Volume 6, Issue 7(3), July 2017 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-43-7/1, Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
I am happy to inform you that our INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH (IJMER) is approved on 12-05-2017 by UGC Research Standing Committee- 2017 Serial No: 41602.
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Vice Chancellor Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Founder and President Research Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Mumbai Lima Peru
Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Prof. Igor Kondrashin Vice Chancellor, Patna University The Member of The Russian Philosophical Former Director Society Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Studies, New Delhi & The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.U.Shameem Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Dr.V.Venkateswarlu Vizianagaram Assistant Professor Dept. of Sociology & Social Work Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Department of Anthropology Delhi Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Department of Political Economy Indonesia University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Prof. Roger Wiemers Austria Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Dr. N.S. Dhanam Russian Philosophical Society Department of Philosophy Moscow, Russia Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Department of Mechanical Engineering Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education GITAM University University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Visakhapatnam Prof. Chanakya Kumar Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Department of Computer Science Coordinator University of Pune,Pune A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Department for Production Engineering Dr.S.Kannan University of Novi Sad, Serbia Department of History Annamalai University Prof. Shobha V Huilgol Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Department of English Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India GITAM University Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Hyderabad Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Prof.Francesco Massoni Department of Public Health Sciences Dr.K.Chaitanya University of Sapienza, Rome Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Technology Al-Mustansiriyah University People’s Republic of China College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Cachar College, Assam Department of Mathematics Dr. Bipasha Sinha University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V Librarian Prof. N Kanakaratnam Kalasalingam University Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi
Dr. K. John Babu Assistant Professor Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Department of Sahitya Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati
Dr.T.V.Ramana Prof. R. Siva Prasadh Department of Economics, Andhra University Institute of Advanced Studies in Education Campus, Kakinada Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.
C O N T E N T S Volume 6 Issue 7(3) July 2017
S. Pg.
No No 1. Work-Life Balance in India-the Key Driver of Employee 1 Engagement Allam Joseph Praveen Kumar
2. Impact of Demonetization on India Economy-a Study 16 Biswajit Das
3. Gender Equality in Education: Empower Women 24 R.D.Padmavathy
4. Womb Education - The Need of Hour 40 Rajeshwari Garg
5. Achievement Motivation and Employee Performance: a 47 Study in Visakhapatnam K. Suseela
6. Impact of Demonetization on Street Vendors: a Study in 61 Visakhapatnam City J.R. Sreenatha Babu
7. Role of Government Oraganistion Protection of Child 75 Labour with Special Reference to Dhemaji District, (Assam) Jatin Dutta
8. Service Convergence Issue in Mobile Cloud Computing 98 Hagos Alemseged Yifter and Gagandeep
9. Testing the Combined Impact of Capital Structure and 114 Earnings Per Share on the Market Value of Shares: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach with Special Reference to Select Indian Public Sector Banks M.S.Ramaratnam and R.Jayaraman
10. Revisiting Reservation Policy for the Gujjar Tribe of 122 Jammu and Kashmir Javeed Ahmad Bhat 11. Rayalaseema’s Economic Development in the Era of 138 Globalisation G.Somasekhara 12. The Significance of Practical English in Specialized 145 Training G.Ramamurthy 13. Mental Illness and Juvenile Delinquency 150 G.Padmaja 14. Status of Women in Agricultural Development - A Fresh 164 Outlook is Needed Veeraiah Bollikonda and D. Sandhya 15. A Study of Academic Achievement of Underachievers in 174 Science in Relation to their Intelligence Umesh Chandra Kapri 16. Developing Economics Preserves Teachers’ Group Meta 185 Cognitive Processes in a Computer Supported Collaborative Learning Environment Sneha Raikar 17. Progress of Elementary Education in Varanasi 194 District(With Special Reference to Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan) Ramesh Dhar Dwivedi 18. Rule Based Approachfor Translitration of English to 205 Tigrigna Gebremedhin Hailu and Gurpreet Singh Josan 19. Effect of Social Campaigns on Female Foeticide 224 Renu Yadav
20. 239 ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Dr. K. VICTOR BABU Impact Factor :4.527(2016) M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India
Editorial……
It is heartening to note that our journal is able to sustain the enthusiasm and covering various facets of knowledge. It is our hope that IJMER would continue to live up to its fullest expectations savoring the thoughts of the intellectuals associated with its functioning .Our progress is steady and we are in a position now to receive evaluate and publish as many articles as we can. The response from the academicians and scholars is excellent and we are proud to acknowledge this stimulating aspect. The writers with their rich research experience in the academic fields are contributing excellently and making IJMER march to progress as envisaged. The interdisciplinary topics bring in a spirit of immense participation enabling us to understand the relations in the growing competitive world. Our endeavour will be to keep IJMER as a perfect tool in making all its participants to work to unity with their thoughts and action. The Editor thanks one and all for their input towards the growth of the Knowledge Based Society. All of us together are making continues efforts to make our predictions true in making IJMER, a Journal of Repute
Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW www.ijmer.in
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WORK-LIFE BALANCE IN INDIA-THE KEY DRIVER OF EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT
Dr.Allam Joseph Praveen Kumar Associate Professor Dept of Management Studies Sphoorthy Engineering College, Hyderabad
Abstract: In India the balance between the work-life and the professional life is a common talk. Personal and professional are the two roles played by a working individual. The employees have to play their role and handle their responsibility. Due to the work stress their dear ones like family, organization and society gets affected. In several professions there is considerably a high pressure of performance which in return leads to stress and other problems. The shrinking incomes, faltering economy and uncontrolled layoffs are some undeniable factors. A considerable factor is the lack of accommodation for the work-life balance, which in return can add to the stress load of the employees, especially for the working women’s who are the primary caretakers of their family, children’s and old dear ones. All of these factors lead to the stressed individuals in an organization which leads to the fatigue, these individuals prone to mistakes and injuries, and are more likely to be absent. Work and professional life are the two sides of the same coin. This exploratory research is an attempt to study the work-life balance issues. This paper will examine the literature on work-life balance policies and practices, Employee engagement and work-place culture in different industries in order to increase their productivity and retain them in the organization for a long period of time. This paper is an attempt against the highly increasing work load and working hours that is the primary demand of Indian organizations and expects in the course of time and what are the problems faced by the employees due to the pressure of work and what are the main problems they can be encountered. In India where family issues are the top priority but due to the adverse effect of the work-life of the employees they can’t give enough time to his/her family.
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Keywords: Employee Engagement, Work-Life Issues, Reasons for Balances, Benefits INTRODUCTION Work-life balance is an often-used term in all the sectors like BPOs, ITs, and Hospitality etc. The question is „what is the theoretical framework when we are looking at work-life balance? Whenever we get the answer of this question it becomes easier for us to crack the problems. In today s work environment a better balance between work and life is increasingly desired by the workers. The desire for a better work-life balance has become one of the growing concerns in contemporary society. Therefore it is essential for organizations to incorporate work-life balance strategies with job design and employment policies. It is important to identify the benefits of work-life balance before designing and implementing any work life balance program. Examining the advantages of work-life balance can help organizations to realize the importance of incorporating work life balance strategies with their employment policies. Consequently they can design and implement effective work-life balance programs in their work environment. When the burden, obligations and responsibilities of work and family roles become incompatible, then a conflict between the work and personal life get aroused which in return make it complicated to complete one task at a time. The obligation to do a task can force the individual to neglect the other one. The work/life balance is about adjusting working patterns in such a way that employees can combine their work with their other responsibilities such as caring for children’s or elder relatives. In today’s knowledge world employees are looking for the new opportunities to learn and improve their skills. They want the open valve for their imagination, creativity and ideas. The employees like the senior management interest in their wellbeing and they like to work for the organization with a reputation of a good employer. The organizations which provide a workplace culture with the psychological conditions of meaningfulness (job enrichment, work role fit), safety (supportive managers and co-workers), and availability (resources available) are more likely to retain the employees. It is shown by the researches that the organizations get
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the engaged employees due to the psychological conditions of meaningfulness, availability and safety. Work-life balance is important for the employee’s engagement and retention. By knowing the unique needs of diverse groups as well as by recognizing individual differences within these groups, HR can better understand the challenges of increased diversity in the organizations workforce (e.g., different generations, more females, and changing psychological conditions) and work towards designing and implementing work-life balance policies and practices to engage diverse employee groups. During this time of financial uncertainty the businesses are more concerned about increasing the employee’s engagement. The tangible benefits can be achieved with the introduction of appropriate employment practices to help the employees to achieve a better work-life balance. The faltering downturn and job insecurity would bring increased job focus and engagement. The work life balance can made the employees to feel free and even lead to increased productivity, lower absenteeism and less stressed workforce and employees will remain engaged to the organization. This paper will examine how to promote good work-life balance in workplace and highlights its benefits in the business. It also explores the belief of employee’s engagement and workplace culture. Although it will outlines the implementation of the work-life policies and practices adopted in the organizations for the employee’s it. REVIEW OF LITERATURE A brief review of literature of studies conducted so far is given here. Adams et al. (1996) found that relationships between work and family can have an important effect on job and life satisfaction and the level of involvement the worker assigns to work and family roles is associated with this relationship. Duxbury and Higgins (2001) examined the effects of three types of work family conflict – role overload (having too much to do), work to family interference and family to work interference on the organizational performance and quality of life of employees. It was found that work-life conflict had a negative impact on organizational performance and on employees. Employees who are overloaded or whose work interfered with family (vice-versa) were highly stressed, experienced burnout, expressed dissatisfaction with life, and were in poor mental/ physical health.
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Work schedule flexibility has been found to be negatively associated with work life balance / work family conflict. Higher the flexibility lower is the work family conflict. In other words, higher the work schedule flexibility, higher is the work life balance. Loscocoo (1997) examined how people with considerable control over their work lives construct and experience work family connections. The data was collected through in-depth interviews of 30 self-employed people. The results showed that self-employed people had considerable control over their work lives and this helped them to curb the intrusion of work into family life. However, women emphasized the importance of flexibility more than men. Hammer et al. (1997) reported that higher levels of perceived work schedule flexibility were related to lower levels of work family conflict. Macky and Boxall (2008) reported that employees working longer hours are more likely to report a greater imbalance in the work life relationship. The five high involvement variables (i.e. power to make decision and act autonomously, information provision, rewards, knowledge of the job and team working) were found to be negatively correlated to work life imbalance. It was also found that increasing the availability of work life balance policies for employees did not improve the relationships when pressure to work longer hours was higher, and employees felt greater work life imbalance. Across industries, engagement is substantially higher in the non- profit sector than in every other sector looked at by Towers Perrin (2003). This would appear logical, given that people tend to be drawn to this sector through a sense of mission, rather than from any prospect of high pay or wealth accumulation. This finding is also consistent with the numerous definitions and views surrounding engagement, which identifies a „passion for work as being a key component factor (Truss et al 2006, Brim 2002 and Holbeche and Springett 2003). Indeed, the fact that the sector is traditionally not a high-paying one, relative to the others studied, emphasizes the fact that it is not possible to „buy‟ engagement in the conventional sense by offering better than average monetary awards. Conversely, in another study comparing the public and private sectors, Truss et al (2006) found that group in the public sector had a more negative experience of work, they reported more bullying and harassment than those in the private sector, and were less satisfied with the
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opportunities they had to use their abilities. This reinforces the findings of previous studies and underlines the scale of the challenge facing public sector managers in particular, and the negative impact that bullying and harassment have on employees and their levels of engagement (Emmott 2006). According to Robinson (2006), employee engagement can be achieved through the creation of an organizational environment where positive emotions such as involvement and pride are encouraged, resulting in improved organizational performance, lower employee turnover and better health. Individuals adopt strategies such as accommodation, negotiation to enhance their work life balance or reduce work family conflict. Singh (2001) in his qualitative study used „work/life border theory to explore how British and Swedish managers dealt with competing commitments. A sample of 35 managers (18 Swedish, 17 British; 18 males and 17 females) ranging from directors to project managers, aged between 28 to 59 years, was taken and semi-structured interviews were held on site in UK and Sweden. The study showed a tension between managers own needs for more balanced work lives and corporate attitudes to balance - seekers and career choices. Findings suggested that four kinds of strategies were used by the managers for maintaining work life balance. These included accommodating family terms, negotiating with the family, accommodating the organization and staggering commitments. The study showed that managers enact their work life balance strategies with both their employer and their family, particularly their partner, who also enacts boundaries between home and employer, so there are four parties to the negotiation or accommodation of needs. Some managers use their own views as reference points for dealing with subordinates need for work life balance. WORK-LIFE BALANCE POLICIES & PRACTICES Work-life balance, in its broadest sense, is defined as a satisfactory level of involvement or „fit between the multiple roles in a person’s life (Hudson, 2005).There is no one accepted definition of what constitutes a work-life balance practice, the term usually refers to one of the following: organizational support for dependent care, flexible work options, and family or personal leave (Estes & Michael, 2005). Hence these practices include flexible work hours (e.g.,
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flextime, which permits workers to vary their start and finish times provided a certain number of hours is worked; compressed work week, in which employees work a full week's worth of hours in four days and take the fifth off), working from home , sharing a full-time job between two employees (job sharing), family leave programs (e.g., parental leave, adoption leave, compassionate leave), onsite childcare, and financial and/or informational assistance with childcare and eldercare services. Work-life balance policies can assist employees achieving a balance between their work and personal commitments that is right for them. The policies need to be supported by the workplace culture, which reflects the beliefs, values and norms of the whole of the organization from the CEO to staff members. Other important factors in the success of work life balance policies include proper communication of commitment to the policies to existing and future employees , raising awareness of the policies, education of managers about the importance of policies, and training of managers on how to implement these policies.
Engaged Employees Are a Competitive Business Advantage The most successful companies recognize that their employees are their most valuable asset. Employee engagement is not just a buzzword – it has a clear link to increased business success. Efficiency and productivity are prerequisites for success on a fiercely competitive market. Healthy, capable and engaged employees are a companys capital and a major competitive advantage. Linkage research (e.g., Treacy) received significant attention in the business community because of correlations between employee engagement and desirable business outcomes such as retention of talent, customer service, individual performance, team performance, business unit productivity, and even enterprise-level financial performance (e.g., Rucci at al, 1998 using data from Sears). Some of this work has been published in a diversity context (e.g., McKay, Avery, Morris et al., 2007). Directions of causality were discussed by Schneider and colleagues in 2003. The Corporate Executive Board surveyed 50,000 employees in 59 organizations worldwide. Employees with lower engagement are four times more likely to leave their jobs than those who are highly engaged. Even more important, moving from low to high engagement can result in a 21 percent increase in performance. "The key to engaging employees comes from targeting the right
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employees with the right programs. Companies that segment employees based on commitment and 'line of sight' can find the right drivers that will retain and motivate their most valuable employees. Programs that increase trust, empowerment and customer focus increase engagement and therefore provide a competitive advantage. Employee engagement has emerged as a critical driver of business success in todays competitive marketplace. Thus, to gain a competitive edge, organizations are turning to HR to set the agenda for employee engagement and commitment.
Workplace Culture Sets the Tone for Employee Engagement Organizations that create cultures that value balance, and assist employees to achieve life balance will be rewarded with highly engaged employees. By developing more unified and compassionate workplace cultures, organizations will be more attractive to people of all generations. Such studies provide valuable insight and information to HR professionals to assess HR policies and programs for the multigenerational workplace. These multigenerational workplace policies and programs include the flexible working conditions, telecommuting, family leave, rewards and recognition, health care, training and development. In India, the concept of hierarchy has traditionally strongly influenced business decision, such as strategy, promotions and communications. Yet, in today's Indian workplace, older workers view hierarchy as more important than do people of the younger generation. Additionally, it should be noted that the concept of the Baby Boom generation exists only in the developed world, with other nations not having the concerns resulting from this large generation. For example, many countries (e.g., Latino Christian, Arab and African nations) did not have a significant reduction in fertility rates, nor did they embrace factors such as access to contraception, the changing role of women in society and more recent focus on work/life balance.
Work-Life Balance Policies & Practices Stimulating Employee Engagement in Industries Over the last decade the evidence for the business benefits of work- life balance policies has been growing in volume and strength. The studies show strong links between work-life balance policies and reduced absenteeism, increased productivity and job satisfaction.
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Other benefits include improved recruitment and retention rates with associated cost savings, reduced sick leave usage, a reduction in worker stress and improvements in employee satisfaction and loyalty, greater flexibility for business operating hours, an improved corporate image. The Workplace Employee Relations Survey 1998 suggests that the workplaces that are doing best on a number of dimensions were those with 'high commitment management practices' well embedded in the labor process, and where a large proportion of employees feel committed to the organization. They defined high commitment management practices to include policies on communication with employees and family-friendly working practices. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The main objective of the work-life balance study here is to understand the business benefits of improved work-life balance. The main objectives of the research are as follows:
To study the work-life balance issues affecting the employee’s life. To study the factors affecting the work-life issues. To determine the factors leading to work-life imbalance of the employees.
To suggest the suitable measures for perfect equilibrium between effective work and life. WORK-LIFE BALANCE PROBLEMS For an employer it might be difficult to understand that whether he is supporting the employees to balance their work and life. There are some factors that show that the work/life balance is poor. Some of these factors are as:
Employees are doing a lot of overtime as the youth is targeted as they are more energetic and young to do any task. In lieu of earning money they not get enough time to spend with family and it may lead to issues related to personal life even health may not support for a long period of time to spend on job.
High rates of absenteeism or staff sickness. High levels of staff turnover.
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Employees taking a lot of time off to deal with „emergencies involving children or other dependents.
High levels of employee stress. Employees should be made to get recharge as they will be working for long hours they need break from hectic work schedule. Management should interact with people and understand what can be done to keep employees happy so that they can be part of organization for a long period of time. But should Corporate India meekly accept that? Could they not firmly and collectively send the message out that their executives are their wealth and should be better taken care of Initiatives like “work from home,” flexi-work, etc., have not been successful. People who choose that option have become marginalized and subtly excluded, with their career clearly nose-diving. This has forced most of them to give in and get back to the mainstream career force or make a tough priority decision. I have come across several “power women” who chose the work from home option. In a few months, they had to admit that it was killing their growth in the company. There are certain health related issues which are arises due to the work/ life imbalances and stress at workplace.
Health Problems The consequences of stressful work are health related problems, which eventually leads to quitting of job or Quitting the industry. We witness high attrition rates of around 30-40% in this industry. Some of the health issues are:
1. Tension 2. Sleeplessness 3. Headaches 4. Eye-strain 5. Repetitive strain injury (RSI) 6. Voice loss, hearing problems and burn-out. Detachment from the Family Since the daytime is spent in sleep and recreational activities with
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friends. The employees are hardly able to give time for their families. Problems become more pronounced when they get married. Additional responsibilities of running a family demands more time and hence eventually people quit the industry. Most of the employees work on Indian holidays too, which causes frustration. Some employees even feel the need for inclusion in the family and the society. Hence it is important for family members to render support for their young sons and daughters and to help them with the stress that they are undergoing.
Discipline and Behavioral Issues Call centers provide excellent working environment, free food and transportation. There is always situation where individual or group of youngsters tend to commit mistakes and abuse the freedom. The most common behavior cited is misuse of food, behave erratically in vans, and Smoke in public places, misuse of telephones and other resources of the company. The supervisors themselves reel under the pressure of performance and achieving targets. Hence do not give their time for finding solutions. The professional counselor can play a major role in educating the youngsters on discipline; provide advice to erring executives. Unacceptable behaviors cause disturbance to others and affects the overall productivity. Continuous education and counseling will help to mitigate such problems and it is possible to change the behavior by adopting a positive approach.
