-1941.
Chang, C.J., Chen, W.F. and Yao, J.T.P., 1984, Seismic displacements in slopes by limit analysis, J. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 110, No. GT7, pp. 860-874.
Cherubini, C. and Zezza, F., 1982, The effects of seismic activity upon the instability of the calcareous rock slopes in south-east Gargano, Italy, Geol. Appl. Idrogeol., 17, No. 2, pp. 200-208.
Cotecchia, V., 1982, Phenomena of ground instability produced by the earthquake of November 23, 1980, in southern Italy, Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Int. Ass. Eng. Geol., IAEG, Dec. 1982, New Delhi, India; A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 8, pp. 151-164.
Daddazio, R., Ettouney, M.M. and Sandler, I.S., 1987, Nonlinear dynamic slope stability analysis, Jour. Geot. Eng., Procs. ASCE 113, No. 4, pp. 285-298.
Dowding,* C.H. and Gilbert, C., 1988, Dynamic stability of rock slopes and high frequency traveling waves, Jour. Geot. Eng., Procs. ASCE, 114, No. 10, pp. 1069-1088.
Frydman, S. and Talesnick, M., 1988, Analysis of seismically triggered slides off Israel, in Environmental geology in Israel (Kafri, U., editor), Envir. Geology and Water Sci., 11, No. 1, Part I, pp. 21-26.
Genevois, R. and Prestininzi, A., 1982, Deformations and mass movements induced by the November 1980 earthquake in the middle of Tammaro river, Italy., Geol. Appl. Idrogeol., 17, No. 1, pp. 305-318.
Ghaboussi,* J. and Hendron, A.J., 1984, Seismic hydrodynamic forces on rock slopes, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE 110, No. GT8, pp. 1042-1058.
Glass,* C.E., 1982, Influence of earthquakes on rock slope stability, Procs. 3rd Int. Conf. on Stability in Surface Mining, 1981, Vancouver, Canada, Soc. Min. Eng. of the AIMMPE, pp. 89-112. 50
Hadj-Hamou,* T. and Kavazanjian, E., 1984, Probabilistic seismic stability of a cohesionless slope of limited extent, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, Prentice-Hall Inc., N.J., III, pp.421- 428.
Hadj-Hamou,* T and Kavazanjian, E., 1985, Seismic stability of gentle infinite slopes, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE, 111, No. GT6, pp. 681-697.
Hayashi, H., 1987, Static and seismic stability of cut slopes in terms of reliability, Doctoral Thesis, U. of Illinois, Urbana, IL, 139 p. Houston,* S.L., Houston, W.N. and Padilla, J.M., 1987, Microcomputer-aided evaluation of earthquake-induced permanent slope displacements, Microcomputers in Civ. Eng., 2, pp. 207-222.
Ito, H. and Watanabe, T., 1985, Some considerations on the seismic stability of large slopes, by model tests and numerical analysis, Procs. Fifth Int. Conf. on Numer. Methods in Geomechanics, Nagoya, 2, pp. 989-996.
Jibson, R.W., 1987, Summary of research on the effects of topographic amplification of earthquake shaking on slope stability, U.S.G.S., Open-File Report OF 87-0268, 166p.
Jibson, R.W. and Keefer, D.K., 1988, Landslides triggered by earthquakes in the central Mississippi Valley, Tennessee and Kentucky, U.S.G.S. Prof. Paper, Rep. No. P 1336-C, pp. C1-C24.
Keefer,* D.K., Wieczorek, G.F., Harp, E.L. & Tuel, D.H., 1978, Preliminary assessment of seismically induced landslide susceptibility, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation for Safer Construction - Research and Application, 1, U.S.A., pp. 279-290.
Keefer, D.K., 1984, Landslides caused by earthquakes, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 95, No. 4, pp. 406-421. King, J.P., Loveday, I.C. and Schuster, R.L.,1987, Failure of a massive earthquake-induced landslide dam in Papua New Guinea, Earthquakes and Volcanoes, 19, No. 2, pp. 40-47.
Kobayashi,* Y., 1984, Back-analyses of several earthquake-induced slope failures on the Izu peninsula, Japan, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng.,San Francisco, Prentice-Hall Inc., N.J., III, pp. 405-412.
Kovacs,* W.D., Seed, B.H. and Idriss, I.M., 1971, Studies of seismic response of clay banks, Jour. Soil. Mech. and Found. Div., Procs. ASCE 97, No. SM2, pp. 441-455. 51
Kramer, S.L., 1988, Triggering of liquefaction flow slides in coastal soil deposits, Engineering Geology, 26, No. 1, pp. 17-31.
Kutter, B.L., 1984, Earthquake deformation of centrifuge model banks, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE, 110, No. GT12, pp. 1697-1714.
Legg,* M.R. and Slosson, J.E., 1984, Probabilistic approach to earthquake- induced landslide hazard mapping, Procs. 8th W. Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, Prentice-Hall, N.J., III, pp. 445-452.
Lin,* J.S. and Whitman, R., 1986, Earthquake induced displacements of sliding blocks, Jour. of Geot. Eng., 112, No. 1, pp. 44-59.
Massarsch, K.R., 1980, Earthquake effects on slope stability, Special Report 2121:80.7, Water Soil and Env. Div., Stockholm.
Massarsch, K.R., 1980, Pilé driving in clay slopes, Sp. Report 21:80.7, Water Soil and Env. Div., Stockholm.
Matsuo, M. and Itabashi, K., 1984, Study on aseismicity evaluation of slopes and earth structures, (in Japanese), Proc. Japan Soc. Civil Eng., No. 352, pp. 139-148.
Maugeri, M., Motta, E. and Valvo, M.S., 1982, The Senerchia landslide triggered by the 23 Movember 1980 earthquake, Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Int. Ass. Eng. Geol., IAEG, dec. 1982, New Delhi, India; A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 8, pp. 139-149.
Mizuno, E. and Chen, W.F., 1984, Plasticity models for seismic analysis of slopes, Soil Dyn. a. Earthquake Eng., 3, No. 1, pp. 2-7.
Phatak,* D.R. and Karbhari, V.M., Pilecki, T.J., Hadj-Hamou, T. and KavazanJian, E., 1988, Seismic stability of gentle infinite slopes; discussion and closure, J. Geot. Eng., Procs. ASCE 114, No. 2, pp. 227-231.
Sawada, T., Nomachi, S. and Chen, W.F., 1985, Assessment of seismic displacement of a slope, (in Japanese), Proc. Japan Soc. Civil Eng., No. 358, pp. 113-118.
Seed, H.B. and Goodman, R.E., 1964, Earthquake stability of slopes of cohesionless soils, Jour. Soil Mech. and Found. Div., ASCE, 90, No. SM6, pp. 3-73.
Seed, H.B., 1968, Landslides during earthquakes due to liquefaction, Jour. of the Soil Mech. and Found. Div., ASCE, 94, No. SM5, pp. 1053-1122, Proc. Paper 6110.
Sladen,* J., A.D'Hollander, R.D. and Krahn, J., 1985, The liquefaction of sands a collapse surface approach, Can. Geot. J., 22, pp. 564-578. 52
Souflis, C.L., 1985, Seismic damage analysis of earth retaining structures and natural slopes, Ph.D. Thesis, Rensselaer Polytechnic Inst., Troy, N.Y., USA.
Sture,* S., Scott, G.A. and Ko, H.Y., 1984, Dynamic behavior of jointed rock, Procs. 8th W. Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, Prentice- Hall, N.J., III, pp. 437-444.
Talaganov,* K. and Aleksovski, D., 1984, Soil stability and urban design case study, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, CA, Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 453-460. Toki,* K., Miura, F. and Oguni, Y., 1984, Estimation of the dynamic stability of a slope during strong earthquake motion, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, Prentice-Hall Inc., N.J., III, pp. 429-436.
Trizzino, R., 1987, Observations on the pseudostatic analysis of embankments and slopes with arbitrary seismic force inclination, Engineering Geology, 23, Nos. 3-4, pp. 263-276.
Updike, R.G., Egan, J.A., Moriwaki, Y., Idriss, I.M. and Moses, T.L., 1988, A model for earthquake-induced translatory landslides in Quaternary sediments, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 100, No. 5, pp. 783- 792.
Updike, R.G., Olsen, H.W., Schmoll, H.R., Kharaka, Y.K. and Stokoe, K.H., 1988, Geologic and geotechnical conditions adjacent to the Turnagain Heights landslide, Anchorage, Alaska, Geol. Survey Bull., Rep. No. B 1817, 40 p.
Uwabe, T., Kitazawa, S. and Higaki, N., 1986, Shaking table tests and circular arc analysis for large models of embankments on saturated sand layers, Soils and Found., 26, No. 4, pp. 1-15.
Vallejo, L., de G., Eldred, P.J.L. and Oteo, C.S., 1984, Open-pit design in seismic areas, Trans. Inst. Min. Met. (Sect. A-Min. Ind.)93, pp. A192-A197.
Wilson, R.C. and Keefer, D.K., 1985, Predicting areal limits of earthquake-induced landsliding. Evaluating earthquake hazards in the Los Angeles Region. An earth Science Persepective, U.S.Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 1360, pp. 317-345.
Wire,* J.C., Hofer, J.K. and Donley, H.F., 1982, Mass sliding potentialk, proposed Laguna Grande shopping center development, Seaside, California, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, III, pp. 1156-1168.
Yanagisawa,* E., Lee, W.S. and Ohmura, Y., 1984, Seismic stability analysis of an embankment, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San FRancisco, Prentice-Hall Inc., N.J., III, pp. 413-420. 53
Yucemen, M.S. and Vanmarcke, E.H., 1983, Three-dimensional seismic reliability analysis of earth slopes, Proc. 4th Int. Conf. "Applic. Statistics a. Prob. in Soil a. Structural Eng.", Univ. Firenze, Italy, 1, pp. 197-208.
4.3 Settlements - Subsidence
Chen, A.T., 1988, On seismically induced pore pressure and settlement, Procs. Earthquake Eng. a. Soil Dynamics II; recent advances in ground-motion evaluation, 20, pp. 482-492.
Chung,* R.M. and Yokel, F.Y., 1984, Volume change of sand deposits subjected to cyclic shear, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, CA., Prentice-Hall, Inc., III, pp. 285-290.
Elton, D.J., 1987, Settlement of footings on sand by CPT data, Jour. of Computing in Civil Eng., 1, No. 2, pp. 99-113.
Hatanaka,* M., Suzuki, Y., Miyaki, M. and Tsukuni, S., 1987, Some factors affecting the settlement of structures due to sand liquefaction in shaking table tests, Soils a. Found., 27, No. 1, pp. 94-101.
Lee, K.L. and Albaisa, A., 1974, Earthquake induced settlements in saturated sands, Jour. Geot. Eng. Div. ASCE, 100, No. GT 4, Procs. Paper 10496, pp. 387-406.
Ohara,* S. and Matsuda, H., 1988, Study on the settlement of saturated clay layer induced by cyclic shear, Soils a. Foundations, 28, No. 3, pp. 103-113. Prokopovich, N.P., 1983, Neotectonic movement and subsidence caused by piezometric decline, Assoc. Eng. Geol. Bull., 20, No. 4, pp. 393-404.
Prakash, S. and Gupta, M.K., 1971, Liquefaction and settlement characteristics of loose sands under vibrations, Procs. Conf. Soc. Earthquake Civ. Eng. Dynamics Waves in Civ. Eng., Swansea, 1970, Wiley-Interscience, pp. 229-246.
Sykora,* D.W., 1989, Evaluation of settlements in sands due to earthquake shaking, Discussion, Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 115, No. 3, pp. 429-431.
Tatsuoka,* F., Sasaki, T. and Yamada, S., 1984, Settlement in saturated sand induced by cyclic undrained simple shear, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, III, pp. 95-102.
Tokimatsu,* K. and Seed, B.H., 1987, Evaluation of settlements in sands due to earthquake shaking, Jour. Geot. Eng., 113, No. 8, pp.861-878. 5 /4
5. SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERACTION
5.1 Modelling
Pender, M.J., 1983, Earthquake soil-structure interaction, spring and dashpot models, and real soil behaviour, Bull. N.Z. Nat. Soc. Earthquake Eng., 16, No. 4, pp. 320-330.
5.2 Foundations - failures
Finn,* W.D.L., 1979, Role of Foundation Soils in seismic Damage Potential, Troisième Conf. Can. de Génie Sismique, tome 1.
Haldar,* A. and Chern, S., 1987, Soil-structure interaction in earthquake- induced liquefaction, Procs. 5th Can. Conf. Earthquake Eng., Ottawa, pp. 493-499.
Imbe, M., 1985, Earthquake observation and numerical analysis of hydrodynamic pressure on annular and cylindrical tanks (in Japanese), Proc. Japan Soc. Civ. Eng., No. 356, pp. 323-332.
Kawakami, H., 1984, Evaluation of deformation of tunnel structure due to Izu-Oshima-Kinkai earthquake of 1978, Earthquake Eng., a. Struct. Dyn., 12, No. 3, pp. 369-384.
6. SITE EFFECTS - INTENSITY AMPLIFICATION
6.1 General - theory
Akamatsu, J., 1984, Seismic amplification by soil deposits inferred from vibrational characteristics of microseisms, Bull. Disaster Prevention Research Inst., 34, No. 3, pp. 105-127.
Bard,* P.Y., Durville, J.L. et Méneroud, J.P., 1983, Amplification des ondes sismiques: influence des conditions géologiques locales, Bull. liaison Labo. P. et Ch., No. 123, pp. 85-90.
Bernai, D., 1987, Amplification factors for inelastic dynamic p-delta effects in earthquake analysis, Earthq. Eng. & Structural Dynamics, 15, No. 5, pp. 635-651.
Benz,* H.M. and Smith, R.B., 1988, Elastic-wave propagation and site amplification in the Salt Lake valley, Utah, from simulated normal faulting earthquakes, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 78, No. 6, pp. 1851- 1874.
Christoulas, S.G., Tsiambos, G.K. and Sabatakakis, N.S., 1985, Engineering geological conditions and the effects of the 1981 earthquake in Athens, Greece, Engineering Geology, 22, No. 2, pp. 141-155. 55
Corsanego,* A., Del Grosso, A., Solari, G. and Stura, D., 1984, Some considerations about site effects during the Irpinia earthquake of november 23, 1980, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., San Francisco, CA, Prentice-Hall, Inc., IV, pp. 66.
Franks,* C.A.M., 1988, Engineering geological aspects of the Edgecumbe, New Zealand earthquake of 2 March 1987, Quat. Jour. of Eng. Geology, London, 21, pp. 337-345.
Hattori,* S., 1978, A new proposal of the seismic risk map based on the maximum earthquake motions, the ground characteristics and the temporal variations of the seismicity, Proc. 2°d Int. Conf. Microz. for safer constr.; Research and Application, San Francisco, 1, pp. 421-432.
Hays,* W.W., 1989, Effects of soil and rock on ground motion and potential damage in an earthquake, Procs. 20th Joint Meeting of the U.S.-Japan Coop. Program in Nat. Res., Panel on Wind and Seismic effects, N.J. Raufaste, ed., U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NIST SP 760, pp. 177-190.
Imai,* T. and Tonouchi, K., 1982, Correlations among seismic motion, ground conditions and damage; Data on the Miyagiken-Oki earthquake of 1978, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, II, pp.. 649- 660.