Personal Habits The young executives tend to develop certain bad habits such as alcohol, smoking etc. It is not. It is uncommon to find women smoking and drinking alcohol in the organization which is definitely a Social stigma in the Indian societies. There are increased concerns about the habits of the employees among the parents, who are not finding it easy to talk to them about their habits, which in no way are welcomed by the Indian families. Solving such issues lies majorly in the hands of the employees and their employers. Employees can be made to attend counseling sessions of professional counselors. Conducting group Counseling, workshops, educative film shows, in order to create awareness on effects of bad habits. Such actions will enable individuals to realize the importance of good habits and they could seek one-to-one counseling sessions.
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Depression The gradual realization that there are limited scopes in developing a career owing to fewer growth opportunities is increasing the frustration levels in the organization. Coupled with growing mental fatigue and increasingly punishing physical environments, depression is the obvious end result. Some call centers have now devised different stress management programs mainly to counter depression.
Eyesight Problems Globally call center employees are considered a high risk group for eye related problems. While the quality of monitors might impact these disorders, sitting continually without adequate breaks seems to be the truer reason. While this is already a problem in the IT industry, which some companies have overcome by use of anti-glare monitors.
Hearing Ailments A call center job invokes taking calls throughout the shift, sitting with headphones. While quality of headphones does make a difference, it would not be appropriate to say that good quality of headphones can solve this problem; it is more to do with giving rest between calls.
Reasons of imbalance There are various reasons for this imbalance and conflicts in the life of an employee. From individual career ambitions to pressure to cope up with family or work, the reasons can be situation and individual specific. The speed of advancement of information technology, the increasing competition in the talent supply market has led to a “performance-driven” culture creating pressures and expectations to performance more and better every time. Also, many a times, many people find it difficult to say “NO” to others especially their superiors. They usually end up over burdening themselves with work. The increasing responsibilities on the personal front with age can also create stress on personal and professional fronts.
Effects Constant struggle and effort to maintain a balance between the work and personal life can have serious implications on the life of an
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individual. According to a survey, 81 per cent of the respondents have admitted that their jobs are affecting and creating stress in their personal lives. The pressures of the work or personal life can lead to stress. According to studies, it has been found to that such situation can take a toll on the person‟s health both physiologically and psychologically. Heart ailments, cardiovascular problems, sleep disorders, depression, irritability, jumpiness, insecurity, poor concentration and even nervous breakdowns are becoming common among the victims of such imbalance. Pressure, stress or tension in work life can lead to bad social life and vice versa. SUGGESTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE WORK LIFE There are no hard-and-fast rules on what constitutes an acceptable work/life balance - this will depend on the operational requirements of your business and the needs of your employees.
Flexible Working Practices This includes part-time working, flexi-time, job sharing and home working. Self-roistering allows employees to choose which shifts to work. Certain employees have the right to request flexible working. For a full explanation of the types and advantages of flexible working, see our guide on flexible working - the law and best practice. You can also use our interactive tool to investigate what kind of flexible working will best suit your employees and employers.
Unpaid Career Breaks The other policies that make it easier for employees to balance work and the rest of their lives include unpaid career breaks and paid sabbatical schemes. These are a cost-effective way to retain valued staff or reward those with long service. Allowing your employees extra days off work -whether paid or unpaid - can improve their work/life balance. Holiday purchase schemes enable employees to buy additional - usually limited holidays on top of their annual entitlement. You could consider giving employees maternity, paternity, adoption or parental leave in excess of the statutory minimum, e.g. higher pay or longer leave. These schemes give employees a measure of control over how their working lives are organized and foster greater employee loyalty and commitment.
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Making the working environment more attractive Improvements to the working environment can boost morale and help you retain valued staff. The typical techniques include: free exercise classes, a free/subsidized canteen, company days out, childcare vouchers, time-off for learning.
Time management It is one of the best solutions which can help to reduce the imbalance between the personal and the work life of the employees. Prioritizing the tasks and planning the activities can help to take out some free time which can be utilized for other purposes. Taking some time out for hobbies and leisure activities, spending time with loved ones can help to beat the stress. The employees have to learn to say “no” if required. Sharing the responsibilities will help and don’t commit for something which is practically impossible. Utilizing the flexible working hour’s option of the organizations to get some free time. CONCLUSION Work-life balance and employee engagement becomes a visible benchmark among high performing organizations that reap the economic and reputational benefits of being publicly recognized as a „best place to work or an „employer of choice. Many Family-friendly organizations feel the need for work/ life balance which include recruitment and retention of valuable work force, reduced absenteeism, reduced employee stress, health benefits, job satisfaction, and better life balance. It has been suggested that an effectiveness of work-life balance policies and practices must incorporate the effects of workplace culture and supervisor support of employees efforts to balance work and family Responsibilities. Developing and maintaining a culture that enables and supports the opportunity to have a desired work life balance and to promote the benefits of the employee & organization. (Wheeler et al., 2006) agrees that a strong organizational culture increases employees intent to remain in the organization. Work-life balance must be supported and encouraged at all levels of the organization, including senior management, line managers and all staff. An organization which encourages work-life balance policies and practices will win the benefits of augmented employee engagement and also a positive outcome is dependent on a workplace culture that is supportive of
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using work-life initiatives. Some organizations are working on balancing the work-life of employees and measure to be taken to solve complexities of workers in workplace and how to solve this problem using time management and employees can manage their personal life and professional life smoothly. Today’s organizations are all about working with 24*7 and stress will be involved with work and mental stability will be a prime concern for employers so as how to make people work efficiently. The organizations has to organize special programs at the week-end by creating an attractive work environment through which people can get relaxed at least during week-end. The organizations should know what the reasons are for the birth of such imbalances. REFERENCE [1] Adams, G.A., King, L.A., & King, D.W. (1996). Relationships of job and family Involvement, family social support, and work- family conflict with job and life Satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(4), 411-420. [2] Emmott, M. (2006) „Hear me now, People Management, 23rd November, pp38-39. [3] Hammer L.B., Allen, E., & Grigsby, T.D. (1997). Work family conflict in dual earner couples: within individual and crossover effects of work and family. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 185-203. [4] Loscocoo, K.A. (1997). Work family linkages among self- employed women and men. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 204-226. [5] Mackey. K., & Boxall, P.L. (2008). High involvement work processes, work Intensification and employee well- being: a study of New Zealand worker Experiences. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 46(1), 38-55. [6] McKay, Avery, & Morris (2008), mean racial and ethnic differences in sales performance: The moderating role of diversity climate. Personnel Psychology, 61, pp. 349-374. [7] Moore, Fiona (2007). “Work-life balance: Contrasting managers
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and workers in an MNC”, Employee Relations. Vol. 29. Issue 4, pp. 385-399 Robinson, I. (2006) Human Resource Management in Organizations. London, CIPD. [8] Singh, V. (2001). Managers work life balance and commitment: An exploratory study. Retrieved March 30, 2007, from http://www.sses.com/public/events/euram/ Complete tracks/work and family/Singh. [9] Society for Human Resource Management. (2006), SHRM Special Expertise Panel 2006 trends report. Alexandria, VA: Author. [10] Tucker, E., Kao, T., & Verma, N (2005, July/August), next- generation talent management: Insights on how workforce trends are changing the face of talent management. Business Credit, 107(7), pp. 20-28. [11] Truss, C., Soane, E., Edwards, C., Wisdom, K., Croll, A. and Burnett, J. (2006) Working Life: Employee Attitudes and Engagement 2006. London, CIPD. [12] Worrall, L. and Cooper, C.L (1999), „Working patterns and working hours: their Impact on UK managers‟, Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 20(1), pp. 6–10.
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IMPACT OF DEMONETIZATION ON INDIA ECONOMY-A STUDY
Dr.Biswajit Das Assistant Prof. (Sr.) Deptt. of Economics Kamrup College, Chamata Dist.-Nalbari (Assam) PO- Chamata Introduction
The government has implemented a major change in the economic environment by demonetising the high value currency notes – of Rs. 500/- and Rs. 1,000/- denomination. These ceased to be legal tender from the midnight of 8th of November 2016. People have been given up to December 30th, 2016 to exchange the notes held by them. The proposal by the government involves the elimination of these existing notes from circulation and a gradual replacement with a new set of notes. The reasons offered for demonetisation are two-fold: one, to control counterfeit notes that could be contributing to terrorism, in other words a national security concern and second, to undermine or eliminate the “black economy”.
There are potentially two ways in which the pre-demonetization money supply will stand altered in the new regime:
One, there would be agents in the economy who are holding cash which they cannot explain and hence they cannot deposit in the banking system. This part of the currency will be extinguished since it would not be replaced in any manner.
Second, the government might choose to replace only a part of the currency which was in circulation as cash. In the other words, the rest would be available only as electronic money. This could be a mechanism used to force a transition to cashless medium of exchange. These two
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would have different effects on the economy in the short term and in the medium term, as will be explored below.
Objective of the Study:
To study the impact of demonetization and Cashless transactions on Indian economy.
Data source/ Methodology:
This research is descriptive in nature. Basically data from secondary sources are used for the preparation of this report. Secondary data are collected from different books, journals; articles, periodicals, research papers and RBI official website.
What is Demonetization?
Demonetization is the act of stripping a currency unit of its status as legal tender. Demonetization is necessary, whenever there is a change of national currency. The old unit of currency must he retired and replaced with a new currency unit.
“Demonetization is the withdrawal of a particular form of currency from circulation.” Through demonetization the old currency is replaced by the new currency or a currency circulation is blocked.
History of Demonetization in India
Recently the Indian government decided to demonetize the biggest denomination notes i.e. 500-1000 Rupees notes. This is not the first time that India has demonetized its currency, earlier it was done in 1946 with the complete ban of Rs. 1,000/- and Rs. 10,000/- notes to deal with the unaccounted money i.e. black money. Second time it was done in 1978 by Government headed by Morarji Desai, when Rs. 1,000/-, Rs 5,000/- and Rs 10,000/- notes were demonetized.So that makes in the last time demonetization was done in India, almost 36 years ago.
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GENERAL IMPACT
These demonetization measures have had significant and immediate impact on the state of the Indian economy. These measures are also expected to result in long-term impact on certain industries and sectors. These measures have resulted in a significant decrease in liquidity in the short term, which is expected to ease gradually with the introduction and circulation of the new currency notes. With cash transactions impacted by a decrease in liquidity, alternative payment methods, such as e-wallets, online transactions using e- banking, debit and credit card usage have increased significantly. This will increase usage of such payment systems, and enable a shift towards an efficient cashless infrastructure.
IMPACT ON THE RETAILERS
Post demonetization, retail industry took a beating in the first week of the announcements with the news of major retails shops giving a deserted look. However, with the currency inflow the situation slowly resumed to normal and it would still take time. The traditional purchase behaviour, found that the consumers perceive that those companies pursuing online marketing are innovative.
IMPACT ON REAL ESTATE AND CONSTRUCTION
The real estate sector in India has traditionally involved a significant level of informal funding in the form of cash transactions. As the demonetization measures are expected to result in decreased informal funding sources, the real estate sector is expected to be adversely affected. Cash transactions are most common in secondary sales, and resale transactions are expected to decline. While these measures are expected to in the long term promote transparent pricing in the real estate sector, decreased liquidity resulting from lower informal funding sources is expected to significantly weaken the demand for resale properties.
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IMPACT ON ONLINE SHOPPING
After demonetization, the online shopping with prepaid channels increased, the purchases made online were mainly food and groceries, online restaurant booking and food ordering etc.
IMPACT ON THE RURAL CONSUMER
All said and done the rural consumer who transacts mainly in cash finds it difficult to make a card purchase. Added to this, the banks that are in the rural areas cater to more customers that of the urban areas. Mainly being a cash economy, the small and medium enterprises stand to lose in the wake of no-cash prevalence. It would take a long way for the rural consumer to adapt to the process of digital payment and those businesses that are mainly cash driven have to accept the new modes of payment.
IMPACT ON ELECTRONIC PAYMENT SYSTEM
The government wants India to go cashless, but doing so is not easy. Cashless transactions have their downsides for consumers. But, for those with access to digital payments, rejecting cashless options or hesitating to embrace technology is also not the answer, especially in the wake of the cash crunch brought on by the government’s demonetisation move.
1) E Wallets – E Walletshave become very famous nowadays. After demonetisation, use of e wallets has been implemented at a very large- scale. These e wallets allow users to make payments using your mobile number or by scanning a QR code which takes place in a jiffy. All you need to do is simply download a wallet like PAYTM.
2) UPI –UPIalso known as Unified Payments Interface is another great way to go cashless. Unified payments interface also called UPI is system of payments. Using unified payments interface, people can transact using their smartphones. To pay using this system called
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unified payments interface, you need 2 important things: Smartphone and a Bank Account.
3) Plastic Money – Plastic Money means debit cards and credit cardsthat are used at ATM‟s for cash withdrawal and POS machines while shopping. Having a debit or credit cards make you burden free from carrying cash.
4) Net Banking – Net Banking is another handy way to get cashless transactions done. All you need is a bank account with e banking facility enabled on it. You can transfer funds to others account from the comfort of your home. There is no need of going to your bank to get transfers done. You can make all payments and transfers yourself. This is a very convenient way to go cashless in India as well.
5) Aadhaar Card – Aadhaar Card enabled payment systemallows a person to pay using his aadhaar card if it is linked to his bank account. Once you link your aadhaar card to your bank, you can make payments using your finger prints.
POSITIVE IMPACTS
1) Black Money Tracking: The main objective of demonetization is to curb black money. Curbing Black Money Demonetization has made it mandatory for every person in India to deposit their old currency in the banks andexchange them for new currency. This will make the cash hoarders to deposit their money in the account and make it accountable.
2) Reduction in Illegal Activity: Banning high-value currency will halt illegal activity as the cash provided for such activities has no value now. Black money is usually used to fund the illegal activity, terrorism, and money laundering. Fake currency circulation will come to a halt in a single shot.
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3) Jan DhanYojana (JDY): Now individuals are depositing enough cash in their Jan Dhan acounts which they were reluctant to do so a few days back. The amount deposited can be used for the betterment of the country
4) Terror Funding: Fake Indian Currency Notes (FICN) network will be ripped to pieces by the demonetization measures. Taking out 500 and 1000 rupee notes out of circulation will have an eternal impact on the syndicates producing FICN’s, thus affecting the funding of terror networks in Jammu and Kashmir, North-eastern states.
5) Real Estate May See Significant Course Correction: The demonetization decision is expected to have extensive effects on real estate. Resale transactions in the real estate sector often have a significant cash module as it reduces the incidence of capital gains tax. Black money was responsible for the sharp gratitude of properties in metros; real estate prices may now see a sharp decline.
6) Moving towards Digital Payments: Demonetization result in people implementing virtual wallets such as Paytm, Ola Money etc. The demand of online e-commerce business like Amazon, Flipkart, Myntra etc. also increased after demonetization. Digital payment uses have increased. India is on the way to a more efficient and cashless economy.
7) Good Governance: Demonetization is done as a measure of good governance as suggested in the World Bank's Ease of Doing business report. This measure will increase the rankings of India in various indexes published by WorldBank, World Economic Forum, United Nations and IMF etc.
8) Increased Tax Revenue: There is an incredible surge in tax collections for the past month. Property tax, water tax and other corporation levies in all states have risen considerably. The income tax collections have also risen rapidly.
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NEGATIVE IMPACTS
1) Public Inconvenience: Public inconvenience is the major disadvantage of the demonetization measure. The move towards cashless transaction is good and only sections of the people are accustomed to this practice but majority of Indians have no knowledge about this cashless transaction.
2) Reduced Money Circulation: There is severe shortage of money circulation in the economy as a whole. Everyone has a single 2,000 rupee note and cannot transact with it in local shops and many other places where swipe machines are absent due to the problem of change. There is severe shortage of 100 rupee notes and with a single 2,000 rupee note, people find it very hard to find change.
2) ATM Calibration: Only 40 percent of the ATM machines have been calibrated to the new currency while the rest of the ATM machines are still put of order. This creates a queue in ATM machines and the cash gets exhausted within hours. ATM machines are not fully operational causing further inconvenience to the people. Most of the times,ATM machines are out of cash.
3) Corruption And Fraud: There are many instances of fraudulent activities like the banking personnel and the post personnel illegally exchanging the old currency for new currency for a commission amount The misuse of Jan Dan accounts to exchange black money is also revealed and restrictions are implied on such accounts.
4) The Cost To The Government: Replacing Rs 500 and 1,00 notes with other denominations could cost the Reserve Bank of India more than 12,000 crores, taking into account the notes in circulation and the cost incurred to print them.
5) Loss of Business: Due to demonetization, the business has been negatively affected as the vendors don’t have enough change to return
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to their customers. Some of them are still accepting credits but still, people are spending less than they used.
6) GDP Growth: It is estimated that the demonetization driven cash crunch will result in GDP growth crashing to 0.5% in the second half of the financial year 2016-17.
CONCLUSION
Central government’s recent decision to demonetise the high value currency is one of the major step towards the eradication of black money in India. The demonetization drive will affect some extent to the general public, but for larger interest of the country such decisions are inevitable. Also it may not curb black money fully, but definitely it has major impact in curbing black money to large extent. Overall, Demonetization is a bold step towards good governance and transparency.
References
1. Bhargava, Y, “Prospect of Cashless economy may continue post demonetization” The India Express, 30 Dec, 2016
2. Kumar. R , “What is demonetization and why was it done’ Economic times, 9 Nov. 2016
3. www.india times.com assessed online on 10.02.2017
4. www.indiatoday.com assessed online on 11.02.2017
5. www.timesofindia .com assessed online on 12.02.2017.
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GENDER EQUALITY IN EDUCATION: EMPOWER WOMEN Dr. R.D.Padmavathy Assistant Professor in Mathematics Education Department of Education Tezpur University (A Central University) Assam
ABSTRACT The preamble to the Constitution of India promises full equality to all citizens in all aspect. Women constitute half of the total population in the world, they are contributing lot for the development of family and nation; but their work is unrecognized and their service is not counted. Due to that women lag behind men in all spheres of life and suffering and ignorance of physical, psychological vulnerability increases against them. In this paper an attempt has been made to analyses the various dimensions of the women problems, challenges that hinder their progress, reflect of Women education & empowerment, status of women’s in the field of education, expected empowered women profile, gender equality and its importance, existing gender inequality in classroom, Government Strategies & Schemes for Empowering Women, Suggestions for reducing gender inequality & Improve the Literacy Level of Women and remedial measures to be taken in future to strengthen the hands of women are discussed. Key Words: Empowerment, Women, Gender Equality, Education INTRODUCTION “A father asks his daughter: - Study? Why should you study? I have sons aplenty who can study…… - To make a world where girls belong, I must study. ……………………………………………… Because I am a girl, I must study.” Kamla Bhasin Education is the most important invention of mankind and backbone of every individual for complete living. The general aim of education is not only impart information but also to stimulate pupils to think. The specific aim of education is gaining of capacities by the individual, which enable him to determine his beliefs, fulfill his needs
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and grow to the maximum level. It helps us to draw out the best in the child and man and helps to solve the real and social problems of life in a free and democratic environment. As of Feb 05, 2016 population of India is 1.31 billion, among that 635 millions are females. The highest percentages of woman population have been considered as a weaker section of the society and they were oppressed by men and denied from their rights. As rightly remarked in, Indian education commission Report (1964-66) “The realization of the country’s aspirations involves changes in the knowledge, skills and values of the people as a whole. If this “change in a grand scale” is to be achieved without a violent revolution there is one and only instrument that be used – Education”. Education is the powerful tool and plays a significant role in every one’s life; specifically girls and women life to terminate discrimination of individual on the basis of gender. Education not only provides knowledge to girls and women; it helps to gain confidence, to know their rights and to raise voice to claim them for social, economical and political empowering of self. Women Education & Empowerment Empowerment is midway in the change processes that benefit women at individual, household, community and broader levels. At the most basic level, innovations can benefit women simply by improving their well-being in terms of health, nutrition, income, life span, etc. Women’s empowerment is defined as “A process to change the distribution of power both in interpersonal relations and in institutions throughout society”- (Nelly Stromquist,1995). It is a women’s ability to make strategic life choices where that ability had been previously denied them. Indian constitution on Education article 15 clauses 3 and 4 “Education for all irrespective of sex”- remains unfulfilled for this category of excluded composed mainly of girls. Today 1/3 women neither read nor write (Murty,2000). In the period of pre-independence the literacy rate for women had a very poor in comparison to literacy rate of men. Literacy rate of men has risen from 9.8 % to 24.9 %. Literacy rate of women has risen from 0.7 % to 7.3 %. During the post-independence period literacy rates have shown a substantial increase in general. The 2001 Census report indicates that literacy among women as only 54.16 percent. It is
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virtually disheartening to observe that the literacy rate of women India is even much lower to national average i.e. 65.38. The growth of women’s education in rural areas is very low. The literacy rate for the women is only 54% against 76% of men as per 2001 Census. However the literacy rate of male has almost tripled over the period e.g 25% in 1951 and 76 % in 2001. Surprisingly the female literacy rate has increased at a faster pace than the male literacy during the decade 1981 -2001. According to Feb 5, 2016 census3 India’s literacy rate was 74.0% with Male literacy rate 82.1% and female literacy rate 65.5%. The growth is almost 8 times increases now. But to reach the equal literacy rate gap of 16.6 % will take another more decades. According to census the effective literacy rate for males rose to 82.14 per cent marking a rise of 6.9 per cent; it increased by 11.8 per cent for females to go from 53.67 to 65.5 per cent only which is less than Indian average literacy rate of 74.04 percent. This shows that women are still illiterate and they are in facing a lot of trouble. Moreover education is also not available to all equally. Gender inequality is reinforced in education which is proved by the fact that that the literacy rate for the women is only 65.5% against 85.1% of men as per 2016 Census3. From this analyze one can infer that still the female literacy rate (only half of the female population are literates) is wadding behind male literacy rate .This higher rate of illiteracy of women is undoubtedly attributing for women dependence on men and to play a subordinate role. Girls who passes 65.5% in school education due to factors most of them are not enrolling in higher education sectors. Women in Higher Education Women enrolment in higher education which was less than 10% of the total enrolment on the eve of Independence has raised to 41.5% in the academic year 2010-11 and it still continue the same. University Grants Commission (UGC) report reveals “ Out of 169.75 lakh students enrolled in higher education in 2010-11, almost 70.49 lakh were women as compared to just about 47.08 lakh women enrolled in 2006- 07,”Preetu (2012). Specific subject interest also plays a role in gender inequality. In line with this Thomas (1990:7) conveys “Understanding the gender-
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specific connotations of certain fields of learning is crucial if we are to comprehend the process by which gender inequality is produced in education”. All Indian survey on higher education given a detailed report of student’s enrollment ratio GER of 2012-13 is 21.5, in 2013-14 with 23% and in 2014-15 with 23.6 (2015 as recent one). GER for male population at all India level is 24.5% whereas for female population at all India level is 22.7% (http://aishe.gov.in). Table 1: Showing the Enrolment Level of Education Based on the Gender Level of Male Female Total Education PHD 59,617 38,626 98,243 M.Phil 9,067 9,596 18,663 Post Graduate 9,63,312 9,13,459 18,76,771 Undergraduate 22,68,574 15,74,929 38,43,503 PG diploma/ 74,162 52,133 1,26,295 Diploma 1,84,568 74,590 2,59,158 Certificate 28,054 27,614 55,668 Integrated 60,448 31,200 91,648 Total 36,47,802(58%) 27,22,147(42%) 63,69,949 Source: AISHE 2014-15 (2015) An undergraduate male student constitutes 55.25% and female constitutes 64.02 % in arts stream and in science stream male enrolment was 43.35% and female 33.82%. The same way of gender enrolment gap existing from school level to research level. As from the report of AISHE 2011-12 (2013) the percentage of male scholar’s enrolment in Ph.D are 90.42 and female enrolment is 77.64 in arts stream and in science 56.88 are male and 51.7 are female. Male’s enrollment in higher education is always high compared to female’s enrollment. This can be seen from the following Table 2 easily.
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Table 2: Showing the Stream Wise Enrolment from UG to PH.D Based on the Gender
PH.D M.PHIL PG UG Gender Arts Science Arts Science Arts Science Arts Science
Male 90.42 56.88 31.84 25.13 55.41 32.05 55.25 43.35
Female 77.64 51.7 43.66 31.12 48.81 29.42 64.02 33.82
Total 85.3 54.55 38.44 28.48 52.24 30.78 59.27 38.99 Even today many women are dolls in the hands of men. This shows women are in need to understand the meaning of empowerment. Through proper quality education only women can able to achieve empowerment in their life. Due to inequality between men and women especially in the areas of education and training girls and women cannot able to enjoy the rights which men enjoy. The notion has brought that women choose the feminine subjects rather than scientific and highly technical subjects. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (2009) reported the positions of power and decision making are still disproportionately held by man. Aurelia,(2000) remarked women need empowerment in educational attainment, Health and well- being, Political empowerment, Economic participation, and Economic opportunity for leading a basic life with dignity. EMPOWERED WOMEN: PROFILE The empowered woman understands that she is a human being and can control her own life.
Empowered women learn to respect themselves and to regard them as capable.
She nurtures herself and aware of her productivity to improve her skills and knowledge continuously.
She appreciates her strengths and weakness and seeks continuous self –improvement.
She improves herself image and self appraisals, confident of her worth, open minded and appreciates others. She led and serves as a positive role model for other woman.
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She increases her literacy and upgrading their practical skills of technical, management, entrepreneurial, lobbying, advocacy, pressuring etc.
She question the practices which negatively affect her and other women, aware of her and family health.
She appreciates the time & supports other women, spends on domestic work and outside the home and aware that overwork is harmful to her physical and that health is vital.
She respects the dignity if womanhood and appreciates daughters in the same way does sons.
She has freedom of movement and expression on a par with men.
She respects her and dares take credit and responsibility for her contribution and action.
She dares to be different and creative. She looks for positions and makes informed decisions. She is aware of her rights as a citizen and protects them actively and convinced with men.
She knows laws and legal process treat women unfairly and seeks to use her legal knowledge to protect her own rights and other women’s rights. Challenges for Women Empowerment Women education is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. Many factors like social, cultural, economic, educational, demographic, political and administrative responsible for very low literacy rate of women. The following are the some of the important factors which could be attributed for the present poor state of affairs of womenfolk in education. - Poor /Unsafely School Environment for girls- Lack of female teachers - Lack of adequate schools in rural areas - Early marriage (Female age) - The Lower Enrolment - Bonded Labour System - Higher drop-out rate among girls from schools- Caste System
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- Poor Political Will and Conviction - Ineffective Law Enforcing Machinery - Girl Child as Second Mother - (Bagchi, Guha, Sengupta,1997) - Poverty & Child Labour, Dowry system - (Haimanti,2008)- Gender based inequality, Inferiority - ( Feliciati, Clara,2006) - Exploitation labor, Low economic opportunity and wages - (Augusto Lopez claros, 2005) - Powerless, Inability to deal with social evils like dowry, alcoholism, wife beating, - Sexual harassment, sexual abuse etc. ( Femida and Kassamb,2004) Gender Equality and its Importance The word gender normally refers to the socially and culturally constructed roles and relationships attributed to men and women. But equal treatment between the genders is not practiced. Men consider women in as inferior position; as a being of suffering and do all the physical and psychological vulnerability on them. Gender Equality is an important indicator for empowering women. In concern with these in Education for all conference held in Thailand (1990) goals call for “eliminating gender disparities in education by 2005 and achieving gender equality in education by 2015 with a focus on ensuring girls full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality”. The Millennium Development Goals (MDG03) summit of the UN aims “at promoting gender equality and empowering women” Gender equality is equal treatment of women and men in laws, policies and equal access to resources and services within the families, communities and society at large. Equality ensure that the perceptions, interest, needs and priorities of women and men because of the different roles and responsibilities of women and men will be given equal weight in planning and decision making. It is the distribution of power and influence; have equal opportunities for financial independence through
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work or through setting up business, enjoy equal access to education and the opportunities to develop personal ambitions, interests and talents ;share responsibilities for the home and children and are completely free from coercion, intimidation and gender based violence both at work and at home. There is a dual rational for promoting gender quality Equality between men and women- equal rights, opportunities and responsibilities
1. It is a matter of human rights and social justice 2. Effective indicator of sustainable people centered development process. However it is important to acknowledge the where gender inequality exists; it is generally women who are excluded in relation to decision making and access to economic and social resources. Therefore the critical aspect of promoting gender equality is the empowerment of women with focus on identifying and readdressing power imbalances and giving women more autonomy to manage their own lives”(Sumita Vig,2014). Review of Literature: Existing Gender Inequality in Classroom Gender inequality exhibits in every walk of women’s life, from birth, study environment, marriage, workplace etc., to death. School and teachers has to play a great role in promoting the gender equality among the students. But due to some factors the expected outcomes are not reached though a great role played by them. The following are few studies which supports the ideas.
Bailey (1992) states girls in grades six and seven rate being popular as well liked as more important than being perceived as competent or independent. Boys are more likely to rank independence and competence as more important.
Sadkers (1994) remarked among the four possible responses of a teacher- praising, encouraging, criticizing and acknowledgement in the teaching situations. Boys receive praise and encouragement from a teacher and girls receive only acknowledgement or criticizing.
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Liu (2006) by the findings of the about two research he remarked teachers often gave girls less meaningful and less critical praise than boy’s. Boys work is described often as undervalued and critically ignored and girls work is often undervalued and critically ignored.
Koch (2008) compared the self-assessment of abilities by men and women when they used a computer. After failing the experiment majority of the men blamed their failure on extraneous technological issues out of their control, and women blamed their failure on their non-ability to convert the file.
Rajesh Agarwal(2014) conveys subjects are subjectively provided gender bias. Most of the subjects in a curriculum are associated with one gender or the other. Mathematics and science are generally seen as masculine subjects. Whereas humanities and languages tend to be associated with feminity. This results in women not being prepared or qualified to pursue high prestigious and high paying jobs. In text books females are portrayed as passive, subordinate and menial roles and males are pretended as heroes.
Many researchers found Academic streaming of highly selective academic streaming/ made a negative influence in individual selection of subjects and contribute to gender inequality in educational setting and make girl to bound their level and keep the expectations low for the jobs particularly in the field of mathematics and science.
Teachers also unfortunately increase the gender gap, negative gender stereotypes by passing anxiety and criticizing the students. This lead the girls to get less motivated and made them to dropouts of educational process. Government Strategies & Schemes to Empowerment Women The main strategies adopted by the Government for increasing female literacy in the country include:
National Literacy Mission for imparting functional literacy Universalisation for Elementary Education, Non-Formal Education for Women
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Ministry of Education, State government had taken severe steps to reduce high drop –outs among girls especially in rural, tribal and slums areas.
Appropriate steps has been taken by the educational authorities with the participation of communities in order to bring the girl children to the main stream of education and development at every level including family and community.
The female child in every Indian family irrespective of socio- economic status should be molded to overcome the challenges of inferiority; subservience and domesticity which place sever limitations on her education and development.
In Tamil Nadu the Midday meal scheme and other educational supportive services like free text books, Note books , Fee uniforms , Free Bicycles, Free bus , scholarships, Free bus pass are given to girls for empowerment.
Mass awareness programmes are given to create and protect the girls from social evils like dowry, child marriage, and caste system etc. Major Schemes Implemented by Government to Empower Women During the last few years government of India specifically Ministry of Rural Development, Women and child development has taken special interest and creates centrally sponsored schemes for women and empowerment programmes and allots different funds as well as adequate resources to flow for ensuring their progress. Few among them are listed below:
The Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY). Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls – Sabla(RGSEAG)-2012
Priyadarshini-2011 Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme One Stop Centre Scheme , Women Helpline Scheme Ujjawala : A Comprehensive Scheme for prevention of trafficking and resue, rehabilitation and re-integration of victims of trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation
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Rajiv Gandhi National Creche Scheme For the Children of Working Mothers
Swadhar greh (a scheme for women in difficult circumstances) Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP)
Nari Shakti Puraskar Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana (IGMSY) - A Conditional Maternity Benefit Scheme
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) The Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) The Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) The National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) The (Erstwhile) Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
The (Erstwhile) Development of Women and Children In Rural Areas (DWCRA) Suggestions for reducing gender inequality & improving the Literacy Level of Women The following measures can be considered for bringing phenomenal change in the plight of women’s education and empowerment in India. The collective measures given by researchers are included in the following suggestions.
Giving equal importance for boys and girls( Sunita Kishor,Kamala Gupta)
Creating a social climate friendly to women issues Training of capable female leaders at all the level, and Link women’s movement all over the world. (Abrehe Zemichael, 2005)
Collect the oral history of women who struggled and mark her name in the women empowerment, case studies and preserve it for future.
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Bringing together donor , NGO’s organizing at least one meeting a year of gender sensitive organization
Without seeing religion, caste, creed enrolment of girls in schools, opens shows the development and prosperity of future generation of women
Curriculum changes would be brought about by reorienting, reeducating policy makers and training techniques must be innovative.
Revising the teaching materials according to the need of local language
Preparation of learning materials for women must determine the target group of learning materials, and determine the needs& objectives.
Research must be conducted systematically to know the progress
To raise awareness: Organize mass media campaign, Seminars/workshops for teachers and implementing special programmes for women in the field of adult education.
The teachers in formal & nonformal education systems should trained to tackle the gender equality related issues in the class room.
Specialized guidance to our women professionals to assist them in meeting the unique challenges that often await women.
Bonded Child labour practice must be abolished (Convention on The Rights of The Child,1994)
Provide counseling for both family and person concerned at the secondary stage of education.
Make skill-oriented higher educational institutions, courses in rural and tribal areas for the benefits of women.
Establish non-traditional curricular for women and extend state support for this.
Improve transport & hostel facilities for women students.
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Increase women teachers in coeducational institutions of higher education.
Introduce attractive scholarships for both financially poor students and meritorious students to encourage women students in higher education.
Government, voluntary agencies, Ngo’s Rotary Clubs, Lions Clubs, women organizations had come forward provide free education for poor girls, provide free hostel facilities for girls studying in schools and colleges in every state of India.
Government, NGOs and public should work hand in hand to implement the minimum age at marriage (21 and above)
Government officials, policy makers, political parties and others should have adequate political will and conviction to empower women in India without double standard mind.
Education policy has to be taken to facilitate women participation in higher education.
Establish and follow up equal opportunity commissions in educational institutions
Increase women representations in decision making bodies of higher educational institutions.
Secure women from sexual harassment within and outside institutions.
Government should formulate and implement policies for stopping drop out of girl students in secondary and lower classes.
Establish post-secondary vocational training institutions for promoting the entry of women in higher education.
Provide Bank loan facilities for women students. Above all, attitudes of the male oriented society must be changed. This will undoubtedly help in increasing women participation in higher education. Shanjendu Nath(2014)
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Conclusion Education is the only tool through which majority of women and girls able to surviving their life. The lack of educational opportunities for women is the root cause for women’s exploitation and negligence. Only literacy can help women to understand the Indian’s constitutional and legislative provisions that are made to strengthen them. Thus promoting education among women is of great important in empowering them to accomplish their goals in par with men in different spheres of life. Access to basic education and training should be broad based and should cover all sections of people including rural and urban sectors in order to reduce inequality in distribution. For women as well as other oppressed groups, such transformative or liberating education is the only tool for empowerment. References:
Abrehe Zemichael(2005) Girls’ and Women’s Education and their Empowerment Among Pastoral Societies (University of East Anglia, Development Studies, Norwich, UK)
All Indian Survey on Higher Education.(2013,2015).AISHE 2014- 15. Retrieved from http://aishe.nic.in/aishe/home on March 21,2017.
Augusto, L. C. (2005), World Economic Forum, Switzerland. Retrieved from www.socialwatch.org/en/ forum works IEG_2008/inicio_accesos.htm on March 21,2017.
Aurelia, N.K.(2000),Women Education and Economic Empowerment In Tanzania: A Women Business: Survival Model Analysis ,Economics Department Women Business survival. Retrieved from http//aureliakamuzora on March 21,2017.
Bailey,S., (1992). How Schools Shortchange Girls, The AUWW report. New York: Marlowe & Company.
Bagchi, Guha and Sengupta, Piyali. (1997). Loved and Unloved– The Girl Child in the family. Calcutta: Street. Empowering Women through Education, Adapted from Retrieved from http://www.socialwatch.org/en/avancesy Retrocesos/ IEG_2008/ inicio accesos.htm on March 21,2017.
Census of India (2001, 2011, 2016), Government of India, Www.indian government census Edu.Nic./Cd In. Chandramauli .C
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(2011). Census of India 2011 Www.indian government census Edu.Nic./Cd
Convention on The Rights of The Child Early Childhood Care & Education,(1994).Country Report India, www.Edu.Nic./Cd 50 Years /S/3n/Books 3n.Htm and www.6e/fe/toc.htm on March 21,2017.
Feliciati, Clara Chapdelaine (2006), Restorative Justice for the Girl Child in Post-conflict Rwanda, Journal of International Women’s Studies. 7(4):14-34.
Femida, Handya and Meenaz, Kassamb(2004), Women’s Empowerment In Rural india Retrived from www.edu.nic./cd 50 years /s/6n/books 3n.htm on March 21,2017.
Haimanti Mukhopadhyay (2008),The Role of Education in the Empowerment of Women in a District of West Bengal, India: Reflections on a Survey of Women, Journal of International Women‟s Studies . 10 (2). Koch,S.C.,Muller,S M.,Sieverding, Monika,(2008).Women and Computers effects of stereotypes threat on attribution of failure, Computer & Education Journal . 51.
Liu, F. (2006). School Culture and Gender, In C. Skelton, B. Francis and L. Smulyan (eds), The Sage Handbook of Gender And Education, Sage Publication, California.
Murty S.K,(2000),Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education, Tendon Publications, Book Market, Ludhiana.
Nelly Stromquist(1995), The Intersection of Public Policies and Gender: Understanding State Action in Education ,The Structure and Agency of Women's Education (2008). State University of New York Press, Albany
Preetu Venugopalan Nair(2012). Enrolment of women in higher education increases. India Times. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/Enrolment -of-women-in-higher-education-increases/articleshow/16244028.cms Retrieved on June 6,2016.
Rajesh Agarwal(2014). Understanding Gender Bias in Education. Why does gender matters?. Victorious publishers, New Delhi.
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Sadker,D& Sadker,M. (1994). Failing at fairness: how our schools cheat girls. Simon and Schuster Inc,Toronto.
Shanjendu Nath(2014). Higher Education and Women Participation in India. Journal of Business Management & Social Sciences Research, Vol.3, No.2. pp.43-47.
Sumita Vig, (2014), Achieving gender equality in teaching and learning. Victorious publishers, New Delhi.