Jarpe,* S.P., Cramer, C.H., Tucker, B.E. and Shakal, A.F., 1988, A comparison of observations of ground response to weak and strong ground motion at Coalinga, California, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 78, No. 2, pp. 421-435.
Joyner,* W.B. and Fumal, T.E., 1984, Use of measured shear-wave velocity for predicting geologic site effects on strong ground motion, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 777-783.
Martin, G.R., 1983, Site amplification models, in "A workshop on site- specific effects of soil and rock on ground motion and the implications for earthquake-resistant design" ( W.W. Hays, editor), U.S.G.S., Open-File Report No. 83-0845, pp. 227-230.
Mohammadioun, B. and Pecker, A., 1984, Low-frequency transfer of seismic energy by superficial soil deposits and soft rocks, Earthquake Eng. and Struct. Dyn., 12, No. 4, pp. 537-564.
Murphy,* J.R. and Shah, H.K., 1988, An analysis of the effects of site geology on the characteristics of near-field Rayleigh waves, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 78, No. 1, pp. 64-82.
Rukos, E.A., 1988, Earthquake behavior of soft sites in Mexico City, Earthquake Spectra, 4, No. 4, pp. 771-786
Sanchez-Sesma, F.J., 1987, Site effects on strong ground motion, Soil Dyn. a. Earthq. Eng., 6, No. 2, pp. 124-132. 56
Sanchez-Sesma, F., Chavez-Perez, S., Suarez, M., Bravo, M.A. and Perez- Rocha, L.E., 1988, The Mexico earthquake of September 19, 1985; on the seismic response of the Valley of Mexico, Earthquake Spectra, 4, No. 3, pp. 569-589.
Savy,* J.B., Bernreuter, D.L. and Chen, J.C., 1987, A methodology to correct for effect of the local site characteristics in seismic hazard analyses, in Ground Motion and Eng. Seismology, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey, in Geot. Engineering, 44, pp. 243-255.
Schenk,* V., 1984, Relations between ground motions and earthquake magnitude, focal distance and epicentral intensity, Eng. Geology, 20, pp. 143-151.
Seed, H.B., Romo, M.P., Sun, J.I., Jaime, A. and Lysmer, J., 1988, Relationship between soil conditions and earthquake ground motions, Earthquake Spectra, 4, No. 4, pp. 687-729.
Smolka,* A. and Berz, G., 1989, The Mexico Earthquake of September 19 , 1985 - An Analysis of the Insured Loss and Implications for Risk Assessment, Earthquake Spectra, 5, No. 1, pp. 223-248.
Taniguchi, E., 1982, Discussion on "Reduction of ground vibrations by improving soft ground", Soils a. Found., 22, No. 4, pp. 140-141.
Trifunac, M.D., 1980, Effects of site geology on amplitudes of strong motion, Proc. 7th World Conf. Earthq. Eng., Istanbul.
Trifunac, M.D., 1987, Influence of local soil and geologic site conditions on Fourier spectrum amplitudes of recorded strong motion accelerations, U. of S. Calif., Dept. of Civil Eng., Report 87-04, 235 p.
Tselentis,* G.A., Drakopoulos, J. and Makropoulos, K., 1988, Site effects on seismograms of local earthquakes in the Kalamata region, Southern Greece, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 78, No. 4, pp. 1597-1602.
Zhao, S.D. and Fang, H.Q., 1984, Surface damage of Tangshan, China, earthquake and characteristics of response spectrum of ground movement, Proc. Int. Conf. on "Case histories in Geot. Eng.", St. Louis, MO, Missouri-Rolla Univ. 1, pp. 523-529.
6.2 Effects due to the nature of the soil
Celebi,* M. and Dietel, C., 1987, Site amplification in Mexico City (determined from 19 september 1985 strong-motion records and from recordings of weak motions), in Ground Motion and Eng. Seismology, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey, in Geot. Eng., 44, pp. 141-151. 57
Celebi, M., Prince, J., Dietel, C., Onate, M. and Chavez, G., 1987, The culprit in Mexico City; amplification of motions, Earthquake Spectra, 3, No. 2, pp. 315-328.
Chen,* A.T.F., 1985, Transmitting boundaries and seismic response, Jour. Geot. Eng., ASCE, 111, No. 2, pp. 174-180.
Donovan,* N.C., 1978, Soil and geologic effects on site response, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microz. for Safer Constr; Research and Applic., San Francisco, Ca., 1, no. 2, pp. 55-80.
Garcia Delgado, V., 1986, Soil effects on building earthquake response, Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. of Texas, Austin, Texas, 412 p.
Géli,* L., Bard, P.Y. and Schmitt, D.P., 1987, Seismic wave propagation in a very permeable water-saturated surface layer, Jour. Geophys. Research, 92, No. B8, pp. 7931-7944.
Johnson,* L.R. and Silva, W., 1981, The effects of unconsolidated sediments upon the ground motion during local earthquakes, Bull Seism. Soc. Amer., 71, No. 1, pp. 127-142.
Joyner,* W.B., Warrick, R.E. and Fumai, T.E., 1981, The effect of Quaternary alluvium on strong ground motion in the Coyote lake, California, earthquake of 1979, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 71, No. 4, pp. 1333-1349.
Kamiyama,* M., 1984, Effects of subsoil conditions and other factors on the duration of earthquake ground shakings, Procs. 8th World Conf. Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 793-800.
Kausel, E. and Roesset, J.M., 1984, Soil amplification: some refinements, Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng.,3, No.3, pp. 116-123.
Kinoshita,* S. and Mikoshiba, T., 1984, Observation of earthquake response of thick sedimentary layers, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 753-760.
Kudo,* K., Shima, E. and Sawada, Y., 1984, Comparative observation of ground motions at different soil condition from moderately large earthquakes, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 769-776.
Munguia,* L. and Brune, J.N., 1984, Local magnitude and sediment amplification observations from earthquakes in the northern Baja California-southern California region, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 74, No. 1, pp. 107-119.
Samano,* T., Yamanaka, H. and Seo, K., 1984, Ground motions excited by deep Tertiary deposit, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 745-752. 58
6.3 Geometry effects (bedrock topography - structure)
Abbiss, C.P., 1989, Seismic amplification; Mexico City, Earthquake Eng. & Structural Dynamics, 18, No. 1, pp. 79-88.
Aubry,* D., Chouvet, D., Modaressi, H. and Mouroux, P., 1985, Local amplification of a seismic incident field through an elastoplastic sedimentary valley, Procs. Fifth Int. Conf. on Numer. Methods in Geomechanics, Nagoya, 3, pp. 1343- 1350.
Bard, P.Y., 1983, Les effets de site d'origine structurale en sismologie - Modélisation et interprétation - Application au risque sismique, Thèse d'Etat, Université Sei. et Médicale de Grenoble.
Bard,* P.Y., 1985, Les effets de site d'origine structurale: principaux résultats expérimentaux et théoriques, dans Génie parasismique, Davidovici, V., éditeur, Les Presses de L'ENP., pp. 223-238.
Bard,* P.Y., 1988, Understanding effects of local conditions on ground motion and accounting for them in earthquake hazard studies, Seminar on the Prediction of Earthquakes, Lisbon, Portugal, 14-18 nov. 88.
Bard,* P.Y. & Bouchon, M., 1980, The seismic response of sediment-filled valleys, Part 1, the case of incident SH waves, Bull. of the Seism. Soc. of Amer.,70, 4, pp. 1263-1286.
Bard,* P.Y. & Bouchon, M., 1980, The seismic response of sediment-filled valleys, Part 2, the case of incident P & SV waves, Bull. of the Seism. Soc. of Amer., 70, 5, pp. 1921-1941.
Bard,* P.Y., Campillo, M., Chavez-Garcia, F.J. and Sanchez-Sesma, F.J., 1988, The Mexico earthquake of September 19, 1985; a theoretical investigation of large- and small-scale amplification effects in the Mexico City valley, Earthquake Spectra, 4, No. 3, pp 609-633.