Sunita Kishor ,Kamla Gupta(2005-06),Gender Equality And women’s Empowerment In India, National family Health Survey, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Ministry of India
Thomas, Kim, 1990. Gender and Subject in Higher Education. Buckingham. The Society for Research into Higher Education. Open University Press, Acker, Bandra.
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WOMB EDUCATION - THE NEED OF HOUR
Dr. Rajeshwari Garg Assistant Professor Sardar Patel Institute of Education Jabalpur (M.P.) Abstract-
The recent studies show that babies start learning while still in the womb. Fetal development is the start for babies to learn and grow. In fact, “Compromised fetal development may have effects on health and cognition that stretch through childhood into adulthood”. Immediately getting started by making sure that babies have everything they need while in the womb is essential.
Considering that the nervous system begins developing at conception and the earliest stages of gestation, it makes sense that stimulating babies while in the womb would be beneficial for their ability to engage and develop cognitively. Stimulating through music, reading, and touch, and reducing stress can help to start cognitive development on a positive note. Researches indicate that a variety of stimulation while babies are in the womb is the start to building and promoting cognitive development. From playing music to reading to physical interaction in uterus, stimulated babies are able to begin life with an advantage, being born with what some researchers consider more confidence in themselves and the ability to learn more easily. This paper is a suggestion for policy making about womb education .Healthy, Happy, Intelligent brave and creative kids are assets of the nation.
Key Words-Fetal Development, Cognition, Womb, Childhood, Adulthood
Introduction-
The story of Abhimanyu is well known in the Mahabharata. Abhimanyu, the son of Arjuna, learned how to enter the Chakravyuha www.ijmer.in 40 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286
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(the strategic arrangement of warriors to entrap and defeat the enemy) when he was in his mother's womb. Abhimanyu had heard and remembered the narration of the technique by Krishna to Subhadra during her pregnancy. Then there was also the Ashtavakra narrative – the fetus who knew the vedas and upanishads, while still in his mother’s womb. Ashtavakra was so mortified with his father’s ignorance, that each time his father enunciated the vedas and upanishads wrongly, the Ashtavakra fetus corkscrewed in his mother’s womb. Finally born with eight spinal contortions – hence known as Ashtavakra. When Pralhad's mother was pregnant with him, she used to listen to devotional songs. Therefore, even though Pralhad took birth in a Rakshasa family, he became a devotee of Lord Vishnu. Mother of the great Indian freedom fighter Vinayak Damodar Savarkar used to read the courageous stories from the Ramayana and Maharana Pratap to her son when he was in her womb.
Ancient Indian medicine has recognized the need for the mental, spiritual and physical preparation of the mother-to-be for the momentous event of childbirth. Ayurveda describes this theory as "Supraja janan" or eu-maternity This "Supraja janan", as conceptualised in Ayurveda, involves the preparation of the couple planning pregnancy, three months prior to conception. Pregnancy should be by choice, and not by chance. The beginning is by pinda shuddhi or the purification of the gametes (sperm and ovum). If the couple is not in a state of mental stability and calmness, even if they are physically fit, they cannot give birth to a healthy child. This mental calmness and stability ("Sathwa Guna") of mind is closely related to ones food habits and many other factors. Abstinence from spicy foods and addictive substances is advised.
It is now universally proven that the fetus is not just a mindless mass of flesh, but a highly responsive and evolving human being, capable of receiving, understanding and responding to external stimuli. It, www.ijmer.in 41 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286
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therefore, follows that the fetus has a right to receive positive and enriching feedback or garbha sanskar .Ayurveda prescribe a particular daily practice for the pregnant woman. Along with the prescription for diet, Yoga and routine body care, instructions are also given for reading material, subjects of discussion, and music and mantras to be listened to.
Development of parent-fetus bonding-
Meditation, autosuggestion, self-hypnosis, and visualisation (including the highly-effective white light visualisation and benevolence beaming technique), establishing a dialogue with the fetus. The main requirement to transmit 'good values' is to establish communication with the baby in the womb. Thoughts and feelings of the parents affect the baby. Even before the thought is expressed, it remains in an unexpressed form in the mind. At that time, its wavelength is the shortest and its energy is at the maximum level. Intentional, directed, selfless, unspoken thoughts lead to maximum sanskar on the fetus.
Effect of Music -
Music, in the cognitive development of children, is utilized in educational programs throughout the world and is widely regarded as an important part in the development of babies’ brains. It is also proved that fetus also responds to the music. From 7th month fetus can hear the sounds from mother’s womb and from the surroundings of mother and also responds to them. Sound of mother's heartbeats is the first and nearest sound heard by the fetus and hence when the mother takes her crying child close to her the child stops crying and becomes calm .In fact, “. Our sense of song helps us learn to talk, read, and even make friends”. The cognitive advantage enjoyed by babies who are played music while in the womb is well documented. And, considering that babies in the womb are able to hear a great deal from the external environment early in the gestational period, it is best to get started
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early. By week 18, the ear and brain are able to hear blood and the mother’s heartbeat. At 24 weeks, the ear is fully formed, and as early as Week 25, babies are able to hear voices and sounds from the external environment, giving babies a head start after birth for language development. It is possible to give energy for the development of body mind and Soul of the child in the womb by listening to special music. The sound of the veena (Indian string instrument which is held by the Goddess Saraswati), flute and Samaveda mantras gives health to the pregnant woman and the child within.
Lifestyle of the mother-to-be -
It is unadvisable for the pregnant woman to watch the films depicting scenes of horror, murder, and violence. It can produce negative effect on the child's character in future. During pregnancy she should keep company only with people who have a favourable influence over her. She should read fine literature, look at the beautiful works of art, listen to soft music, contemplate pleasant landscapes and have only positive and constructive thoughts.
Telling Story -
A recent study “shows that unborn babies are listening to their mothers talk during the last 10 weeks of pregnancy; and at birth, they can demonstrate what they’ve heard” .In the study, newborns were observed for their reactions to vowel sounds, which are the most recognizable of the elements of speech.
All communication with a baby while in the womb is beneficial for acquiring language. Reading stories, in particular, is helpful in part because of the sound of the mother’s voice, which is often the most powerful because she is closer to the baby and the sound is amplified.
Just as when children first begin to learn to read outside of the womb, choosing books that utilize repetition, rhyming, and rhythm can help to
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Effect of Relaxed and Stress Free Mother-
There are several reasons to lower stress levels as much as possible while pregnant. Stress has been linked to poor health for the mother, including high blood pressure during pregnancy, and these factors can sometimes result in premature birth or low birth weight in newborns. In contrast, mothers who maintain low stress levels during pregnancy help to improve emotional development in their children, and some research indicates that high stress during pregnancy can result in lower intelligence quotient (IQ) scores. Additionally, “When a pregnant woman is chronically stressed or experiences extreme stress, the baby may be exposed to unhealthy levels of stress hormones, which can impact the baby’s brain development”
To reduce stress, consider adding some physical activity such as walking or yoga, which increase the release of positive endorphins. Pregnant women can also try writing in a journal, taking plenty of naps, reading to the baby, and pampering with a manicure or foot soak to relax after discussing with a physician if the activity is appropriate and safe.
Researchers, obstetricians, and pediatricians do agree, however, that pregnant women should get significant rest during the pregnancy in order for the baby to develop physically and to promote cognitive development.
All the points discussed above are the base of the womb education. We should know Importance of womb education and how it can play a vital role for the creation of bright future of any nation. www.ijmer.in 44 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286
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Suggestions for good practices and their Implementations about womb education-
Government should make a policy for pregnant women of India. In the urban area it is comparatively easier to register pregnant women from different government and private hospitals than some rural and unreachable areas. With the help of different govt.and non govt. organizations. In the urban area govt. hospitals should organize awareness classes at least thrice a week for pregnant women who completed three months and private hospitals should also arrange these classes without any extra charge. It should be compulsory for all government and private hospitals and maternity homes .Experts from different fields like Yoga, dhyan (Meditation), music, health and hygiene etc. should give training with the help of ICT material developed especially to the mothers to be. In the rural area classes can be arranged in community health centers available there or in panchayat bhawans, and in unreachable areas volunteers can give one to one training. These classes teach a mother ways to remain stress- free and cheerful as her emotions are communicated to the child via the hormones her body releases ,they will also learn about child birth preparation ,proper diet ,yoga ,dhyan and music, new born care etc. Related study materials, CD/ DVDs should be provided to each participant. Proponents say babies who are trained in the womb cry less, sleep better and are happier. Some lectures should be compulsory for fathers to be ,they have to attend , to-be parents are trained to communicate with the fetus several times a day to not only create a lasting bond but also to enhance the child's capabilities. The main requirement of nowadays is to transmit 'good values' is to establish communication with the baby in the womb. Thoughts and feelings of the parents affect the baby .These classes will surely help to fulfill this requirement. After successfully completion of this course participants
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will be awarded a certificate which provides benefits to parents in different government schemes.
It is expected that after implementation of these important steps towards womb education the whole world will see our happy, healthy, intelligent, brave, creative and loving future generation with leadership quality.
References-
Adderly, Brenda, and Gordon, Jay( 1999) Brighter Baby: Boost Your Child's Intelligence, Health, and Happiness, Regnery, Washington, DC Akhurst, Julie, Bach(1999) Applebabies, and brain power, Junior, London May/June Apple,Sam (2009)American Parents”My strange and surprising adventures in babyland”ballantine books Newyork Before baby's born, WFTV/ABC Television, Orlando, February 1990 Before and after birth, Russian News Agency, Moscow, May 2006 Josephine Lethbridg (2013) Make Baby Smarter In The Womb Knox and Debbie(2005) “Baby plus device stimulates baby’s brain in utero wish television, Indiana police. Learning before the birth(1990) The Sunday Republican, Springfield ,Massachusetts Molly McElroy (2013) While in womb, babies begin learning language from their mothers UW Today Rudavsky and Shari(2012)Want a smarter child Indiana Police star The Ramayna Religious book The Mahabharta Religious book Know About Veer Savarkar (Know About Series) Paperback – 1 Sep 2013by Maple Press www.livestrong.com www.psychologytoday.com www.brillbaby.com babyplus.com/
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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION AND EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE: A STUDY IN VISAKHAPATNAM
K. Suseela Research Scholar Department of HRM Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Abstract
Achievement Motivation and Employee performance are two interrelated factors in human resource management. While achievement motivation is the drive to achieve targets and the process to maintain human resources, employee performance is management of aligning the organisational objectives with the employees' agreed measures, skills, competency requirements, development plans and the delivery of results. The main objective of this paper is to study the importance of achievement motivation in employee performance. In this context the data was collected from a sample of 100 respondents working in Coromandal Fertilizers in Visakhapatnam city, and processed data through scale value analysis and correlation test. The findings from this study indicate that there need for achievement motivation of employees in Coromandal Fertilizers play a vital role in deciding their job performance. The results revealed that employee with high level of need for achievement motivation are more in their job performance and more tendency to set goals and to make long term plans for achievement leads to reliability in productivity performance. On the other hand desire and willingness to spend a lot of time enlarging employees’ knowledge for knowledge sake indicate quality of work performance in the company. Finally this paper suggests the related authorities of the organization management consider the need for achievement motivation of employees as one of the importance factors in their job performance. Key words: Achievement Motivation, Employee Performance.
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Introduction
Nowadays, challenging labor-market seeks people not only well educated with good knowledge of foreign languages. Among requirements set in job advertisements very important are those connected with psychological characteristics, like creativity, social skills and desire to achieve success, to work under pressure and accomplish ambitious goals. Employers look for high achievers. Therefore, in order to prepare the graduates to the contemporary labor-market, it is very important to supplement the process of students’ professional competences’ formation with needed psychological competences.
Achievement Motivation
Motivation is generally regarded as the drive to achieve targets and the process to maintain the drive. Motivation provides an important foundation to complete cognitive behavior, such as planning, organization, decision-making, learning, and assessments (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996). Spence and Helmreich (1983) defined achievements as task-oriented behavior. Performances of individuals are often compared against standards or with others for assessments. The differing perspectives of scholars result in various definitions of achievement motivation. The original definition of achievement motivation was from Atkinson (1964), who defined it as the comparison of performances with others and against certain standard activities. Atkinson and Feather (1966) suggested that achievement motivation is a combination of two personality variables: tendency to approach success and tendency to avoid failure. Biegge and Hunt (1980) defined achievement motivation as the drive to work with diligence and vitality, to constantly steer toward targets, to obtain dominance in challenging and difficult tasks and create sense of achievement as a result. This definition consists of three elements: the stimulation of personal capabilities, constant efforts with drive and obtaining of sense of
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satisfaction among the employees in relation to the achievement motivation.
Employee Performance
Employee Performance is management of aligning the organisational objectives with the employees' agreed measures, skills, competency requirements, development plans and the delivery of results. The emphasis is on improvement, learning and development in order to achieve the overall business strategy and to create a high performance workforce. Organisations used many new methods to increase the employees’ performance to get specific outcomes. In practice this worked well for certain employees who were solely driven by promotions and financial rewards. Thus, Performance Management is used to ensure that employees' activities and outcomes are congruent with the organisation's objectives and entails specifying those activities and outcomes that will result in the firm successfully implementing the strategy (Noe et al. 2002, p.55). Employee performance relates to the act of doing a job. It is a means to reach a goal or set of goals within a job, role, or organization, but not the actual consequences of the acts performed within a job. According to Campbell (1990) employee performance is not a single action but rather a complex activity. Performance in a job is strictly a behavior and a separate entity from the outcomes of a particular job which relate to success and productivity.
According to the above discussed dimensions achievement motivation and employee performance is a subjective and internal psychological drive, enabling employees to pursue work they perceive to be valuable and prompting them to reach their goals. Meanwhile, achievement motivation is also a significant role player to compete and compare the employee performance. Thus, employee performance is the job related activities expected of a worker and how well those activities
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were executed. Many business personnel directors assess the employee performance of each staff member on an annual or quarterly basis in order to help them identify suggested areas for improvement.
Significance of the study
Achievement motivation forms to be the basic for a good life. People who are oriented towards achievement, in general, enjoy life and feel in control. Being motivated keeps people dynamic and gives them self-respect. They set moderately difficult but easily achievable targets, which help them, achieve their objectives. They do not set up extremely difficult or extremely easy targets. By doing this they ensure that they only undertake tasks that can be achieved by them. Achievement motivated people prefer to work on a problem rather than leaving the outcome to chance. It is also seen that achievement motivated people seem to be more concerned with their personal achievement rather than the rewards of success.
It is generally seen that achievement motivated people evidenced a significantly higher rate of advancement in their company compared to others. Programs and courses designed, involves seven "training inputs." The first step refers to the process through which achievement motivation thinking is taught to the person. The second step helps participants understand their own individuality and goals. The third assist participants in practicing achievement-related actions in cases, role-plays, and real life. A fourth refers to practicing of achievement-related actions in business and other games. A fifth input encourages participants to relate the achievement behavior model to their own behavior, self-image, and goals. The sixth program facilitates participants to develop a personal plan of action. Finally, the course provides participants with feedback on their progress towards achieving objectives and targets.
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Objectives
1. To study the importance of achievement motivation on employee performance.
2. To study the relation between achievement motivation and employee performance.
Methodology
A survey research design was used in this study to investigate achievement motivation and employee performance in organized sector fertilizers production unit in Visakhapatnam. The research area was Coromandal Fertilizers Limited and number of permanent employees on the rolls of the company as on 31st March, 2015 was 4232. Out of which 2550 employees are taken as population who are working in production department. The sample is comprised of only male workers randomly selected. A convenient sample size of 100 participants selected from amongst the total population.
A questionnaire was used to gather data for the study. Section “A” of the research questionnaire describes respondents‟ background information, categories include: gender, age, status, education level, and length of service. Section “B and C”, on the other hand describes self motivation for achievement and performance variables. The questionnaire was made up of 3 items in section “A‟ and 17 items in section “B‟ related to self motivation for achievement and section C contains 5 items related to employee performance. Section B and C were constructed along a five-point Likert scale.
Achievement Motivation: Achievement Motivation inventory (AMI) has been developed by Schuler, et al. (2002) in which they have used 17 dimensions to assess work related achievement motivation among employees. This is a psychological test to assess a broad construct of job-related achievement motivation. It is used within personnel
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selection, promotion, personality research and other applications in a work context. This variable is defined in terms of the extent to which the individual values the importance of higher-level work outcomes. Each respondent was rated by self administrated questionnaire with respect to the 17 items: 1) Compensatory effort, 2) Competitiveness, 3) Confidence in success, 4) Dominance, 5) Eagerness to learn, 6) Engagement, 7) Fearlessness, 8) Flexibility, 9) Flow, 10) Goal setting, 11) Independence, 12) Internality, 13) Persistence, 14) Preference for difficult tasks, 15) Pride in productivity, 16) Self-control, and 17) Status orientation. Employee's motivation for achievement was measured by a self administrated five point Likert scale ranging from very low to minimum importance to very high or maximum importance.
Employee performance: Independent self-ratings were used to value job performance. Each respondent was rated by self administrated questionnaire with respect to the following five items: 1) quality of work performance, 2) amount of effort expended on the job, 3) productivity on the job, 4) speed on the job, and 5) overall work performance. The raters were asked to describe how well the particular employee was doing on each of the five items. The evaluation used a 5- point scale, ranging from very poorly to very well, for each of the criteria.
Data Analysis and Results
Data were processed through SPSS software using scale value analysis to find out the level of achievement motivation and Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used to assess the relationship between achievement motivation dimensions and performance of the employee. Simple distribution analysis was used to find out the percentage of perceptions on individual items that can be quantifying the perceptions.
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Table-1: Scale value analysis of achievement motivation dimensions Neither agree nor Sl. No. Dimensions of Achievement Motivation Agree Disagree Total disagree Scale value 3 2 1 1 I am willing to expend extra effort in order to avoid failing at my work 65 18 17 100 task. (65.0) (18.0) (17.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 195 36 17 248-VII 2 I desire to win and be better and faster than others at work. 59 30 11 100 (59.0) (30.0) (11.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 177 60 11 248-VII 3 I have confidence in achieving success even when there are obstacles to 73 16 11 100 overcome. (73.0) (16.0) (11.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 219 32 11 262-IV 4 I have tendency to exercise power and influence over others during 20 59 21 100 work time. (20.0) (59.0) (21.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 60 118 21 199-XII 5 I desire and willingness to spend a lot of time enlarging one's 87 9 4 100 knowledge for knowledge sake. (87.0) (9.0) (4.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 261 18 4 283-II 6 My desire to be engaged in work related activity. 46 23 31 100 (46.0) (23.0) (31.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 138 46 31 215-XI 7 In have no fear of failing at difficult tasks. 29 36 35 100 (29.0) (36.0) (35.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 87 72 35 194-XIV 8 I am willing to accept changes and the enjoyment of challenging new 63 17 20 100 tasks. (63.0) (17.0) (20.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 189 34 20 243-VIII 9 I have an ability to concentrate on work for a long time without being 77 8 15 100 distracted. (77.0) (8.0) (15.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 231 16 15 262-IV 10 I have tendency to set goals and to make long term plans for 90 5 5 100 achievement. (90.0) (5.0) (5.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 270 10 5 285-I
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11 I have tendency to take responsibility for one's own actions. 44 37 19 100 (44.0) (37.0) (19.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 132 74 19 225-IX 12 I believe that one's successes are due to internal causes rather than to 24 69 7 100 situation. (24.0) (69.0) (7.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 72 138 7 217-X 13 I am willing to exert large amounts of effort over long periods in order 70 19 11 100 to reach a goal. (70.0) (19.0) (11.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 210 38 11 259-V 14 I have tendency to seek out challenging rather than easy tasks. 66 17 17 100 (66.0) (17.0) (17.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 198 34 17 249-VI 15 I get sense of enjoyment and achievement derived from doing one's 36 53 11 100 best at work. (36.0) (53.0) (11.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 108 106 11 225-IX 16 I have ability to delay gratification and to organize oneself and one's 83 9 8 100 work. (83.0) (9.0) (8.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 249 18 8 275-III 17 I desire to attain high status in one's personal life and to progress 20 56 24 100 professionally. (20.0) (56.0) (24.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 60 112 24 196-XIII Total score 4085 3(Maximum Score value) X 100 (No. of Respondents)X Maximum possible score 5100 17(No. of statements Percentage of the motivation Dimensions Total score/ Maximum possible score 80.09
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According to the scale value analysis of achievement motivation dimensions the above table describes some factors and their positions. It is clearly shows that out of total sample first rank is given by the respondents to the tendency to set goals and to make long term plans for achievement, with a score value of 285 in that 90.0 percent agreed and 5 percent did not agree. Second rank is given to the statement by the respondents that they are willing to spend a lot of time enlarging one’s knowledge for knowledge sake, with a score value of 283 in that 87 percent of them agreed and 4 percent disagreed. It is found that they have ability to delay gratification and to organize oneself and one’s work, is given 3rd rank with a score value of 275 by the respondents in that most of them i.e. 83 percent agreed and 8 percent disagreed. 4th rank is given that they have ability to concentrate on work for a long time without being distracted, with a score value of 262 by the respondents from whom 77 percent of them agreed and 8 percent neither agree nor disagree. Willing to exert large amounts of effort over long periods in order to reach a goal, is given 5th rank by the respondents with a score value of 259 in that 70 percent of them agreed and 11 percent disagree. 6th rank is given to the statement that they have tendency to seek out challenging rather than easy tasks, with a score value of 249 in that 66 percent agreed and 17 percent disagreed.
It is noticed that the respondents gave 7th rank to two statements i.e. they are willing to expend extra effort in order to avoid failing at their work task and they desire to win and be better and faster than others at work, with a score value of 248 each in that most of them agreed. 8th rank is given by the respondents that they are willing to accept changes and the enjoyment of challenging new tasks, with a score value of 243 in that 63 percent of them agreed and 17 percent neither agree nor disagree. 9th rank is given to take responsibility for one’s own actions with a scale value of 225 in that 44 percent agreed and also to the statement that they get sense of
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enjoyment and achievement derived from doing one’s best at work with 225 scale value in that 53 percent neither agree nor disagree. It is observed that 10th rank is given by the respondents that they believe one’s successes are due to internal causes rather than to situations with a scale value of 217. My desire to be engaged in work related activity statement stood with 11th rank with a scale value of 215. It is obtained that 12th, 13th and 14th ranks of the statements i.e. they have tendency to exercise power and influence over others during work time, desire to attain high status in one’s personal life and they have no fear of failing at difficult tasks, with a scale values of 199, 196 and 194 respectively in that most of them neither agreed nor disagreed with these statements.
Hence, we conclude that in the scale value analysis of achievement motivation dimensions, the respondents have tendency to set goals and to make long term plans for achievement stood with first rank, they have desire and willing to spend a lot of time enlarging one’s knowledge for knowledge sake stood with second rank with a scale value of 285 and 283 respectively. The total percentage of all the statements is 80.09 percent; this indicates that most of the respondents have achievement motivation dimensions in the organizations.
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Table-2: Scale value analysis of Employee Performance Neither Sl. Employee performance Agree agree nor Disagree Total No. disagree Scale value 3 2 1 1 The quality of work performance in the 51 36 13 100 company is good (51.0) (36.0) (13.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 153 72 13 238-II 2 The amount of effort expended on the job 46 20 34 100 by the employees is more effective. (46.0) (20.0) (34.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 138 40 34 212-V 3 The productivity performance of the 64 15 21 100 employees on the job is reliable. (64.0) (15.0) (21.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 192 30 21 243-I 4 The performance speed of the employees on 42 46 12 100 the job is measurable. (42.0) (46.0) (12.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 126 92 12 230-IV 5 The overall work performance of the 57 23 20 100 employees is appreciable. (57.0) (23.0) (20.0) (100.0) Frequency X Scale value (FXSV) 171 46 20 237-III Total score 989 3(Maximum Score value) X 100 (No. Maximum possible score 1500 of Respondents)X 5(No. of statements Percentage of the Employee Total score/ Maximum possible score 65.93 performance
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The above table gives the information regarding the scale value analysis of employment performance. It clearly shows that first rank is given to the productivity performance of the employees on the job is reliable, with a scale value of 243 in that 64 percent of them agreed and 15 percent neither agree nor disagree. It is found that the quality of work performance in the company is good, is the statement given 2nd rank by the respondents with a scale value of 238 in that more than half of the respondents i.e. 51 percent agreed and 13 percent disagreed. The third rank is given to the overall work experience of the employees is appreciable with a scale value of 237 as the most of the employees i.e. 57 percent of them agreed and 20 percent of them disagreed. 4th rank is given to the performance speed of the employees on the job is measurable, for this the scale value is 230 in that 46 percent of them neither agreed nor disagreed. The last rank i.e. 5th rank is given to the amount of effort expended on the job by the employees is more effective, with a scale value of 212, in that most of them i.e. 46 percent agreed and 36 percent disagreed.
Hence, this indicates that in the scale value analysis of employee performance the first place is given with a scale value of 243 to the productivity performance of the employees on the job, most of them i.e. 64 percent agreed. Second place goes to the quality of work performance in the company in that 51 percent agreed in the same time 36 percent neither agree nor disagree to this statement. The total percentage of all the statements is 65.93 shows that the employees’ performance is less than achievements.
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Table–3: The relation between achievement motivation and employee performance
Correlations (new.sta) Marked correlations are significant at p < .05000 N=100
Variables Achievement Motivation Employee Performance Achievement 1 0.541* Motivation Employee Performance 0.541* 1 In the part of investigation the score values of achievement motivation and employee performance have been calculated and Pearson’s partial correlation has been applied to find out the relationship between these two variables. Hence, the above table presents the relation between these two variable in which the co- efficient of correlation is 0.541 indicate significant. This infers that achievement motivation is a factor of employee performance, where it shows high in achievement motivation more in employee performance.
Conclusion
The findings from this study indicate that there need for achievement motivation of employees in Coromandal Fertilizers play a vital role in deciding their job performance. The results revealed that employee with high level of need for achievement motivation are more in their job performance and more tendency to set goals and to make long term plans for achievement leads to reliability in productivity performance. On the other hand desire and willingness to spend a lot of time enlarging employees’ knowledge for knowledge sake indicate quality of work performance in the company. Finally this paper suggests the related authorities of the organization management consider the need for achievement motivation of employees as one of the importance factors in their job performance.
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References
1. Pintrich, P. & Schunk, D. (1996). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research & Applications, Ch. 3. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall.
2. Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1983). Achievement-related motives and behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives: Psychological and sociological approaches (pp. 7-74). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Co.
3. Atkinson, J.W. (1964), An introduction to motivation, Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand, 1964.
4. Atkinson, J. W., & Feather, N. T. (Eds.). (1966). A theory of achievement motivation. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
5. Biegge, M. O., & Hunt, Y. B. (1980). Intrapersonal and interpersonal theories of motivation from an attributional perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 12(1), 1-14.
6. Noe, R.M., Mondy, R.W., & Premeaux, S.R. (2002). Human resource management (8th edn.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
7. Campbell, J. (1990). Modeling the performance prediction problem in industrial and organizational psychology. In M. Dunnette & L. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 686–707). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
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IMPACT OF DEMONETIZATION ON STREET VENDORS: A STUDY IN VISAKHAPATNAM CITY
J.R. Sreenatha Babu Research Scholar Department of Social Work Acharya Nagarjuna University Nagarjina Nagar, Guntur Abstract
Demonetization is the act of stripping a currency unit of its status as legal tender. It is necessary whenever there is a change of national currency. When there is crises arise with the present circulated currency, the government takes decision to replace old unit of currency and replaced with a new currency unit. There are many reasons that why number of times nations demonetize their local units of currency. As per the government, the main reasons for recent demonetization on 8 November 2016 are: 1) to tackle black money in the economy, 2) to lower the cash circulation in the country which is directly related to corruption in the country (according to Narendra Modi), 3) To eliminate fake currency and dodgy funds which have been used by terror groups to fund terrorism in India and 4) The move is estimated to scoop out more than more than Rs 5 lakh crore black money from the economy (according to Baba Ramdev). Keeping all the above into consideration the Indian government decided to demonetize the 500 and 1000 rupee notes. Even though the government’s goal is different its impact has been fallen on many weaker sectors, especially on street vendors who depend on small business transactions. Therefore, the main objective of this paper is to find out the impact of demonetization on street vendors in Visakhapatnam city. In this regard 100 sample of street vendors has been considered as respondents and collected necessary data from them with the help of self designed questionnaire. The data was computed and processed with SPSS and generated frequency and cross tables for analysis. In addition to these
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required statistical tools were applied for in-depth analysis of the data. Consequently, the findings from the analysis indicate that there is huge impact of demonetization on street vendors in their financial, product sale and labour performance.
Key Words: Demonetization, Street Vendors,
Introduction
Street vendors are an integral part of urban economies around the world, offering easy access to a wide range of goods and services in public spaces. They sell everything from fresh vegetables to prepared foods, from building materials to garments and crafts, from consumer electronics to auto repairs and from soft drinks to fruits and fruit juice. Most street vendors provide the main source of income for their households, bringing food to their families and paying school fees for their children. These informal workers have strong linkages to the formal economy. They purchase goods from formal sector units and make them edible goods and again sell them to many customers work in formal jobs. Many vendors try to keep the streets clean and safe for their customers and provide them with friendly personal service. Street vendors create jobs, not only for themselves but for porters, security guards, transport operators, storage providers, and others. Many generate revenue for cities through payments for licenses and permits, fees and fines, and certain kinds of taxes. Despite their contributions, street vendors face many challenges, are often overlooked as economic agents and unlike other businesses, are hindered rather than helped by municipal policies and practices. Instead of the above problems the recent currency crisis raised by demonetization invited many problems to these vulnerable groups and made them difficulty in survive.
Demonetization is the act of stripping a currency unit of its status as legal tender. Demonetization is necessary whenever there is a change of national currency. The old unit of currency must be retired
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and replaced with a new currency unit. There are multiple reasons why nations demonetize their local units of currency. Some reasons include combating inflation, to combat corruption, and to discourage a cash system. The process of demonetization involves either introducing new notes or coins of the same currency or completely replacing the old currency with new currency. On 8 November 2016, the Indian government decided to demonetize the 500- and 1000- rupee notes, the two biggest denomination notes. These notes accounted for 86% of the country’s cash supply. The government’s goal was to eradicate counterfeit currency, fight tax evasion, eliminate black money gotten from money laundering and terrorist financing activities, and promote a cashless economy. Though everyone welcomed the move, the subsequent cash drought in ATMs and bank branches, has caused panic among the public at large.
Demonetization and currency crises
Millions of individuals and businesses across the country struggled to cope with the financial chaos. Starting immediately, the country’s 500- and 1,000-rupee notes, which represented 86 percent of the currency in circulation, would no longer be legal tender. Millions of people found themselves waiting for hours in serpentine lines outside banks to exchange their defunct currency for the new government- approved notes. The currency crisis appeared to have started impacting small businesses like roadside restaurants as banks struggled to dispense enough valid notes for the seventh day in a row amid long- winding queues. With 86% of the currency taken away with the withdrawal of old Rs 500 and 1000 notes, small businesses - from vegetable vendors to dhabas and small kirana stores - that use cash as mode of transaction were the worst hit. Businesses have been crippled, farmers have been unable to buy seeds to plant crops, and people have been denied basic services. A bulk of daily labourers were rendered jobless as construction and other activities came to a standstill in view
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of cement, sand and other supplies not coming in. Truckers too were reportedly stranded on highways as drivers ran out of valid currency notes, effecting movement of goods in several parts of the country. Vegetable and fruit wholesale markets as well as food grain mandis in many parts also reported very low business due to shortage of cash.
Impact of demonetization on street vendors
Street vending is an integral part of the urban economy, where the middle class and the urban poor access essential goods and services. Street vendors themselves constitute people of the lower middle class. They are mostly rural migrants who come to cities looking for employment opportunities, and find that street vending gives them the independence of trade, and thus, a good livelihood opportunity. Vendors are heavily and primarily dependent on cash transactions. They have said that demonetization has led them to make losses, as many people don’t have cash on them or have higher denomination notes, for which street vendors cannot tender change. With the demonetization affecting all middle-class citizens, it has hit street vendors exceptionally hard, who are not only struggling to find loose change for customers, but are being encouraged to go cashless by using debit-credit card swiping machines, digital wallets and Aadhaar-based transactions. While there is no shortage of techies excited about a historic leap into a new era of enlightenment, for an average Indian, a sober analysis reveals that this move is grossly unfair in a context where street vendors are struggling to earn a decent livelihood on streets. Hence, the present paper represent to find out the impact of demonetization on unorganized with reference to street vendors in Visakhapatnam city with the following objectives.
Objectives
1. To study the impact of demonetization on street vendors in Visakhapatnam city.
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2. To identify the problems faced by street vendors after demonetization by the government of India.
3. To elucidate the perceptions of the street vendors on demonetization.
Methodology
As per the records of GVMC, there are 12,742 street vendors identified in Greater Visakhapatnam city. All these are mostly depending on their daily businesses. If any obstacle come into exist and close their business they will suffer for their livelihood. In such a bad situation the government of India suddenly announced demonetization of 500 and 1000 rupee notes on November 8, 2016. With this action of government most of the small and pretty traders, especially street vendors suffered a lot due to non-acceptance of big denomination notes (500 & 1000 rupees) by the wholesalers at the time of purchasing materials and payments by the consumers. Thus Visakhapatnam city has considered as study area to find out the impact of demonetization on street vendors. In this context the author has collected 100 sample data from the street vendors through a self-designed questionnaire. During the data collection a random sampling method has been adopted in selection of sample, type of vending, area of business, etc. Hence, the data was collected and processed for data analysis.
Data analysis and discussion
After collecting the data from 100 samples of street vendors, who considered as respondents and collected necessary information from them, the data was computed and processed with SPSS and generated frequency and cross tables for analysis. Hence, the tables, analysis, and their interpretations are presented and discussed in the following.
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Table-1: Distribution of Street Vendors by their type of Business
Business type Frequency Percent Food Vendors 31 31.0 Fruit Vendors 14 14.0 Vegetable Vendors 18 18.0 Others 37 37.0 Total 100 100.0 The above table gives the information about distribution of street vendors by their type of business. It is observed that out of the total sample, majority 37.0 percent of street vendors are doing other business, followed by 31.0 percent are food vendors. It is also observed that 18.0 percent of street vendors are doing fruit business and vegetable vendors are with a percentage of 18.0. Hence this shows that more than thirty five percent of street vendors are doing other business rather than food, fruit and vegetable business.
Table-2: Awareness of Street Vendors on Demonetization
Response Frequency Percent Yes 72 72.0 No 28 28.0 Total 100 100.0 Awareness of street vendors on Demonetization is about the topic discussed in the above table. It is found that out of the total sample, majority 72.0 percent of street vendors responded “Yes” as they have awareness on Demonetization and 28.0 percent responded “No”. This infers that more than seventy percent of street vendors have awareness on Demonetization.
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Table-3: Opinions of the Street Vendors on reasons behind move of Demonetization by the Government
Reasons Frequency Percent To Avoid corruption 10 10.0 To reduce black money 69 69.0 To reduce fake notes 15 15.0 Other Reasons 6 6.0 Total 100 100.0 The above table presents the details about Opinions of the Street Vendors on reasons behind move of Demonetization by the Government. It is noticed that out of the total sample, majority 69.0 percent of street vendors’ opinion on behind the move of Demonetization is to reduce black money, followed by 15.0 percent of street vendors’ opinion is to reduce fake notes. It is also observed that 10.0 percent to avoid corruption and 6.0 percent due to other reasons. Hence from the above table it can be concluded that maximum street vendors’ opinion to avoid black money is the main reason behind the move of Demonetization by the Government.
Table-4: Street Vendors rating on the move of Demonetization by Government
Rating Frequency Percent Good 53 53.0 Bad 22 22.0 Neutral 17 17.0 Can't Say 8 8.0 Total 100 100.0 The topic about Street Vendors rating on the move of Demonetization by Government is discussed in the above table. It is observed that out of the total sample, majority 53.0 percent of street vendors gave the rating good on the move of demonetization, followed by 22.0 percent of street vendors gave the rating bad, from the remaining 17.0 percent gave the rating neutral and 8.0 percent gave
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the rating can’t say. This indicates that more than half of the street vendors gave the rating good on the move of Demonetization by government. This may be because of their small transactions which are less than 100 rupees from a customer.
Table-5: Opinion of Street Vendors on the persons who are responsible for Demonetization
Responsible for Frequency Percent Demonetization Politicians 42 42.0 Corporate Business Houses 21 21.0 Tax Avoiders 34 34.0 Others 3 3.0 Total 100 100.0 The above table gives the information about opinions of street vendors on the persons who are responsible for Demonetization. It is found that out of the total sample, majority 42.0 percent of street vendors’ opinion who is responsible for demonetization are politicians, followed by 34.0 percent are tax avoiders, from the remaining 21.0 percent are corporate business houses and others with 3.0 percent. Hence the above analysis clearly shows that more than forty percent of street vendors felt that politicians are mainly responsible for Demonetization.
Table-6: Impact of Demonetization on Business and Financial performance
Statements Increase Decrease No Change Total A. Business performance Sales of items 3 (3.0) 75 (75.0) 22 (22.0) 100 (100.0) Customers 2 (2.0) 77 (77.0) 21 (21.0) 100 (100.0) Profits on sales 5 (5.0) 78 (78.0) 17 (17.0) 100 (100.0) B. Financial performance Availability of loans 8 (8.0) 65 (65.0) 27 (27.0) 100 (100.0) Purchasing power of 2 (2.0) 75 (75.0) 23 (23.0) 100 (100.0)
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VOLUME 6, ISSUE 7(3), JULY 2017 consumers Availability of currency in required 17 (17.0) 72 (72.0) 11 (11.0) 100 (100.0) denominations The above table gives the information about Impact of Demonetization on business and financial performance. Considering the statement business performance, it is noticed that business like profits on sales (78.0%), customers (77.0%) and sales of items (75.0%) has decreased to the highest extent due to the impact of demonetization. Now considering the statement financial performance, it is also observed that purchasing power of consumers (75.0%), availability of currency in required denominations (72.0%) and availability of loans (65.0%) has decreased very much due to the impact of demonetization. Hence from the data it can be concluded that business and financial performances has decreased greatly due to the impact of Demonetization.
Table-7: Problems being faced by Street Vendors due to demonetization
Statements Frequency (%) Reduction of Sales 28 (28.0) Reduction of purchasing power of consumers 11 (11.0) Non- availability of currency in required 46 (46.0) denominations to carry regular business Non availability of finance on time 16 (16.0) Non availability of labour - Others 4 (4.00) Problems’ being faced by Street Vendors due to Demonetization is about the topic discussed in the above table. It is found that out of the total sample, majority 46.0 percent of street vendors’ faced problem is non- availability of currency in required demonetization s to carry regular business due to demonetization, followed by 28.0 percent of street vendors faced reduction of sales, from the remaining 16.0 faced
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non availability of finance on time, 11.0 percent faced reduction of purchasing power of consumers and 4.0 percent of street vendors faced other problems faced due to demonetization. Hence this clearly shows that non-availability of currency in required demonetization s to carry regular business is the main problem being faced by street vendors due to Demonetization.