Bard,* P.Y., Durville, J.L. et Méneroud, J.P., 1984, Influence de la topographie sur la modification des ondes sismiques, Méditerranée, No. 1.2, pp. 113-121.
Bard,* P.Y. and Bouchon, M., 1985, The two-dimensional resonance of sediment-filled valleys, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 75, No. 2, pp. 519- 541.
Bard,* P.Y., et Méneroud, J.P., 1987, Modification du signal sismique par la topographie - Cas de la vallée de la Roya (Alpes-Maritimes), Bull. liaison labo. P et Ch., Nos. 150/151, pp. 140-151.
Bard,* P.Y. and Tucker, B.E., 1985, Underground and ridge site effects: a comparison of observation and theory, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 75, No. 4, pp. 905-919. 59
Brune,* J.N., 1984, Preliminary results on topographic seismic amplification effect on a foam rubber model of the topography near Pacoima dam, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng, San Francisco, II, pp. 663-670.
Brune, J.N., Lovberg, R., Anooshehpoor, R. and Wang, L., 1984, Measurements of topographic amplification on foam rubber models using newly designed quadrant position detectors, (abstr.), Eastern Section Seism. Soc. Amer., Earthquake Notes, 55, p. 22.
Castellani,* A., Chesi, C., Peano, A. and Sardella, L., 1982, Seismic response of topographic irregularities, Procs. Soil Dyn. a. Earthquake Eng., Southampton, I, pp. 251-268.
Celebi,* M., 1987, Topographical and geological amplifications determined from strong-motion and aftershock records of the 3 march 1985 Chile earthquake, Bull. Seism. Soc. of America, 77, No. 4, pp. 1147-1167.
Chang,* F.K. and Franklin, A.G., 1987, PGA, RMSA, PSDF, Duration, and MMI, in Ground Motion in Eng. Seismology, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey. in Geotechnical Engineering, 44, pp. 449-465.
Dominguez,* J. and Abascal, R., 1987, Effects of an irregular soil profile on site amplification, in Soil - Structure Interaction, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey, in Geot. Engineering, 43, pp. 3-12.
Drake,* L.A., 1980, Love and Rayleigh waves in an irregular soil layer, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 70, No.2, pp. 571-582.
Dravinski,* M., 1982, Influence of interface depth upon strong ground motion, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 72, No. 2, pp. 597-614.
Dravinski,* M., 1984, Strong ground motion in the Los Angeles basin; incident SH waves, Procs. 8th World Conf . on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 647-654.
Dravinski,* M. and Mossessian, T.K., 1987, Scattering of plane harmonic waves by multiple dipping layers of arbitrary shape, in Ground Motion and Engineering Seismology, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey, in Geot. Engineering, 44, pp. 91-105.
Durgunoglu,* H.T. and Tezcan, S.S., 1974, Discussion on "Vibration in situ and laboratory soil moduli compared", Jour. Geot. Eng. Div., Procs. ASCE, 100, No. GT12, pp. 1303-1304.
Elton, D.J. and Martin, J.R., 1986, Site period study for Charleston, SC., U.S. Geol. Survey, 9p.
Finn,* W.D.L. and Nichols, A.M., 1988, Seismic response of long-period sites: lessons from the September 19, 1985, Mexican earthquake, Can. Geotech. Jour., 25, pp. 128-137. 60
Flores, J., Novaro, O. and Seligman, T.H., 1987, Possible resonance effect in the distribution of earthquake damage in Mexico city, Nature (London), 326, 6115, pp. 783-785.
Geli,* L., Bard, J.P. and Jullien, B., 1988, The effect of topography on earthquake ground motion: A review and new results, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 78, No. 1, pp. 42-63.
GUrpinar,* Aybars, 1984, On some problems related to soil failures and intensity evaluations, Eng. Geology, 20, pp. 181-185.
Hao,* X., Wang, Z. and Peng, Y., 1985, The effects of underlying bedrock topography on earthquake ground motion, Procs. Fifth Int. Conf. on Numer. Methods in Geomechanics, Nagoya, 3, pp. 1351-1358.
Harmsen,* S. and Harding, S., 1981, Surface motion over a sedimentary valley for incident plane P asnd SV waves, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 71, No. 3, pp. 655-670.
Jiang,* T. and Kuribayashi, E., 1988, The three-dimensional resonance of axisymmetric sediment-filled valleys, Soils and Foundations, 28, No. 4, pp. 130-146.
Kagami, H., Okada, S., Shiono, K., Oner, M., Dravinski, M. and Mal, A.K.,1986, Observation of 1- to 5-second microtremors and their applications to earthquake engineering, Part III; A two-dimensional study of site effects in the San Fernando Valley, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 76, No. 6, pp. 1801-1812.
Kasuga,* S. and Irikura, K., 1982, Characteristics of seismic motions on ground with horizontally discontinuous underground structure, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, III, pp. 1677-1688.
Kausel, E. and Pais, A., 1987, Stochastic deconvolution of earthquake motions, Jour. of Eng. Mechanics, 113, No. 2, pp. 266-277.
King,* J.L. and Tucker, B.E., 1984, Observed variations of earthquake motion across a sediment-filled valley, Seism. Soc. Amer. Bull., 74, No. 1, pp. 137-151.
Langston, C.A. and Lee, J.J., 1983, Effect of structure geometry on strong ground motions: the Duwamish river valley, Seattle, Washington, USA, Seism. Soc. Amer. Bull., 73, No. 6, pp. 1851-1864.
Lee, V.W., 1982, A note on the scattering of elastic plane waves by a hemispherical canyon, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Eng., 1, No. 3, pp. 122-129.
Lee, V.W., 1984, Three-dimensional diffraction of plane P, Sv and SH waves by a hemispherical alluvial valley, Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng., 3, No. 3, pp. 133-144. 61
Lee, V.W., 1987, Influence of local soil and geologic site conditions on pseudo relative velocity spectrum amplitudes of recorded strong motion accelerations, Univ. of Southern Calif., Dept. of Civil Eng., Report 87-06, 273 p.
Lee, V.W., 1988, Three-dimensional diffraction of elastic waves by a spherical cavity in an elastic half-space; I, Closed-form solutions, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Eng., 7, No. 3, pp. 149-161.
Lee, V.W. and Trifunac, M., 1987, Rocking strong earthquake accelerations, Soil Dynamics and Earthq. Eng., 6, No. 2, pp. 75-89.
Levander,* A.R. and Hill, N.R., 1985, P-SV resonances in irregular low- velocity surface layers, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 75, No. 3, pp. 847- 864.
Lomnitz,* C., 1988, The 1985 Mexico Earthquake, Procs. Natural and Man- made Hazards, M.I. El-Sabh & T. S. Murty, Eds., D. Reider Publishing Co., pp. 63-79.
Mitchell,* D., 1987, Structural damage due to the 1985 Mexican earthquake, Procs. 5th Can. Conf. on Earthquake Eng., Ottawa, pp. 87-111.
Mitchell, D., Adams, J., DeVall, R.H., Lo, R.C. and Weichert, D., 1986, Lessons from the 1985 Mexican earthquake, Can. J. Civ. Eng., 13, No. 5, pp. 535-557.
Mueller,* C.S., Boore, D.M. and Porcella, R.L., 1982, Detailed study of site amplification at El Centro strong-motion array station no. 6, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Micr. Conference, Seattle I, pp. 413-424.
Niazi,* M., 1982, Coherence of the strong ground motion at neighboring sites of similar surface geology as observed during the 1979 Imperial Valley earthquake, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microzonation Conference, Seattle, I, pp. 425-434.
Nichimura, K. and Morii, W., 1984, An observed effect of topography on seismic ground motions, Bull. Disaster Prevention Res. Inst, 34, No. 4, pp. 203-214.