Table-8: Awareness of digital payment systems
Payment systems Frequency Percent Yes 45 45.0 No 55 55.0 Total 100 100.0 The above table gives the information about Awareness of digital payment systems. It is found that majority 55.0 percent of street vendors responded “No” and remaining 45.0 percent of street vendors responded “Yes”. Hence from the data it can be concluded that more than half percent of street vendors are not aware of digital payment systems.
Table-9: Awareness of Street Vendors on various types of digital payment systems
Statements Frequency Percent POS 6 6.0 PAYTM 43 43.0 Debit/Credit cards 43 43.0 Micro ATM's 7 7.0 Awareness of Street Vendors on various types of digital payment systems is the details presented in the above table. It is noticed that street vendors are aware of PAYTM and Debit/ Credit cards with 43.0 percent each, from the remaining 7.0 percent are aware of Micro ATM’s and 6.0 percent are aware of POS. This indicates that most of the street vendors are aware of digital payment systems like PAYTM and Debit/ Credit cards.
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Table-10: Opinion of Street Vendors on Government move towards promoting Cashless Transactions
Opinions Frequency Percent Good 40 40.0 Bad 35 35.0 Neutral 5 5.0 Can't say 20 20.0 Total 100 100.0 Opinion of Street Vendors on Government move towards promoting Cashless Transactions is about the topic discussed in the above table. It is found that out of the total sample, majority 40.0 percent of street vendors’ opinion is good on promoting cashless transactions, followed by 35.0 percent of street vendors’ opinion is bad on promoting cashless transactions, 20.0 percent can’t say and 5.0 percent of street vendors opinion is neutral. Hence this shows that forty percent of street vendors’ opinion is good on government move towards promoting cashless transactions.
Table-11: Opinion of street vendors on false banking officers is responsible particularly in not getting easy denominations
Easy denominations Frequency Percent Strongly Agree 27 27.0 Agree 38 38.0 Strongly Disagree 6 6.0 Disagree 10 10.0 Can't say 19 19.0 Total 100 100.0 Opinion of street vendors on false banking officers is responsible particularly in not getting easy denominations is the topic details presented in the above table. It is observed that 38.0 percent of street vendors agreed that false banking officers is responsible in not getting easy denominations, followed by 27.0 percent strongly agreed, (19.0%) can’t say, (10.0%) disagreed and (6.0%) strongly disagreed. Hence it can
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be concluded that more than thirty five percent of street vendors agreed that false officers is responsible particularly in not getting easy denominations.
Findings
The data reveals that the sample has covered food vendors, fruit vendors, vegetable vendors and others like unbranded garments, foot wear, plastic goods, etc. While the demonetization is a national policy more than seventy percent of street vendors are aware about it. So, maximum number of street vendors opined that this movement is good because the main reason behind it is to avoid black money in the country. They also felt that this movement may not effect because their transactions are less than 100 rupees. According to them politicians, tax avoiders and corporate business people are responsible for this crisis.
As per the opinions of street vendors business and financial performances has decreased greatly due to demonetization. Where it shows most of the respondents said that sales of items, customer turnover and profits on sales have been decreased. On the other hand, in financial performance, availability of loans, purchasing power of consumers and availability of currency in required denominations also decreased. In this context non-availability of currency in required demonetizations for business transaction is the main problem faced by street vendors. Due to this there was a reduction in the sales turnover.
When the government restricted to cash money transactions, most of the street vendors faced problem that they are not aware of digital transaction. So they are compulsory to follow digital payment systems through PAYTM and Debit/ Credit cards. Since, forty percent of street vendors opined that it is a good movement of government in promoting cashless transactions, 35.0 percent opined bad for this. While there was currency crisis raised throughout the country, most of
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the street vendors felt this is due to false officers who have diverted the new currency to their near and dear for which most of the common public did not get new currency instead of old.
Conclusion
Demonetization of Rs 500 and Rs 1000 notes by the government has hit street vendors in the Visakhapatnam market, with rapidly dipping sales in the absence of proper cash flow in the city. Left with no option, the street vendors are forced to accept old currency, and ask the customer either to purchase goods worth the entire sum of Rs 500/ Rs 1000, or refuse them, due to unavailability of change. Hence, it can be concluded that there is huge impact of demonetization on street vendors in their financial, product sale and labour performance.
References
1. Manimugdha S Sharma (2016), 2016 Vs 1946: Tale of two notebandis, The Times of India, Dec 11, 2016.
2. Gopika Gopakumar, Vishwanath Nair (8 November 2016). "Rs 500, Rs 1000 notes may be back, if history is a guide". Live Mint. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
3. CBDT (2012), Measures to tackle Black Money in India and Abroad, Report of committee, Government of India, Ministry of finance.
4. "Measures to Tackle Black Money in India and Abroad"(PDF).
5. Appu Esthose Suresh (12 November 2016). "Why govt's Demonetization move may fail to win the war against black money". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
6. Damodaran, Harish (9 November 2016). "Are banks equipped to replace 2,300 crore pieces of Rs 500 and Rs 1,000 notes?". The Indian Express. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
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7. Kumar Uttam (12 November 2016). "The measure is 'anti-poor': When BJP opposed Demonetization during UPA govt.". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
8. Betwa Sharma (11 November 2016). "BJP Had A Very Different View on Demonetization in 2014". Huffingtonpost.in. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
9. "Explain opposition to similar move by UPA: AAP to BJP on demonetization ". The Indian Express. 12 November 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
10. "How BJP had termed Demonetization as 'anti-poor' in 2014". The Times of India. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
11. "Rs 500, Rs 1000 banned; Rs 2000 to come: Did we miss these Twitter, RBI hints?". Firstpost. 9 November 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2016.
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ROLE OF GOVERNMENT ORAGANISTION PROTECTION OF CHILD LABOUR WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO DHEMAJI DISTRICT, (ASSAM) Jatin Dutta Research Scholar Singhania University Rajasthan Abstract: Child protection; need to be understood in terms of who are the children who need to be protective. Every child as a right to protection. Child protection ;refers to protection from violence exploitations abuse and neglect. Violations of the child right to protection, in addition to being human rights violations, are massive, under; Recognized and under reported various to child survival and development. It is evident that not single bole can be achieves unless the protection of children becomes and integral part of programme strategies and plains across sectors .Preventing and addressing violence, abuse, and exploitation is part of achieving the MDGs Failing to protect children from such issues as violence in schools , child labour, harmful, traditional practise, the absence of parental care or commercial sexual exploitation squanders the nation’s most precious resource. The preventive approach has been limited programmes like awareness generation media advocacy training and capacity building of various stakeholders legal literacy, sex education schools to protection of child. Keywords: Protection, Right , Violation, Awareness. Introduction: - The minister of women and child development has taken charge of child protection programmes transferred from the Ministry of Social Justice and empowerment. In addition to its novel function on all policy issues related to children and the implementation and monitoring of CRC, The Ministry has the primary responsibility for planning, implementation and coordination of child protection service . However , child protection is not the exclusive responsibility of the MWCT; other sectors have a vital role play. The Ministry is there for looking at child protection holistically and examining how to rationalize programmes and approaches for creating a strong protective environment for children, diversifr and provide essential services for children, mobilize
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inter-scrotal response for strengthening child protection set standard for care and services. The constitution of India recognizes the vulnerable position of children and their right to protection. There for , following the doctrine of protective discrimination, in guarantees in article 15 special attention to children through necessary and special lows and policies that safeguard their rights. The right to equality, protection of life and personal liberty and the right against exploitation enshrined in article 14,15,16,17,21,23, and 24 future reiterate India’s commitments to the protection, safety, security, well-being of all is people including children. The chapter on directive principle of state policy in the conisation of India enjoys that the state sale, in particular, direct its policy towards securing :-
(1) That the health and strength of workers, men and women and the tender age children are not abused and the citizens are not force by economic necessity to entre avocations unsuited to their age or strength.
(2) Those children are opportunities and facilities to develop in healthy manner and in conduction of freedom and dignity and youth are protected against exploitation childhood care and agnate morel and material abandonment.
(3) That the state shall endeavour to provide early childhood to all children until they complete the age of six years. India’s National policy for children 1974 provides a frame of work for policy planning for children. In 1992 India acceded to the United Nations convention on the right of the child (UNCRC) , committing to take measures to ensore the survival, protection, participation and development of its children. At the world summit for children in 1990 India adopted the world declaration for survival, protection and development of children. Additionally India ratified the optional prot,ocols on the use of children in armed conflict and the sale of children, child prostitution, and child tomography in 2005. It also reaffirmed its commitment to children by adopting the millellium development Goals and a world Fit for children. Moving towards its commitments, the Governments Of India introduced the national charter for
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children 2003, which stipulates the duets for the state and community, followed by a National plain of action for children in 2005, which ensures collective commitment and action toward the survival, development protection and participation of children by all factors all level of Governments and civil society. India has also signed the SAARC convention on combating trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation women and children in 2002, The SAARC convention of regional arrangements for the promoted ion child welfare in South Asia in 2002, and is signatory to the SAARC decade on the right of the child 2001-10, decided in Rawalpindi resolution on children in South Asia in 1996. The national common minimum programme specifically states that, will protect the rights of children strive for elimination of child labour, in sure facilities for schooling and extend special care to the girl child. Despite such clear commitment to child protection enshrined in the constitution of India and the UN convention on the Right of child ratified by India in 1992, and the to optional protocols ratified in 2005 and the various national and international commitment made children, continue to remain vulnerable with the members of those needing care and protection is ever increasing. Five decades of planed development has indeed failed to address the critical issue of ‘child protection’ and in these many years a lot has change in the left of people, particular children that all for a re-examination of the understanding of ‘child protection it self’. Objective Of The Paper: The following are the main objectives of present paper are - 1.To understand the defining of child protection. 2. To understand the millennium development goals and child protection. 3. To understand various child protection schemes and programmes
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4. Role of government organisation protection of child labour in Dhemaji district. . include CPSU, SPSU, SCPS,DCPS etc. 5. Suggestion and conclusion. Research Methodology : This paper is an analytical paper based on secondary data and the data are collective related books journals, books and information of the websites etc. DIFINING CHILD PROTECTION Child protection:- needs to be understood in terms of who are the children who need to be protected, from what/whom and how? Every child has a right to protection. This not only includes children who are in difficult circumstances and those who have suffered violence, abuse and exploitation but also those who are not in any of these adverse situation and yet need to be protected in order to ensure that they remain within the social security and protective net. Child protection; refers to protection from valance, exploitation, abuse and neglect. Violtions of the child right to protection, in addition to being human rights violations , are also massive, under-recognized and under-reported barriers to child survival and development. Children subjected to violence, exploitation abuse and neglect are at risk of shortened lives, or phyicial and mental health, educational problem ( including dropping out of school), poor parenting skills later in life, homeless ness, vagrancy and displacement. Conversely, successful protection increases a child chances to grow up physically and mentally healthy,confident and self-respecting, and less likely to abuse or exploit others, including his or her own children. The need to protect some children is certainly greaten others dew to there specific socio-economic and political circumstances and geographical location. These are the children who more vulnerable in terms of herm/danger/risk to their right survival/development/participation. There children in difficult circumstance and include:
(i) Homeless children (pavement, dwellers ,displaced/evicted etc) (ii) Refugee and migrants children’s (iii) Orphaned or abandoned and destitute children
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(iv) Children whose parents cannot or are not able to take care of them (v) Streak and working children (vi) Child beggars (vii) Victims of child marriage (viii) Trafficked children (ix) Child prostitutes (x) Children of prisoners (xi) Children affected by conflicts/civil stifle (xii) Children affected by disasters both natural and manmade (xiii) Children affected by substance abuse, HIV/AIDS and other terminal disease (xiv) The girl child (xv) Children in conflict with low ‘those who commit crimes ‘ THE APPROACH TO CHILD PROTECTION The Governments approach to child protection so far has addressed largely those children who have all ready miss the protective net and fallen in improve difficult circumstances. Unfortunately he current coverage falls short reaching the most vulnerable because the interventions throw the existing scheme do not prover all the category children difficult cracurances. Even where the interventions exist throw instince institutional care for children in difficult circumstances,there is much room for improving the infrastructure and expending the out race. The quality of service need up grgation and regional imbalances need to be addressed. For building on a comprehensive understanding of children right to protection, it become importance adopt both have preventive and a prospective approach to child protection. The preventive approach in this years- in all this years applications of the preventive approach has been limited to programmes like awareness, generation, media, advocacy, training and capacity building of various stakeholder , legal literacy sex education in schools etc. The need of the hour coals for wider look that must go beyond the conventional prevention strategies and also take in to account link between child protection and other micro and macro development issue. Such a holistice understanding of prevention alone can help keep children within the protective net. Such a protective approach includes matting of areas to identify potentially vulnerable
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families and families with risky behaviour, Where children are more vulnerable or likely to come in to vulnerable situations. Strengthening the families and family environment must follow linkages with different sectors vie. Education, health, rural development, labour, urban affairs , legal affairs home affairs and different department Ministry of Central and State Government including local self Government, PRIs need to be strengthened. A right- based approach calls for addressing the road causes of any social problem. It is also importance that partnership with civil society strengthened for all stages of planning, implementation and monitoring child protection initiatives. Their for a proactive preventive approach as discuss above become in inevitable. The proactive approach:- The proactive approach is to deal with situations post-harm must include immediate as well as long-term protection strategies for all children who need it, including programmes for their physical and psychological recovery, rehabilitation and reintegration, legal aid and access to justice through child-friendly loge and procedures and, clear standards for protection every individual/family institution dealing with children. It is critical to invest in child protection as protection failures are not human rights violations but are also, major under- recognized under-reported, and under-acted upon barriers to child survival and development. In addition, the links between protection and order development targets accepted by the country need to be explicitly stated and understood in order to address appropriately the concerns for achieving these and to invest in accordance with the need and magnitude of the problem. Child Protection And The MDGS The focus on MDGS is central to all national development pealing and a continuing challenge for all those working for promoting chid protection. The links between protection issues and the Goals are not explicit; however, there are many links between improve child protection and better development outcomes. And attempt has been made to outline this in the matrix ‘Millennium development Goes and child protection’ below. If they are not recognises and integrated in the frame work and resourcing of the Eleven plan, there may be serious implication for achieving some of MDGS.
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The Big Picture: Child strengthens Human Development The Millennium declaration addresses child protection explicitly. If we examine the MGDs closely, in is evident that not a single goal can be achieved unless the protection of children becomes an integral part of programming strategies and plans across sectors. Preventing and addressing violence, abuse and exploitation is part of achieving the MDGs failing to protect children from such issues as violence in schools, child labour harm full traditional critics, the absence of parental care or commercial sexual exploitation squanders the nation’s most precious resource Reaching the most vulnerable and isolated and marginalised populations helps insure the health and well-being of all which is in dispensable to achieving the MDGs. A comprehensive programming approach to child protection brings us closer to the human development approaches especially in terms of good Governance, human right, gender, secretary, social protestation and the role of low.
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Protective Environment For Children While Children right are human right , the need to focus on the child the right of the child specially and more specifically , has been recognised the world over. In today circumstances , growing violence against children , lake of spaces amid plate forms for children seek, justice , inadequate infrastructure to cater to their needs , the whole perception of children as extension of parents and their treatment as parents property are some of the critical child protection issues that call for utmost and immediate attention. The constitution of India recognises the vulnerable position of children and their right to protection. There for following the Doctrines of protective discrimination , it guarantees in article 15 special attention to children through necessary and special laws and policies that save guard there right. The Right to equality protection of like and personal liberty and the right against exploitation enshrined in articles 14,15,16,17,21,23,and 24 futures reiterate India’s commitment to the protection , safety , security and well being of all its people , including children. The chapter on directive principles of state policy in the constitutions of India enjoins that the state sale in particular , directive policy towards securing :
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i) That the health and strength of workers , men and women , and tender age of children are not abused and the citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited to their rage or strength.
ii) That children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions freedom and dignity and childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment
iii) That the state shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education to all children until day complete the age of six years. India’s National Policy for Children 1974 provides at frame of work for policy and planning for children. In 1992 India acceded to the United Nations convention on the right of the child (UNCRC) committing it self to take measures to ensure the survival , protection , capitations and development of its children. At the world summit for children in 1990 India adopted the world declaration for survival, protection and development of children. Additionally , India adopted the optional protocols on he involvement of children Armed conflict and the sale of children, child prostitution , and pornography. I t also reaffirmed its commitment to children by adopting the Millennium Development goals and the objectives of a world fit for children. Moving towards its commitments, the Government of India introduced the national charter for 2004. Which stitulates the duties for the state and community, followed by a National plan of action for children in 2005,which ensures collective commitment and action for the survival, development , protection and participation of children by all sectors and level of government and civil society. Several major policies and legislations have been announced and implemented in the country so far to ensure children protection and improvement in their status including the Guardianship and wards Act 1890 , factories Act 1954, Hindu adoption and maintenance Act 1956, probation of offenders Act 1958, Bombay prevention of begging Act 1959, orphanages and other charitable homes (supervision and control) Act 1960; bonded labour system (Abolition) Act 1976;child marriage Restraint Act 1979; immoral traffic prevention Act 1986; child labour (prohibition and regulation)Act 1986; prevention of illicit traffic in
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narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances Act 1987;infant milk substitutes feeding bottles and infant foods (Regulation of production, supply and distribution)Act 199; prenatal diagnostic techniques (Regulation of production supply and distribution) 1992; prenatal diagnostic techniques(Regulation and prevention of misuse Act 1994; persons with disabilities (Equal protection of right and full participation)Act 2000; Juvenile justice (Care and protection of children) Act 2000; National police on education 1986; National police on child labour 1987; National nutrition police 1993; National health police2002; National charter for children 2004 and National plan of action for children 2005. The ongoing child protection schemes and programmes and the nodal ministries responsible for them are : Sl Schemes/Programmes Implementing No. Ministry 1 Improvement in working Conditions of Ministry of Child/Women Labour Labour 2 Initiative to Develop skills, ITIs and Ministry of Elimination of Child Labour in 10 plain Labour 3 A Programme for Juvenile Justice Ministry of Women and Child Development 4 Integrated Programme for street Children Ministry of Including CHILDLINE Service Women and Child Development 5 Shishu Greha Scheme for Promoting in- Ministry of country and inter-country adoption Women and Child through CARA Development 6 Scheme for Welfare of Working Children Ministry of and children in need for care and Women and Child Protection Development 7 Rajiv Gandhi National Creche Scheme for Ministry of Children of Working Mothers Women and Child Development 8 Integrated Child Development Scheme Ministry of (ICDS) Women and Child Development 9 Three Pilots Project on Trafficking in Ministry of
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sources areas, destination point and an Women and Child area where traditional practices prevall Development 10 Kishori Shakti Yojana Ministry of Women and Child Development 11 Swadher, Short stay Home and Working Ministry of Women’s Hostel Women and Child Development Despite such clear commitments to child protection, children continue to remain vulnerable with the number of those needing care and protection ever increasing. Clearly there is need to re-examine the understanding of ‘Child Protection’ itself. ‘Child Protection’ needs to be understood in term of who are the children who needs to be protected, from what, whom and how. Every child has a right to be protection . This not only includes children who are in difficult circumstances and those who have suffered violence, abuse and exploitation but also those who are not if any of these adverse situations but nonetheless need to be protected in order to ensure that they remain within the social security and protective net. ‘Child protection’ is about protecting children from against any perceived or real danger/risk to their life , their personhood and childhood. It about reducing their vulnerability to any kinds of herm and in harmful situations. It must ensure that no child falls out of the social security and safety net and those who do , receive necessary and protection to be brought back in to the safety net. Child protection is integrally liked to every other right of the child. The failure to be ensure children’s right to protection adversely affects all other right of the child. Child protection is abut protecting every right of every child It must relate to children’s capacity for self- reliance and self-defence and to the roles and responsibilities of family community , society and state. The needs to be protect some children in certainly greater then other due to their specific socio-economic and political circumstances and geographical location. This are the children who who are more
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vulnerable in terms of the herms/danger/risk to their right survival/developments/participation. They are recognised by the Government as children in difficult circumstances include:
Homeless children (pavement dwellers, displaced/evicted)etc. Refugee and migrant children Orphaned, abandoned and destitute children Children whose parents cannot, are not able to take care of them Street and working children Child badgers Victims of child marriages Trafficked children Child prostitutes Children of prostitutes Children of prisoners Children affected by conflict Children affected by disasters both man-made and nature Children affected by substance abuse and HIV/AIDS and other Permian diseases Disabled children Children belonging to ethnic, religious, minorities and other socially marginalised groups The girl child Children who are victim of crime Children in conflict with law Protective Environment For Children: Service Delivery Structures of Government Organizations Protections of Child Right- Setting up of a deviated service delivery structures for palling implementing and monitoring the scheme show that maximum benefits can accrue to the children which would include a. Central project support unit CPSU, this unit under the ministry of women and child development will be headed by a mission director who will b a join secretary level officer, assisted by team of professionals. The CPSU will develop a plan of action for initiating the implementation of ICPS , insure training, sensitization and cappaciapity building at all level, and hand hole the states during
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initial implementation of the scheme monitor and evaluate the implementation, among other functions,
b. State project support unit (SPSU) in order to insure effective implementation of ICPS in the state, SPSU will be setup in all the state and will report directly to the CPSU the SPSU will function only during the initial implementation of the scheme in the state. The SPSC will headed by a programme manger assisted by a team of professionals and will develop the plan of action for implementation of ICPS in the state, facilitate setting up of required structure under ICPS, collect and contrite information on status of child protection in the state, carry out training sensitization and capacity building , monitor and evaluate implementation of ICPS in the state amongst other functions. It is proposed to provide a non re-recurring budget of Rs 7,00 lakes to is SPSU and yearly recurring budget of Rs 36.67 lakes for its activities.