Ohmachi,* T., Kawamura, M., Yasuda, S., Mimura, C. and Nakamura, Y., 1988, Damage due to the 1985 Mexico earthquake and the ground conditions, Soils and Foundations, 28, No. 3, pp. 149-159.
Ohtsuki,* A. and Yamahara, H., 1984, Effect of topography and subsurface inhomogeneity on seismic SV waves and Rayleigh waves, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 655-662.
Peck, R. & Kausel, E., 1983, Scattering of SH waves by subsurface topography; discussion and closure, Jour. of Geot. Eng., (ASCE), 109, No. 3, pp. 932-935. 62
Petyt,* M. and Jones, D.V., 1987, Effect of layering on the transmission of ground vibration, in Ground Motion and Eng. Seismology, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey, in Geot. Engineering, 44, pp. 167-179.
Poorooshasb,* H.B., Adachi, T. and Iwasaki, Y.T., 1988, Response of a hill to earthquake type disturbance, Computers and Geot., 6, pp. 179-197.
Rogers, A.M., Tinsley, J.C. and Borcherdt, R.D., 1982, Geographic variation in ground shaking as a function of changes in near-surface properties and geologic structure near Los Angeles, California, 78th ann. meeting, Seism. Soc. Amer., Abstracts, 54, No. 1, pp. 71-72.
Rogers,* A.M., Tinsley, J.C. and Borcherdt, R.D., 1984, Geographic variation in ground shaking as a function of changes in near-surface properties and geologic structure near Los Angeles, California, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San FRancisco, II, pp. 737- 744.
Rogers, A.M., Tinsley, J.C. and Hays, W.W., 1984, The issues surrounding the effects of geologic conditions on the intensity of ground shaking, Procs. Geological and Hydrologic Hazards Training Program, U.S.G.S., Open File Report 84-0760, pp. 83-106.
Sadigh, K. and Youngs, R.R., 1984, Specification of upper bound values of ground motion, Eastern section of the Seis. Soc. Amer.; Earthquake Notes (USA), 55, p. 21.
Sanchez-Sesma,* F.J., Chavez-Pérez, S. and Avilés, J., 1984, Scattering of elastic waves by three-dimensional topographies, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 639-646.
Sanchez-Sesma, F.J., Faccioli, E. and Fregonese, R., 1986, An index for measuring the effects of topography on seismic ground motion intensity, Earthquake Eng. and Structural Dynamics, 14, No. 5, pp. 719-731.
Sanchez-Sesma,* F., Chavez-Garcia, F.J. and Bravo, M.A., 1988, Seismic response of a class of alluvial valleys for incident SR waves, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 78, No. 1, pp. 83-95.
Seed, H.B., Romo, M.P.,Sun, J., Jaime, A. and Lysmer, J., 1987, Relationships between soil conditions and earthquake ground motions in Mexico City in the earthquake of Sept. 19, 1985, Earthquake Eng. Research Center, College of Engineering, Univ. of California, . Berkeley, Report No. UCB/EERC-87/15, 112p.
Seo,* K. and Kobayashi, H., 1982, The influences of ground structure on earthquake ground motions, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microz. Conf., Seattle, II, pp. 637-648. 63
Singh,* J.P., 1982, Importance of local structure and source characteristics in estimation of near field strong ground motions, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microz. Conference, Seattle, II, pp. 623- 636.
Singh,* S.K., Mena, E. and Castro, R., 1988, Some aspects of source characteristics of the 19 september 1985 Michoacan earthquake and ground motion amplification in and near Mexico City from strong motion data, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 78, No. 2, pp. 451-477.
Springman, S., 1987, Geotechnical aspects of the Mexico earthquake; a report on the joint British Geotechnical Society/SECED meeting at ICE, Westminster, on november 12, 1986, Ground Engineering, 20, No. 1, pp. 7-8.
Tilford,* N.R., Chandra, U., Amick, D.C., Moran, R. and Snider, F., 1985, Attenuation of intensities and effect of local site conditions on observed intensities during the Corinth, Greece, earthquakes of 24 and 25 february and 4 march 1981, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 75, No. 4, pp. 923-937.
Tucker,* B.E. and King, J.L., 1984, Dependence of sediment-filled valley response on input amplitude and valley properties, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 74, pp. 153-165.
Tucker,* B.E., King, J.L., Hatzfeld, D. and Nersesov, I.L., 1984, Observations of hard-rock site effects, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 74, No. 1, pp. 121-136.
Tucker,* B.E., Real, C.R. et Bard, P.Y., 1988, Validation des méthodes de prédiction des effets de site: l'expérience de Turkey Flat en Californie centrale, Texte présenté lors d'une réunion sur "Les mouvements massifs (?) pour l'ingénieur" organisée par l'AFSS à St- Rémy, le 16 mars 1988.
Umeda, Y., Kuroiso, A., Ito, K. and Muramatu, I., 1987, High accelerations produced by the western Nagamo Prefecture, Japan, earthquake of 1984, Tectonophysics, 141, No. 4, pp. 335-343.
Wang,* Z., 1986, Earthquake engineering geological problems in urban construction, Procs. Eng. Geol. Problems in Asia, No. 1, Science Press, Beijing, China, pp. 369-382.
Wang,* Z., Fang, H. and Zhao, S., 1983,Surface displacements in relation to shallow surface fractures and deep faulting, Can. Geot. Jour., 20, no. 2, pp. 242-250.
Wojcik,* G.L., 1987, Diffraction and scattering analysis of surface waves by surficial geology, in Ground Motion and Eng. Seismology, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey, in Geot. Engineering, 44, pp. 375-393. 64
Yokohama,* H. and Toriumi, I., 1987, Behaviors of alluvial plain with irregular topography by the wave propogation, in Ground Motion and Eng. Seismology, A. Cakmak, ed., Elsevier, Dey, in Geot. Engineering, 44, pp. 181-192.
Zama, S., 1981, Behavior of elastic waves propagating through irregular structures; I, Effects on cliff by earthquake ground motions, Bull. of the Earthquake Res. Inst., 56, 4, pp. 741-752 (Japanese).
Zahradnik, J. and Urban, L., 1984, effect of a simple mountain range on underground seismic motion, Geophys. Jour. Royal Astr. Soc., 79, No. 1, pp. 167-183.
Zhang, C. and Zhao, C., 1988, Effects of canyon topography and geological conditions on strong ground motion, Earthq. Eng. & Structural Dynamics, 16, No. 1, pp. 81-97.
6.4 Mapping the site effects
Akamatsu, J., 1986, Seismic zoning and seismic ground motion in the southern part of Kyoto, Southwest Japan, Bull , of the Disaster Prevention Research Inst., 36, No. 1, pp. 1-42.
Borcherdt,* R.D., Gibbs, J.F. and Fumai, T.E., 1978, Progress on ground motion predictions for the San Francisco Bay region, California, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., I, pp. 241-254.
Hays,* W.W., Algermissen, S.T., Miller, R.D. and King, K.W., 1978, Preliminary ground response maps for the Salt Lake City, Utah, area, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, California, I, pp. 497-509.
Prévost, J.H., 1986, Effective stress analysis of seismic response site, Int. Jour. Num. and Anal. Methods in Geomechanics, 10, No. 6, pp. 653-665.
Shima,* E. and Imai, T., 1982, The estimation of strong ground motions due to the future earthquakes - A case study for Saitama Prefecture, Japan, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, I, pp. 518-530.
Stephenson, R.W. and Rockaway, J.D., 1981, Seismic response mapping of Saint Louis county, Missouri, U.S.G.S., 0E-81-0382, 128 p., ($25.25).
Stephenson,* R.W. and Rockaway, J.D., 1982, Soil response microzonation of St.Louis, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conference, Seattle, III, pp. 1429-1438. 65
Suzuki, S. and Kiremidjian, A.S., 1986, Site hazard analysis methods with empirical and geophysical ground motion models, Report - John A. Blume Earthquake Eng. Center, Dept. of Civil Eng., Stanford University, 80, 81 p.
Thompson, J.M. & Evernden, J.F., 1986, Map showing predicted seismic- shaking intensities of an earthquake in San Mateo County, California, California l-1257-H, ($3.10.
Tselentis, G.A., Stavrakakis, G., Makropoulos, K., Latousakis, J. and Drakopoulos, J., 1988, Seismic moments of earthquakes at the western Hellenic Arc and their application to the seismic hazard of the area, Tectonophysics, 148, Nos. 1-2, pp. 73-82.
7. MICROZONATION METHODS - MAPPING
Agamirzoyev, R.A., Kuliyev, F.T., Korobanov, V.V., Panakhi, B.M. and Aliyeva, S.T., 1986, The seismic microzonation of the Yenikend hydroelectric station territory (in Russian), Izvestia Akad. Nauk. Azerb., SSR., no. 1, pp. 79-83.
Alonso,* J.L. and Urbina, L., 1978, A new mcrozonation technique for design purposes, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., Vol. I, pp. 523-534.
Anderson,* J.G. and Trifunac, M.D., 1978, Application of seismic risk procedures to problems in microzonation, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microz. for Safer Constr.; Research and Application, I, No. 2, pp. 559-569.
Andrews,* R., 1982, Seismic safety planning in California: An overview of recent initiatives, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, Vol. III, pp. 1503-1512.
Ayetev,* J.K. and Andoh, M.B., 1988, Earthquake site response study of Accra area, Ghana, Bull. IAEG, No. 38, pp. 15-25.
Bard,* P.Y., Durville, J.L., Méneroud, J.P. et Mouroux, P., 1986, Plan d'exposition aux risques sismiques, Guide méthodologique pour la réalisation des études techniques, CETE Méditerranée, Labo. de Nice, Rapport GST 86484, 57 p.
Bard,* P.Y., Méneroud, J.P., Durville, J.L. et Mouroux, P., 1987, Microzonage sismique - Application aux plans d'exposition aux risques (PER), Bull liaison labo. P. et Ch., Nos. 150/151, pp.130-139.
Barosh,* P.J., 1979, Earthquake zonation in the northeastern United States, Amer. Soc. of Civil Eng., Boston Convention, Preprint 3602, pp. 1-22. 66
Barosh,* P.J., 1982, Seismotectonic zonation of New England, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microzonation Conference, Seattle, III, pp. 1239- 1250.
Barrocu, G. and Crespellani, T., 1982, Engineering geology in seismic microzoning, Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol., IAEG, Dec. 1982, New Delhi, India; A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 8, pp. 3-10.
Bell,* E.J., Trexler, D.T. & Bell, J.W., 1978, Computer simulated composite earthquake hazard model for Reno, Nevada, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., I, pp. 471-484.
Brabb,* E.E. and Borcherdt, R.D., 1978, Progress on seismic zonation in the San Francisco Bay region, Introduction and summary, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, California, Vol. I, pp. 229-230.
Brabb, E.E. and Herd, D.G., 1981, Seismic zonation; anticipating the consequences of future San Francisco Bay area earthquakes, Seism. Soc. Amer., 76th annual meeting; Earthquake Notes, 52, No. 1, p. 5.
Bracinac,* Z. and Janjic, M., 1978, Engineering-geological maps of seismic regions, Bull. I.A.E.G., No. 18, pp. 27-32.
Brookshire,* D., Schulze, W., Tschirhart, J., Murdoch, J., Thayer, M. and Hageman, R., 1982, An economic overview of the issues and problems of microzonation, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, Vol. I, pp. 209-243.
Bush, V.R., 1983, Comments on "Preliminary microzonation of the Memphis, Tennessee, area", by S. Sharma and W.D. Kovacs, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 73, No. 4, p. 1253.
Case, W.F., 1983, Inundation mapping for Utah geological & Mineral survey - Microzonation studies, The Geol. Soc. Amer., Rocky Mountain Section, 36th ann. meeting, Abstracts with Program, 15, No. 5, p. 397.
Chagnon, J.Y. et Locat, J., 1989, Le microzonage sismique de la région de Québec, présentation visuelle, Géoscience Québec 89, Val D'or, Assoc. prof. des géologues et des géophys. du Québec, Programme et Résumés, p. 25.
Chagnon,* J.Y., Doré, G., Locat, J. and Gélinas, P., 1985, A seismic microzonation map of the Quebec city area, GAC-MAC, CGU 1985 Joint Annual Meeting, Program with Abstracts, 10, p. A9.
Chagnon,* J.Y. et Doré, G., 1987, Le microzonage sismique de la région de Québec: Essai méthodologique, Les Cahiers du CRAD, 11, No. 1, Université Laval, 75p. 67
Chagnon,* J.Y. and Locat, J., 1988, Seismic microzonation for the Quebec city area, 41st Can. Geot. Conference, Kitchener, Ont., Preprint Volume, pp.306-313.
Cluff,* L.S., 1978, Geologic considerations for seismic microzonation, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, California, I, pp. 135-153.
Cluff, L.S. et al., 1972, Site evaluation in seismically active regions - an interdisciplinary team approach, Procs. Int. Conf. on Microzonation, Seattle, 2„ pp. 957-987.
Cluff,* L.S., Coopersmith, K.J. and Knuepfer, P.L., 1982, Assessing degrees of fault activity for seismic microzonation, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, I, pp. 113-118.
Coelho, A.G., Rimoldi, H.V., 1986, Engineering geological mapping for seismic microzonation, Procs. 5th Int. Cgr., IAEG, Buenos Aires, 5, No. 3, pp. 1797-1805,
Crespellani, T. and Loi, A., 1979, Applications of cluster analysis to seismic microzonation, Procs,. 3rd Int. Conf. "Applic. of Stat. a. Prob. in Soil a. Struct. Eng.", Univ. of New S. Wales, Sydney, Australia, 3, pp. 385-401.
Donavan, N.C. and Valera, J.E., 1972, A probabilistic approach to seismic zoning of an industrial site, Procs. Int. Conf. on Microzonation, Seattle, II, pp. 559-576.
Doré,* Guy, 1984, Microzonage sismique de la région de Québec, Thèse M.Sc., département de géologie, Université Laval, 77p. et 4 cartes.
Drakopoulos, J., Leventakis, G. and Roussopoulos, A., 1978, Microzonation in the seismic area of Corinth-Loutraki, Ann. Geofis. (Ita), 31, No. 1, pp. 51-93.
Durville,* J.L., Méneroud, J.P., Mouroux, P. et Simon, J.M., 1985, Evaluation de l'aléa sismique local - microzonage, dans Génie parasismique, Davidovici, V., éditeur, Presses de l'ENP, pp. 239-271.
Evernden,* J.F., 1982, Comments on seismological input to microzonation maps, Frocs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, III, pp. 1171- 1204.
Fernandez, J.A., 1978, Preliminary seismic zoning in the Tucson area, Arizona, M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, USA.
Finn,* W.D.L., Yogendraskumar, M. and Nichols, A., 1987, Seismic response analysis of level sites, embankments and soil-structure systems, in "Earthquake Geotechnique", The Vancouver Geot. Soc., 54p. 68
Fischer,* J.A. and McWhorter, J.G., 1978, The microzonation of New York State: Progress Report No. 2, Frocs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., I, pp. 329-341.
Fischer,* J.A., Hsu, F.T. and Oleck, R.F., 1982, New York State Microzonation techniques, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, III, pp. 1285-1294.
Gaull, B. and Michael-Leiba, M.O., 1986, Probabilistic earthquake risk maps of Southwest Western Australia, Bur. Miner. Resour., Jour. of Australian Geol. and Geophysics, 10, No. 2, pp. 145-151.