c. States child protections society ( SCPS) The SPCS will be set up in every state/ UT and headed by the concerned secretary of the state Government assisted by a team of officials. This society shall be responsible for implementation of ICPS and other child protection policies and programmes at the state level ICPS provides and non recurring budget of Rs 5.25 lakes (States will 15 or less than 15 districts) and Rs 7.35 lakes (states with more than 15 districts) and yearly recurring budget of Rs 53.86 lakes (state with 15 or less than 15 districts) and Rs 102.66 lakes ( state with more than 15 districts)
d. District child protection society (DCPS) DCPS will set up in each district as a fundamental unit for implementation of the scheme, the society shall coordinate and implement all child right and protections activities at district level. It shall also contribute to effective implementation of all child protection legislations, schemes and achievement of child protection goals laid out in national plain of action for children 2005. The scheme provides and non-recurring budget of Rs 3.45 lakes and yearly recurring budget of Rs 36.86 lakes for this. Other organization state adoption resource agency (SARA) child line India foundation (CIF) central adoption resource agency (CARA) can play the role of child protection(Role of Government Organisation).
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District child protection office Dhemaji also play important role protection of child right in the Districts. Awareness programme, awareness campaign, cultural programme, celebration of child protection day etc. District Level Awareness Programme: on Right of Children And Social Responsibility Technical Expart and Social Welfare Department on 23rd July of 2013 Dhemaji, Jail. Assam State Commission for protection of child Right: Meeting District authorities Dhemaji Dist. On 25th April 2012 Dist. Level awareness on right of children and social responsibility district social welfare officers chairperson. High Rate of Child Marriages in State Worries Right Experts Time Of India 2016: Ranumai Gogoi Chairperson of The Assam state Commission for protection Child Right Collective effort will secure protective environment for children ASCTCR Dhemaji Assam. On date 27.12.2016 one day awareness programme on adopted Venue: Children Carrier and Education Development Centre Dhemaji College On 27-12-2016, One day awareness programmes on ADOPTION was conducted at children carrier and education development centre (CCED), Dhemaji college , there were participants from different parts of the district including AHSA work , anganwadi worker, helper ICDS supervisors and members of different self-helps groups. The DCPO selects the CWC chairperson as the president of the meeting, In her speech are delivered by the DCPO selets the CWC chairperson as the president of the meeting., the opening speech was delivered by the DCPO and PO (NIC) Anu Gogoi briafs the objects of the meeting in her speech she explain audience that to adopt a child a person has to go through various procedures which are mandatory and inseribedin the guideline of CARA and also request them to pay attestation to the resource person who were going to give presentation about CARA guidelines after the chief guest of the meeting Mr Dhrma kanta Mili ADC Dhemaji, Mr Satyananda Deori DSWO, join director Dhemaji Mr Madhav Krishina Goswami and many other speakers lightens up about the importance of Adoption in the society for the welfare of the children who are orphans, abandoned or surrendered by their parents. In addition that the superintendent than of children home Mr. MK
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Goswami spoke abote adoption procedures to the participants of the meeting. ADC Dhemaji: The ADC Dhemaji in his speech he pin point as that io our society we seen that if any parent adopts a child then after the death of the adoptive parents the rights of the adopted child is endanger, their for he request the audience to co-operate with the district child protection unit solving these problems. Joint Director of Health Services: The joint director in her speech he urged all the anganwadi and the ASHA workers to learn the steps and terms and conditions of ADOPTION and also for any other inquires they must immediately consult to the district child protection unit or to the specialised adoption agency Mr. Madhav Krishna Goswami : Mr. Goswami spoke abote adoption procedures wish are mandatory to be followed by the TAP’s, he also spoke aboute the meaning and functionaries of CARA, He spotlighted the ill effects and legal punishments if regard to illegal adoption along with examples,he presented a visual presentation where the made the people to aware about the login system for the adoptive parents. DSWO DHEMAJI: Mr S Deori acknowledged the morel value of adoption in front of the audience he emphasised how adoption could change the life of an orphan child by getting a chance to come out from darkness to the brightness o the society. He also appreciate the initiative of SCPS, UNICEA and DCPU staff in dinging awareness among the people of Dhemaji where people have very thin knowledge abote ADOPTION at last the president of the meeting thanks all the participants or giving their value able time and making the meeting successful and close the meeting national anthem public announcement. District level awareness campaign on POCSO act, Child Marriage,Child Trafficking Location:Naharbari GP office, village:Tingiri On Dated: 10-04-2017 an awareness campaign was organised by district child protection unit, of Dhemaji District on Nahabari. The campaign was presided over by the CWC chairperson.
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The president well come every one and narrates about the subjects of the meeting he explain briefly about POCHO act, child marriage and child trafficking and wishes everyone. Felicitation programme: LCPO begging the programme by felicitating the CWC, DCPO, the Gaon Bora, The Headmaster and the ICDS supervisors and at last the LCPO. Objective of the meeting: The objective 0f the meeting was explain by Anu Gogoi P.O. (NIC) she begging her speech by explaining by about child protection and the role of the people in protecting children, she spokes about how child marriage makes the society handicapped, the importance of a girl child, the consequences of getting a child married in young age, she future explain that there are people in the society to traffics children for money, beggary prostitution , selling bode parts etc. Lastly she flashes about the sexual offences done to children especially girls child and request the audience to give importance to the meeting to understand those social evils properly. Child Trafficking: Mr.Dimbeswar Boruah, CWC chairperson being see speech with human trafficking and differentiates with child trafficking(HUPAVHORA) he gives example how children get trafficked such as the traffickers follows the child for many days and takes away when the child alone, the traffickers may be the schools bus drivers or may be any normal person. They usually traffic for ransom money or they lure the parents with huge amount of money or by promising them to give jobs in metro cities. He also said that in villages their sure agents to supplies children from village to town areas for domestics labours. Their are also insurgent groups which recruits children’s for terror activities. He also explain that the reason is basically due to economic crisis. Child Marriages speech by DCPO: The DCPO said that in this mobile age children gets married without consent of their parents, he also spoke about ill effects of child marriage such as sexual diseases, low weight child birth, malnutrition, lake of family planning, lake of mental preparedness and order medical disorders, he explain the importance of awareness in that particular panchyat where the numbers of child marriage of high, he also inform that the district child protections unit along with the ASJPU responds
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immediately when they get information, he also tells about TRACK the missing child portal where we upload and also get information of every missing child in India with click with a button and lastly he shares his phone number and CHILDLINE number and request every one to contract him at anytime for any child related issues. POCSO ACT SPEECH BY LCPO: She starts by Explaining the meaning of a child how the POCHO ACT supports a sexually harassed victim to gets justice. If any police or medical or army officer happen to indulge in any sexual act than they may be jailed to more than ten years or life time imprisonment. She discusses how our society reacts when we discuss about sex related issues and urges the people to discuss openly show that the parents get to know what happened as early as possible. She informs that there is a boards called juvenile justice board where offences made by or made to child are given justice by first class magistrate without any cost. She firmly comments that any person who hides such crime or helps the criminal by any means is him herself a criminal. She future explain that if any boy or a girl is used or exposed to pornography is crime, she also speaks about section 11 section 22(3) and finally requests all the audience to make used of the POCSO ACT to punish the culprits so that more criminal don’t come out in the future. Cultural Programme: A short cultural programme was also initiated where the students of Tingiri M.E. School and few local people participated in different cultural activities. At the end of the programme the president of the meeting thanks all the participated of the meeting or giving their valuable time and understanding and responding about the concept of child marriages, child trafficking and POCSO ACT and the meeting ends with the songs ‘O MUR APUNAR DESH’. Report on Celebration of Child Protection Day Organised by: Dist. Child Protection Unit Dhemaji Dated : 4th March 2017-07-06 Venue : Uttar Dhemaji Gaon Panchyat office
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Programme details: Today on 4th March 2017 the DCPO observed child protection day at Uttar Dhemaji Gaon Panchayat office, Around three hundred participints present at at the programme. Opening speech of the meeting was delivered by Mr. Alex Doley, DCPO Dhemaji and selected CWC chairperson Mr. Dimbeswar Borah as the president of the meeting. The chief gust of the meeting was Miss Leena Kakoti Astt. Commissioner , Dhemaji and the guest of honour Mr. S. Deori , DSWO Dhemaji and MR. B. Borah CDPO , Dhemaji ICDS project respectively. The participants were Anganwadi workers, supervisors, panchayat members, child of sri sri sewa ashrom student of DIET AHSA workers. All the ditaries were felicited with phulam Gamusha by the DCPO staff. Than the objected of the meeting was convyed by Mrs. Anu Kakoti, PO (NIC). Than the chief guest delivered her speech about the importance of awareness among the people about child protection issues prevalent in the District. She greeted all the children present for better futures and moved out from the meeting as she had to attend other meeting. After that the DSWO addressed the participants that child right play vital role in proper development of a child physically, mentally and psychologically. Mr. A Doley , DCPO also speak on child trafficking from the district to the different part India, specially to the neighbour state Arunachal Pradesh. He also mentioned about child marriage, POCSO ACT and also different mechanism to protect the children. Mr. D Borah CDPO Dhemaji also spoke about the importance of child nutrition and importance of child protection for holistic development of the children. The panchayat secretary also spoke about child protection in the panchayat level to be introduce and also help in awareness the community about child protection. At last CWC member also spoke about the child protection and work of the CWC in helping the child. Suggestion And Conclusions: The Problems of Child labour continues to pose a challenge before the nation. Government has been taking various pro active measures to tackle this problem. However , considering the magnitude and extent of the problem and that it is essentially a socio-economics problems inextricably linked to poverty and illiteracy, its requires concerted efforts from all section of the society to make dent in the problem. Based on the recommendations of Gurupadaswamy Committee , the child labour (prohibition and regulation) Act was enacted in 1986
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the Act prohibits employment of children in certain specified Hazardous occupations and processes and regulates the working conditions in orders. The list of Hazardous occupations and processes is progressively being expanded on the recommendation of child labour technical advisory committee constituted under the act. In consonance with the above approach a national policy on child labour was formulated in 1987. The policy seeks to adopt to gradual and sequential approach with a focus on rehabilitations of children working in Hazardous occupations and processes in the first instance. Event where the interventions exist for instance institutional care for children in difficult circumstances on a comprehensive understanding of children’s right to protection it becomes important to adopt both a preventive and a protective approach to child protection. The preventive approach: The preventive approach has been limited to programmes like awareness, generation, media advocacy , training and capacity building of various stake holder, legal literacy sex education in school. The need of the hour is for a wider out look that must grow beyond the convention prevention strategies and also take in to account the link between child protection and other micro and macro development issues. Protective approach is to deal with situations post- herm and must include immediate as well as long term protection strategies for all children who need it including programmes for there physical and psychological recovery, rehabilitation and reintegration, legal aid and access to justice through child friendly lows and procedures and clear standards for protection of every dividable/family/institution dealing with children. The most significant of all has been the carving out of a full fledged ministry of women and child development in early 2006 and bringing in to its ambit all issues of child protection many new initiatives are on the anvil, which provide a strong base for creating and building a protective environment for all children in the country. Reference:-
1. Child labour issues and challenges- Hemant Mishra Pulished by DND publications Jaypur.
2. Child labour eradication problems awareness measures- Tapan Kumar shandilya Nayan Kumar, Novin Kumar
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3. Annual report 1995-96 NHRC available at http://nhrc.nic.in/are 95- 96.htm#no5 last visited on 23rd march 2010
4. Child labour available at http://www.unicef.org/pr otectionfiles/c hildla bour.pdf last visited on 4th march 2010.
5. Diwan Paras, children and legal protection, Deepand Deep Publishers 1994 New Delhi.
6. ECPA Intermational.www epithet the bodies of and ECPAT stop trafficking of children and young peple campaign.
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SERVICE CONVERGENCE ISSUE IN MOBILE CLOUD COMPUTING
Hagos Alemseged Yifter Dr. Gagandeep Lecturer Associate Professor Department of Information Department of Computer Science Technology and Engineering BuleHora University, Ethiopia Punjabi University, Patiala
ABSTRACT
Through quickly increase of the mobile application and developing of cloud computing concept a new technology called mobile cloud computing has been started to be a potential technology for mobile services. Mobile Cloud Computing is a blending of mobile computing and cloud computing which is used to overcome the issues faced in mobile computing such as battery life, storage, bandwidth, heterogeneity, scalability, availability, reliability, and privacy. Fast growing and competition of cloud providers, Mobile Cloud Computing has started a new window of computing technology by joining multiple of clouds into a single environment is called Mobile Sky Computing. Mobile Sky Computing model allows the formulation of large-scale distributed infrastructures to mobile platform by using resources from multiple cloud providers. The infrastructure able to run embarrassingly parallel computation with high performance. In addition to, Mobile Sky Computing can bring about a reduction in overall costing of managing and operating IT infrastructures.
Keywords:-Mobile Computing, Cloud Computing, Mobile Cloud Computing, Mobile SkyComputing, Xen, Nimbus, ViNe.
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I. INTRODUCTION
Mobile Computing (MC) is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice, and video via a computer or any other wireless enabled device without having to be connected to a fixed physical link. The rapid progress of mobile computing (MC) [1] becomes a powerful trend in the development of IT technology as well as commerce and industry fields. However, mobile devices are facing many challenges in their resources (battery, storage, and bandwidth) and communication (security and mobility) [2].
Cloud Computing (CC) is a type of Internet-based computing that provides shared computer processing resources and data to computers and other devices on demand. It is a model for enabling ubiquitous, on- demand access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g. computer networks, servers, storage, applications, and services),[3][4] which can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort. Amazon Web Service (AWS) also claim that cloud computing allows enterprises to get their applications up and running faster, with improved manageability and less maintenance, and enables Information Technology (IT) teams to more rapidly adjust resources to meet fluctuating and unpredictable business demand.[5][6] Cloud providers typically use a "pay as you go" model.
Due to an increase in production mobile devices and quick development of the mobile application, a Cloud Computing (CC) created a new computing technology called Mobile Cloud Computing (MCC). Mobile Cloud Computing (MCC) is a compounding of cloud computing, mobile computing, and wireless network to convey plenteous computational resources to mobile users, network operators, as well as cloud computing providers.
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Through rapid growth and competition of Cloud Providers, the services will be differentiated according to several parameters such as size, type, and soon. Due to the above reason a Cloud Computing has directed to a new computing technology is called Sky Computing (SC). Sky Computing (SC) is the processes of integrating or leveraging different cloud providers into a uni fashion environment. Similarly, the Mobile Sky Computing (MSC) will enable providers to support a cross-cloud communication and enable users to implement mobile services and applications.
1.1 Mobile Cloud Service Models
Figure 1: Service-oriented cloud computing architecture
The NIST's definition of cloud computing defines the service models as follows [7]:
Software as a Service (SaaS): SaaS describes as the capacity of providing, an applicationrunning on a cloud infrastructure to the consumer. the consumer can be accessed the application running on provider’s cloud infrastructure through either thin client interface such as web browser (e.g. web-based email) or a program interface. the
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consumer does not have right to monitor the infrastructure launched in the cloud including network, servers, operating systems, storage or individual application capabilities, apart from limited user-specific application configuration settings. The example of SaaS is Google Apps, Sales force, Workday, Concur, Citrix Go to Meeting, and Cisco WebEx.
Platform as a Service (PaaS): PaaS describe as the capacity of deploy application buildingusing programming languages, libraries, services, and tools supported by the providers on the provider's cloud infrastructure. The consumer does not have right to monitor the infrastructure launched in the cloud including network, servers, operating systems, storage but has control over the deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the application- hosting environment. The examples of PaaS are Google app engine, Microsoft azure, Engine Yard, and Amazon map reduced or Simple Storage Service (S3).
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): IaaS describe as the capacity of providing processing,storage, network, and other fundamental computing resources to the consumer, where the consumer can deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems and applications. The consumer does not have right to monitor underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over operating systems, storage and deployed the application and possibly limited control of select networking components. The examples of IaaS are Amazon EC2 (Elastic Cloud Computing) and S3 (Simple Storage Service), Cloud Sigma, Luna Cloud, and Cloud Scale.
Data Centers: Data centers are a physical or virtual facility used by an organization to launchcomputers, servers, storages, and networking system and components for company Information Technology (IT) demands, which typically requires for storing, processing and delivering a huge amount of data to clients in client/server architecture. A data
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center often requires broad redundant or backup power supply systems, cooling systems, redundant networking components and policy-based security systems for executing the company set of applications. Data center management involves guaranteeing the reliability of both the connections to the data center as well as the information existed within the data center storage. It also implies efficiently placing application workload on the most cost-effective compute resource available.
II. Related Work
Tewari et al. [8] proposed a Sky computing is a future of cloud computing. Sky Computing is a future computing model where resources from multiple cloud providers are integrated to create large- scale dispersed infrastructures. These infrastructures give resources to perform computations demanding large computational power, such as scientific software. They also expressed a sky computing system challenges due to differences among providers in terms of hardware, resource management, and connectivity.