Glass,* C.E., 1978, Application of regionalized variables to microzonation, Procs. Second Int. Conf. on Microz. for safer Constr.; Research and Applic., San Francisco, Calif., 1, pp. 509-521.
Goryachev, A.V., Yershov, I.A. et al., 1963, Seismic microregionalization of the territory of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatka, Acad. Sci., USSR, Earth Physics Inst. Proc. No. 28, pp. 3-60, translated by P.J. Barosh.
Hattori,* S. and Kashimura, Y., 1984, Digitalization of ground survey data and microzoning, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 713-720.
Hays, W.W., 1986, Technical aspects of seismic microzonation, Procs. of Conf. XXXV; A workshop on earth science considerations for earthquake hazards reduction in the Central United States, U.S. Geol. Survey, Open-File Report 86-0425, pp. 161-172.
Hays,* W.W. and Algermissen, S.T., 1982, Problems in the construction of a map to zone the earthquake ground-shaking hazard, Frocs. 3rd Int. earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, I, pp. 145-156.
Hays,* W.W., Algermissen, S.T., Miller, R.D. and King, K.W., 1978, Preliminary ground response maps for the Salt Lake City, Utah, area, Frocs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation for Safer Constr., Research and Applic., San Francisco, 1, No. 2, pp. 497-508.
Herd,* D.G., 1978, Neotectonic framework of central coastal California and its implications to microzonation of the San Francisco Bay region, Frocs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., I, pp. 231-240.
Howell, B.F., 1984, On the variation of seismic hazard along the San Andreas fault, Seism. Soc. of Amer. Bull., 74, No. 2, pp. 709-724.
Hu,* Yu-Xian and Sun, P. Shan, 1982, Earthquake microzonation and site effects, Procs. 3rd Int. Earth. Microzonation Conf., Seattle, USA, II, pp. 587-597. 69
Husni, M., 1981, Experimental study of microtremor observations for a seismic microzoning, Ind. studies by partic. at the Int. Inst. of Seism. and Earthq. Eng. (Japan), 17, pp. 49-64.
Ihnen,* S.M. and Hadley, D.M., 1987, Seismic Hazard Maps for Puget Sound, Washington, Bull. Seism. Soc. America, 77, No. 4, pp. 1091-1109.
Kameda,* H., Sugito, M. and Goto, H., 1982, Microzonation and simulation of spatially correlated earthquake motions, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microz. Conf., Seattle, Vol. III, pp. 1463-1474.
Kartosusastro, S., 1982, Microtremor observation for seismic microzonation, Ind. studies by participants at the Int. Inst. of Seism. and Earthq. Eng. ( Japan), 18, pp. 39-56.
Keilis-Borok, V.I., Kronrod, T.L. & Molchan, G.M., 1982, A preliminary evaluation of the seismic risk for major cities, Computational seismology: Earthquake Prediction and the Structure of the Earth, 14, pp. 83-96.
Kiremidjian,* A.S., 1982, Stochastic models for seismic hazard analysis and their use in microzonation, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, III, pp. 1205-1214.
Kisslinger,* C., 1978, Seismicity and global tectonics as a framework for microzonation, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microz. for Safer Constr.; Research and Applic., 1, No. 2, pp. 3-25.
Kitagawa, Y. and Matsushiam, Y., 1984, Evaluation of dynamic ground characteristics and seismic microzoning, Bull. N.Z. Nat. Soc. Earthquake Eng., 17, No. 1, pp. 15-23.
Kockelman,* W.J. and Brabb, E.E., 1978, Examples of seismic zonation in the San Francisco Bay region, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., I, pp. 303-315.
Krinitzsky, E.L., 1984, Geological-seismological evaluation of earthquake hazards at Surry mountain damsite, New Hampshire, USA., US Army Waterways Exp. Stn., Vicksburg Techn. Report No. GL-84-7, 47 + 46p.
Krinitzsky, E.L., 1986, Geological-seismological evaluation of earthquake hazards at Prompton and Francis E. Walter damsite, Pennsylvania, Technical Report GL-86-8.
Kuroiwa,* J., 1982, Simplified microzonation method for urban planning, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microzonation Conf., Seattle, USA, II, pp. 753-764'.
Kuroiwa,* J., 1988, Physical planning for multi-hazard mitigation, Procs. Natural and Man-made Hazards, M.I. El-Sabh and T.S. Murty, eds., D. Reidel Publishing, pp.805-816. 70
Kuroiwa,* J., Deza, E., Jaen, H. and Kogan, J., 1978, Microzonation methods and techniques used in Peru, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., I, pp. 341-353.
Lee, V.W., 1987, Seismic microzonation method based on modified Mercalli intensity scaling, Earthq. Eng. and Eng. Vibration (China), 7, No. 3, pp. 47-63. Lee, V.W. and Trifunac, M.D., 1987, Microzonation of a metropolitan area, Univ. Southern Calif., Dept. Civil Eng., Report No. 87-02, 143p.
Liu, Y.H. and Du, D.J., 1982, Seismic engineering geology evaluation of Shengyang-Fushun area, China, Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol., IAEG, Dec. 1982, New Delhi, India; A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 8, pp. 45-54.
Mândrescu,* N., 1978, The Vrancea earthquake of march 4, 1977 and the seismic microzonation of Bucharest, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, California, I, pp. 399-412.
Mândrescu, N., 1979, The Vrancea earthquake of march 4, 1977 and the seismic microzonation of Bucharest, Rev. Roum. Geol., Geophys. Geogr., Ser. Geophys., 23, pp. 27-36.
Mândrescu,* N., 1984, Geological hazard evaluation in Romania, Eng. Geology, 20, pp. 39-47.
Marcellini,* A., Stucchi, M. and Petrini, V., 1982, Some aspects of the microzonation of Ancona, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, III, pp. 1475-1488.
McCann,* M.W. and Boore, D.M., 1982, Variability in ground motions; a factor in microzonation, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microz. Conf., I, pp.471-482.
Mouroux,* P., Sauret, B., Sedan, 0. et Pauly, J.C., 1987, Plan d'exposition aux risques Naturels, Commune de Coudoux, Rapport avec cartes, C.E.T.E. Méditerranée et B.R.G.M., 44p. et 3 cartes.
Murakami,* S. and Midorikawa, K., 1978, Land use technique for microzonation, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., I, pp. 547-558.
Mushkatel,* A.H., 1982, Land-use policy in the United States and the potential use of microzonation, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microzonation Conf., Seattle, USA, III, pp. 1569-1578.
Nichols,* D.R. and Buchanan-Banks, J.M., 1978, Seismic hazards and land- use planning, Geology in the urban environment, Burgess Publishing Co., U.S.A. 71
Nogoshi, M., 1985, Site characterization by detailed seismic intensities, aftershocks and microtremors, AGU 1985 Fall Meeting, EOS, Trans., 66, no. 46, pp. 967-968.
Olson,* R.A., 1978, The policy and administrative implications of seismic microzonation: Toward logic or confusion, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, California, III, pp. 1475-1487.
Olson,* R.A. and Nilson, D.C., 1982, Microzonation as a policy tool: Factors for and against adoption, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microzonation Conf., Seattle, USA, III, pp. 1545-1556. Osawa,* Y., Osada, K. and Chow, Y.D., 1984, A case study - Microtremor measurements and earthquake observations for the purpose of comparison between the damage observed and the damage estimated, Procs. 8th World Conf. on Earthq. Eng., San Francisco, II, pp. 729- 736.
Page,* W.D., Savage, W.U., Alt, J.N., Cluff, L.S. and Tocher, D., 1978, Seismic hazards along the Makran coast of Iran and Pakistan: The importance of regional tectonics and geologic assessment, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., II, pp. 669-679. Patwardhan,* A.S., Tillson, D.D. and Nowack, R.L., 1978, Zonation for critical facilities based on two-level earthquakes, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., I, pp. 485-497.
Petrovski,* J., 1978, Need for experimental evidence in development of seismic microzoning methods, Procs. Second Int. Conf. on Microz. for Safer Constr.; Research and Applic., San Francisco, Calif., 1, pp. 413-420. Petrovski,* J.T., 1980, Cartographie de détail des zones sismiques (microzonage) et problèmes connexes, La protection contre le risque sismique, Unesco, Belgique.
Pu,* Jiang and Si, D.L., 1982, The effect of earthquake-induced ground failure and considerations for engineering and microzonation in China, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, II, pp. 599-610.
Radbruch-Hall,* D.B., 1978, Examples of engineering geologic mapping in seismically active areas of the United States, Bull. I.A.E.G., No. 18, pp. 15-25. Remmer,* N.S., 1978, Government responsibility in Microzonation, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, USA, I, pp. 215-226.
Schell,* B., 1978, Seismotectonic microzoning for earthquake risk reduction, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, California, I, pp. 571-585. 72
Schiavone, D., Patella, D. and Canziani, R., 1975, Seismic microzonation; applications to an area of industrial development (Italian), Geologia Tecnica, 22, no. 5, pp. 217-224.
Schwartz, D.P. and Coppersmith, K.J., 1986, Seismic hazards; new trends in analysis using geologic data, in Active tectonics - Studies in Geophysics, Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, US, pp. 215-230.
Sharma, S. and Kovacs, W.D., 1980, The microzonation of the Memphis, Tennessee, area, U.S. Geol. Sur., Open-File Report No. 80-914, 137p.
Sharma,* S. and Kovacs, W.D., 1982, Preliminary microzonation of the Memphis, Tennessee, area, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 72, No.3, pp. 1011-1024.
Sherif,* M.A. and Ishibashi, I., 1978, Soil dynamics considerations for microzonation, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, 1, pp. 81-110.
Sherif, M.A. and Ishibashi, I., 1980, Basic requirements for microzonation, Procs. 7th W. Conf. on Earthquake Eng., Istanbul, 1, pp. 225-228.
Shima,* E., 1978, Seismic microzoning map of Tokyo, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, California, I, pp. 433-444.
Singh, V.N. and Agrawal, R.C., 1979, Geophysical methods in microzonation, Bull. Indian Soc. of Earthquake Technology, 16, No. 3, pp. 117-121.
Siro,* L., 1982, Emergency microzonations by Italian Geodynamics Project after november 23, 1980 earthquake: A short technical report, Procs. 3rd Int. earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, III, pp. 1417-1427.
Siro, L., Bigi, G. and Testoni, P., 1983, Seismic microzonation surveys; urgent intervention in 39 habitations of Campània and Basilicata struck by the earthquake of november 23, 1980, Cons. Naz. Ric., Italy, Publ. No. 492, 221 p.
Skipp, B.O., 1984, Seismic Hazard and Risk in Open-pit Mining, Trans. Inst. Min. Met. (Sect. A-Min. Ind.),93, pp. A180-A192.
Slemmons,* D.B., 1982, Determination of design earthquake magnitudes for microzonation, Frocs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, I, pp. 119-130.
Soydemir,* C., 1982, Liquefaction and related effects for microzonation, Frocs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microz. Conf., Seattle, II, pp. 1121-1128.
Srivastava, L.S., 1985, Seismic microzonation of hilly terrains, Indian Geotech. Conf., Meerut, India, 1, pp. 383-386. 73
Srivastava, L.S. and Basu, S., 1982, Seismic risk evaluation for engineering project sites, Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Int. Ass. Eng. Geol., IAEG, Dec. 1982, New Delhi, India; A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 8, pp. 129-138.
Srivastava, V.K. and Roy, A.K., 1982, Seismotectonics and seismic risk study in and around Delhi region, Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol., IAEG, Dec. 1982, New Delhi, India; A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 8, pp. 77-86.
Steinbrugge,* K.V., 1978, Earthquake insurance and microzonation, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, California, I, pp. 203-214.
Stephenson, R.W. and Rockaway, J.D., 1981, A new methodology for microseismic zoning, Procs. Earthquakes and Earthquake Engineering; The Eastern United States, Ann Arbor, MI, pp. 895-915.
Stephenson,* R.W. and Rockaway, J.D., 1982, Soil response microzonation of St. Louis, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, III, pp. 1429-1438.
Sugimura, Y., 1980, An attempt of microzonation in and around Sendai city, Procs. 7th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., Istanbul, 1, pp. 155-162.
Sugimura,* Y., Ohkawa, I. and Sugita, K., 1982, A seismic microzonation map of Tokyo, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, III, pp. 1439-1450.
Sugimura,* Y. and Ohkawa, I., 1984, Seismic microzonation of Tokyo area, Procs. Eight World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, San Francisco, II, pp. 721-728.
Sun, C. and Liu, S., 1987, Application of seismo-engineering geological method to the seismic microzonation in Xian city, Shuiwendizhi Gongchengdizhi (Hydrogeology and Eng. Geol.), 1987, No. 1, pp. 18-20 (in Chinese).
Talaganov,* K., Petrovski, J. and Aleksovski, D., 1982, Seismic microzoning according to dynamic stability of soil media, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, III, pp. 1343-1354.
Tanaka,* A., 1982, Development for classification method of surface ground conditions by dynamic properties from Kana's microtremors observation, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthq. Microz. Conf., Seattle, USA, III, pp. 1451-1462.
Thompson, J.M. & Evernden, J.F., 1986, Map showing predicted seismic- shaking intensities of an earthquake in San Mateo County, California, California l-1257-H, ($3.10). 74
Tinsley, J.C., Rogers, A.M. and Brown, W.M., 1986, Suggested directions in earthquake shaking microzonation research, Procs. of Conf. XXXII; workshop on future directions in evaluating earthquake hazards of southern California, U.S. Geol. Survey, Open-File Report 86-0481, pp. 345-354.
Wesnousky, S.G., Scholz, C.H., Shimazaki, K. and Matsuda, T., 1984, Integration of geological and seismological data for the analysis of seismic hazard: a case study of Japan, Seism. Soc. of Amer. Bull., 74, No. 2, pp. 687-708.
Wuorinen,* V., 1976, Seismic microzonation of Victoria - A social response to risk, in "Victoria, Physical Environment and Development", edited by H.D. Foster, Western Geographical Series, Vol. 12, U. of Victoria, pp. 185-219.
Yao, C.B. and Jin, H., 1982, Seismo-tectonic zoning and seismic risk analyses of a project site, Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Int. Ass. Eng. Geol., IAEG, Dec. 1982, New Delhi, India; A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 8, pp. 165-171.
Yen, B.C. and Condoretti, R., 1980, Microzonation of slopes in a seismically active foothill region; a case study, Procs. 7th World Conf. on Earthquake Eng., Istanbul, Turkey, 1, No. 7, pp. 147-154.
Yoshikawa,* S., Iwasaki, Y.T. and Tai, M., 1978, Microzoning of Osaka region, Procs. 2nd Int. Conf. on Microzonation, San Francisco, Calif., I, pp. 445-457.
Zahradnik, J., Cerveny, V. and Bartak, V., 1981, Influence of geological factors on seismic ground-motions (Seismic microzoning of Prague), Studia Geophysica et Geodetica (CSK), 25, No. 4, pp. 343-355.
Zhu,* H., 1982, Earthquake hazards, prehistoric seismicity and seismic microzonation, Procs. 3rd Int. Earthquake Microz. Conf., Seattle, Vol. III, pp. 1379-1392.
Ziony,* J.I., coord., 1982, Seismic zonation of the Los Angeles region -- A progress report, by the U.S.G.S. staff, Procs., 3rd Int. Earthquake Microzonation Conf., Seattle, USA, 1, pp. 157-172.
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