Andrieux et al. [9] proposed Web Services Agreement Specification (WS-Agreement). They defined a Web Services Agreement Specification as establishing an alliance between service providers and consumers through using an extensible XML language for designating the nature of agreement and agreement template to help discovery of compatible agreement parties. The specification consists of three parts which may be used in a composite manner: a schema for specifying an agreement, a schema for specifying an agreement template, and a set of port types and operations for managing agreement life-cycle, including creation, expiration, and monitoring of agreement states.
Freeman et al. [10] proposed Division of Labour as a tool to enable Grid scalability and growth a usage model has evolved whereby resources provider makes resources available not to individual users directly but rather than to large unit is virtualization organization. They also
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described resource providers to delegate the usage of remote resources dynamically to a virtual organization in the application independent way and present and evaluate an implementation using the Xen virtual machine and Linux networking tools.
Tsugawa and J. Fortes [11] proposed the virtual network (ViNe) architecture for grid computing. ViNe enables symmetric connectivity among Grid resources and allows an existing application to run unmodified. They described also some Novel characteristics of the ViNe architecture include easy virtual networking administration; support for physical private network and support for multiple independent virtual networks in the same infrastructure.
Keahey and Freeman [12] proposed a new technique called contextualization, enabling the dynamic creation of functioning virtual construct aware of their context. They explained also a general solution and a process that can be used with any deployed and any appliance provider that fulfill the specified condition of secure transfer of information.
Sapuntzakis et al. [13] proposed the concept of virtual networks of virtual appliance as a measure to reduce the cost of deploying and maintaining software. They presented a language for specifying virtual appliances and algorithm for implementing them. The language is designed to allow user customization while supporting automatic updates. The Collective prototype they developed assigns virtual appliances to hardware in the system automatically and dynamically. They have shown how VAPs can be used to create a complete Groupware appliance that can be instantiated anywhere; a software development appliance that reduces the overhead associated with working on new software, and discussed how the approach can be used to create Windows-based appliances.
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Pierre Riteau, “Sky Computing on the Future Grid and Grid 5000 with Nimbus” this paper defines the meaning of Sky Computing and various techniques to manage large scale data on distributed cloud environment. Different approaches which are helpful to adopt architecture of sky computing. Analysis on Nimbus architecture is explained in this research study. Several Tests with Sky Computing are showcased in this research study [14].
Andre Monteiro, Joaquim Pinto, “Sky Computing: Exploring the aggregated Cloud Resources - Part I” describe Sky Computing as the layer above Cloud Computing which resources from multiple providers are integrated into aggregated one environment [15].
Pierre Riteau “Sky Computing Challenges, Large Scale Experiments and Research Directions” provides a necessary know-how about cloud and components related to cloud service models such as IaaS, SaaS, PaaS. The author also explained several terms related to Sky Computing such as benefits, problem, and challenges in adopting Sky Computing with the help of graphical representation [16].
Jose Fortes “Sky Computing When Multiple Cloud Become One” this research paper describes information on Cloud computing and Cloud Ecosystems. Multi-cloud systems and Management mechanisms are discussed in this research. Sky Computing and various difficulties of Sky Computing are explained in this paper. Information on Routing tools such as ViNe and Tiny ViNe is refined and comparison with normal routing is provided by authors [17].
III. ILLUSTRATION OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
3.1 Proposed Methodology
The new proposed system presents a model on Mobile Cloud Computing how to integrate services from different cloud service providers into one environment. Infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) cloud computing is
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revolutionizing how we approach computing. Compute resource consumers can eliminate the expense inherent in acquiring, managing, and operating IT infrastructure and instead lease resources on a pay- as-you-go basis. IT infrastructure providers can exploit economies of scale to mitigate the cost of buying and operating resources and avoid the complexity required to manage multiple customer-specific environments and applications. In generally the new proposed solution describes the context in which cloud computing arose, discuss its current strengths and shortcomings, and point to an emerging computing pattern it enables that called Mobile Sky Computing.
Figure 2: Architecture of Mobile Sky Computing
The research methodology is the experimental study in which a framework is designed to integrate services from several Cloud Service Providers. The following steps are to be followed:
A) Minimizing platform (hardware and operating system) difference using Xen
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B) Resource management and contextualize using Nimbus
C) Providing all to all connectivity using ViNe The detail description of about components of proposed model is as follow:
A) Minimizing platform difference using Xen
There are many smartphones manufacturer, but the devices themselves can be grouped by operating system. The most widely used mobile operating systems are listed below:
Blackberry operating system (RIM)
Window TM operating system
Nokia’s Symbian operating system
Google android
Apple operating system(iOS) However, the cloud providers that provide services for these mobile devices it depends based on platform (hardware and operating system) support. For instance, Apple uses iCloud as a cloud storage and cloud computing services and Google uses Google cloud platform as a cloud computing services. In addition to, Apple company provides cloud services for these mobile devices that have only iOS operating systems and Google company provides cloud services, for mobile devices that have the android operating system only. Finally, in these two company we have seen that operating system platform difference, that’s way Apple mobile does not support Google mobile cloud services and vice- versa. The new proposed model or Mobile Sky Computing provides a solution to this platform difference by integrating open source Virtual Machine called Xen. Xen is an open source software which is used to virtualized techniques to executing a different instance of the operating system in a single machine or host concurrently.
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Figure 3: The architecture of Xen
The above diagram can be shown general architecture of Xen hypervisor. From the above diagram, the hardware is one component of Xen architecture which includes subcomponents such as memory, Input-output, and CPU. Xen hypervisor is directly executed on hardware for managing input-output, memory, and CPU. There is various virtualized environment includes in the above diagram. Domain0 or special domain is a specialized virtual machine that has special privileges to the system input-output function and interacts with the other virtual machines. Domain0 which also consists of several sub-components such as tool stack, demo kernel, drivers, and console. Tool stack is used to in domian0 to manage Virtual machine creation, destruction, and configuration. This operation of the virtual machine can be performed by command line console, by a graphical user interface or by a cloud orchestration stack such as an open stack or cloud stack. Guest domains are another component of virtualized environment, each running their own operating system and applications. These types hypervisor they support two different
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virtualization modes: paravirtualization (PV) and hardware assisted or full virtualization (HVM).
B) Resource management and contextualize using Nimbus
Nimbus is an open-source toolkit focused on providing Infrastructure- as-a-Service (IaaS) capabilities to its client.
The main purpose of Nimbus is described as below:
Enable providers of resources to build private or community IaaS clouds.
Enable users to use IaaS clouds.
Enable developers to extend experiment and customize IaaS.
C) Providing all to all connectivity using ViNe Distributing resources among different mobile cloud providers through deploying a virtual cluster faces many challenges in terms of network connectivity, performance, and management. To address these issues and provide connectivity across different cloud providers at a low- performance cost, it used the Virtual network (ViNe) networking overlay. Every Mobile cloud providers have connected each other through using of ViNe, even if they are in private networks or guarded by a firewall, that’s way ViNe sometimes called an end to end connectivity. In performance terms, ViNe can offer throughputs greater than 800 Mbps with sub-million-second latency and can handle most traffic crossing LAN boundaries as well as gigabit Ethernet traffic with low overhead. ViNe is a user-level network routing software which creates overlay network using the internet infrastructure. A machine running ViNe software becomes a ViNe router (VR), working as a gateway to overlay networks for a machine connected to the same LAN segment.
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Figure 4: A virtual cluster interconnected with ViNe
To construct mobile sky virtual cluster using user-level virtual network takes the following steps.
1. Preparation: Obtain a Xen VM image configured to support an environment the applicationrequires as well as the ViNe VM image (the ViNe image is available from the Science Clouds Marketplace). Make sure both images are contextualized (that is, capable of providing and integrating context information). The user must upload both images to each provider site.
2. Deployment: Start a ViNe VM in each site (the ViNe VMs provide virtual routers for thenetwork overlay). In addition, start the desired number of computing VMs at each provider site. The contextualized images are configured to automatically (securely) contact the context broker to provide appropriate networking and security information and adjust network routes to use VRs to reach nodes crossing site
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boundaries. The configuration exchange includes VMs on different provider sites so that all VMs can behave as a single virtual cluster.
3. Usage: Upload inputs and start the desired application (typically, by simply logging into thevirtual cluster and using a command-line interface).
3.2 Comparison of existing system and proposed system
The main criteria point for comparing between the new proposed system and existing system describes as follows:
IT infrastructure expenditure
Enhanced Autonomy Risk Management IT infrastructure expenditure: Currently every Mobile Cloud Providers manages theirresources on a single cloud. After a time, a customer needs might be increased. In order to satisfy or achieve specific customer needs on a single cloud, Mobile cloud providers they require some additional IT infrastructures resources. According to Mobile Sky Computing concept, every service is differentiated based on quality, size, type and soon. These method classifications of services are very necessary for spreading cloud deployments across Cloud providers and it creates the space for a competitive price that reduces the burden on IT infrastructures spending budget.
Enhanced Autonomy: Now a day mobile users are dependent on single vendors or cloudproviders. The reason for making these dependencies is platform (hardware and operating system) differences.
Risk Management: Once a workload is spread across a networked of mobile cloud serviceproviders it reduces the risk of facing complete shutdown in case any one of them faces out of services.
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IV. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
4.1 Conclusion
Mobile Cloud Computing is one of mobile technology that inherits from the Cloud Computing technology which is used for the mobile users to access the optimal cloud services through Internet. Mobile Cloud Computing provides several benefits such as extended battery lifetime, improving data storage, improving processing, and improving reliability for the mobile users because of data can be processed and stored in the cloud rather than the mobile devices. Nowadays, mobile application and competition of cloud providers grow from time to time then a single cloud is not enough to satisfy mobile user’s demands. Mobile Cloud Computing introduced a new computing technology called Mobile Sky Computing which enables to leverage or integrates several mobile cloud providers into one ecosystem to improve efficiency. Mobile Sky Computing uses several technologies such as Xen, Nimbus, and ViNe to create cross-cloud communication. Reduction It infrastructure, enhance autonomy, and risk management is the key features of Mobile Sky Computing over Mobile Cloud Computing.
4.2 Future Work
Following this work, the next task would be investigating service level agreement among several cloud providers that exist in Mobile Sky Computing. This task will achieve by developing a model for services level agreement to increase a way of coordination among different cloud providers by matching their metrics (Xen version, Nimbus version, CPU architecture, memory, networking and operating system). This work will also investigate how to apply Hadoop technology in Mobile Sky Computing for various purposes such as task distribution, parallel fault tolerance execution, and dynamic cluster execution.
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REFERENCES
[1] M. Satyanarayanan. (June 2010). Mobile computing: the next decade. In Proceedings of the 1st ACM Workshop on Mobile Cloud Computing & Services: Social Networks and Beyond (MCS).
[2] M. Satyanarayanan, “Fundamental challenges in mobile computing,” in Proceedings of the
5th annual ACM symposium on Principles.
[3] Hassan, Qusay (2011). "Demystifying Cloud Computing" (PDF). The Journal of Defence Software Engineering. Crosstalk. 2011 (Jan/Feb): 16–21. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
[4] Peter Mell and Timothy Grance (September 2011). The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing (Technical report). National Institute of Standards and Technology: U.S. Department of Commerce. doi:10.6028/NIST.SP.800-145. Special publication 800-145.
[5] Baburajan, Rajani (2011-08-24). "The Rising Cloud Storage Market Opportunity Strengthens Vendors". It.tmcnet.com. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
[6]Oestreich, Ken,(2010-11-15)."Converged Infrastructure". CTO Forum. Thectoforum.com. Retrieved 02 January 2017.
[7] Peter Mell and Timothy Grance (September 2011). The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing (Technical report). National Institute of Standards and Technology: U.S. Department of Commerce. doi:10.6028/NIST.SP.800-145. Special publication 800-145.
[8] Abha Tewari, Pooja Nagdev, and Aarti Sahitya. (2015). Sky Computing: The Future of cloud computing. (IJCSIT) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Technologies, Vol. 6 (4), pp.3861-3864
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[9] A.Andrieux et al. (March 2007). Web Services Agreement Specification (WSAgreement). Open Grid Forum.
[10] T. Freeman et al. (2006). Division of Labor: Tools for Growth and Scalability of the Grids.
[11] M.Tsugawa and J. Fortes. (2006).A Virtual Network (ViNe) Architecture for Grid Computing. Proc. 20th Int’l Parallel and Distributed Processing symposium, IEEE CS Press.
[12] K.Keahey and T.Freeman. (2008). Contextualization: Providing One-Click Virtual Clusters. Proc. 4th IEEE Int’l Conf. eScience, IEEE CS Press, pp. 301– 308.
[13] C. Sapuntzakis et al. (2003). Virtual Appliances for Deploying and Maintaining Software. Proc. 17th Large Installation Systems Administration Conf., Usenix Assoc., pp. 181–194.
[14] Pierre Riteau. (April 2010). Sky Computing on Future Grid and Grid 5000 with Nimbus.
Proc.TeraGrid’10, Pittsburg, PA.
[15] Andrew Monterio, Claudio Jorge Vieira Teixeria, and Joaquim Sousa Pinto. (June 2011). Sky Computing: Exploring the aggregated Cloud Resources-Part I. prcd at Conference Information System and Technologies (CISTI), Chaves, pp.1- 4.
[16] Pierre Riteau. (April 2011). Large Scale Sky Computing Applications with Nimbus. in the proceeding of HPAGC 2011, Chicago, IL.
[17] Jose Fortes. (2010). Sky Computing When Multiple Cloud Become One. 10th IEEE/ACM International Conference on Cluster, Cloud and Grid Computing.
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TESTING THE COMBINED IMPACT OF CAPITAL STRUCTURE AND EARNINGS PER SHARE ON THE MARKET VALUE OF SHARES: A STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING APPROACH WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SELECT INDIAN PUBLIC SECTOR BANKS Dr.M.S.Ramaratnam Dr.R.Jayaraman Head of the Department Assistant Professor (Stage – II) Department of Management Studies Department of Management Studies Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Viswa Mahavidyalaya Viswa Mahavidyalaya (SCSVMV University) (SCSVMV University) Enathur, Kanchipuram Enathur, Kanchipuram Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu
Abstract
Market Value of Share of a company is determined by various factors. So many studies were conducted in finding the determinants of share price. Some of the studies found that Capital Structure is a determinant of the market price of the share and some of the studies found that Earning per Share is a determinant of the market price of the share. Even some studies proved that Capital Structure is also determining the Earning per Share. With this ideology an attempt was made in this study by using Structural equation modeling to see how for the Capital Structure of the firm has got an effect over the Market value of share, how EPS of the firm has got an effect over the Market value of share and how Capital Structure of the firm has got an effect over the EPS of the firm. Debt to Total Assets, Equity to Total Assets, Coverage Ratio, Earning per share and Market price of share of eleven Indian public sector banks were taken for the study for five years from March 2013 to March 2017.
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Reference: Structural Equation Modeling, Debt to Total Assets, Equity to Total Assets, Coverage Ratio, Earnings per share, Market price of share and Indian public sector banks
Introduction
The share price of a firm is affected by various factors. Determination of share price is not an easy task. The share price movement is based on the firm’s fundamentals (Key performance indicators of firm), Market efficiency, Macroeconomic Indicators (Gross Domestic Product, Oil Prices & Inflation etc) and Perception of the Investors. Several studies have proven that share price of firms are explained by its capital structure. Earnings per Share is also determining the market price of the share. The Earnings arrived by a firm after deducting the depreciation, interest and Income tax is otherwise called as Profit after Tax. The Profit after Tax of a firm is considered as the Earnings available for the share holders particularly equity share holders. Every business unit is putting its efforts to maximize the profit after tax to satisfy its shareholders. To find the earnings per share, the profit after tax is to be divided by the total number of shares outstanding. Higher the level of profit after tax leads to hike in the earnings per share. For parking the funds in equity, the investors will always look after the Earnings per Share. Earning per Share is one of the investor ratios. Even some studies proved that Capital Structure is also determining the Earning per Share. With this ideology an attempt was made in this study by using Structural equation modeling to see how for the Capital Structure of the firm has got an effect over the Market value of share, how EPS of the firm has got an effect over the Market value of share and how Capital Structure of the firm has got an effect over the EPS of the firm. Debt to Total Assets, Equity to Total Assets, Coverage Ratio, Earnings per share and Market price of share of eleven Indian public sector banks were taken for the study for five years from March 2013 to March 2017.
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Review of Literature
John C. Groth, Ronald C. Anderson, (1997) studied the capital structure from the perspective of the managers. From their study they revealed several practical strategies to enhance the value of the firm through capital structure.
Raheel Safdar, Chen Yan, (2016) made an attempt to find the impact of cost of capital on the share price movement. From their study they revealed that the cost of capital is impacting the market value of share.
George Athanassakos, (2007) studied share price movement of companies adopting value based management. The result of the study revealed that firms which concentrate on Economic Value Addition will be able to increase its share price performance.
Cécile Carpentier, (2006) studied in the title “The valuation effects of long‐term changes in capital structure". In the study the researcher tried to look after the impact of changes in the capital structure in the value of the firm
Athanasios G. Noulas, Georgios Genimakis, (2014) surveyed the CFO’S of Greek listed companies. From the survey they revealed how the CFO’S of Greek listed companies make decisions in terms of capital structure.
John Consler, Greg M. Lepak, Susan F. Havranek, (2011) studied the relative power of cash flow per share and earnings per share in determining the dividends of firms. In their study they found that the influence of cash flow per share is at the higher side on dividends than EPS.
Mohammed Ibrahim Obeidat, (2009) studied the impact of Earnings per Share (EPS), Dividends per Share (DPS), and Book Value per Share (BVPS) on stock market prices in Abu Dhabi Securities
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Market. From the study it was found that there was a significant effect of EPS and BVPS on stock market price in the Abu Dhabi Securities Market
Scott Pirie, Malcolm Smith, (2003) made an attempt to see how the accounting influencing the share prices of various firms
J.C.Y. How, C.S. Teo, H.Y. Izan, (1992) witnessed the combined effect of Dividend announcements and accounting earnings on share price
J. Dahyaa, A.A. Lonie, D.M. Power, (2000) made an attempt to view how changes in the top management (Board of directors) will influence both the market value of share and accounting performance (EPS).
Research Methodology
The study relied upon the secondary data. Debt to Total Assets, Equity to Total Assets, Coverage Ratio, Earnings per Share and Market share price of eleven Indian public sector banks were taken for the study for five years from March 2013 to March 2017. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is used in this study.
Hypothesis
The following hypothesis were framed for the study
H0: There is no impact of Equity to Total Asset on the coverage ratio
H0: There is no impact of Debt to Total Asset on the coverage ratio
H0: There is no impact of Equity to Total Asset on the share price
H0: There is no impact of Debt to Total Asset on the share price
H0: There is no impact of Coverage Ratio on the share price
H0: There is no impact of Equity to Total Asset on the EPS
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H0: There is no impact of Debt to Total Asset on the EPS
H0: There is no impact of Coverage Ratio on the EPS
H0: There is no impact of EPS on the share price
Assumed Model of the study
Data Analysis
Table 1:Computation of degrees of freedom (Default model)
Number of distinct sample moments: 15 Number of distinct parameters to be estimated: 11 Degrees of freedom (15 - 11): 4 Source: Computed Data
Table 2: Result (Default model) Minimum was achieved Chi-square = 3.45 Degrees of freedom = 4 Probability level = .49 Source: Computed Data
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Table 3:Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model) Estimate S.E. C.R. P
GEARINGRATIO <--- equity -16822.1 4184.59 -4.02 ***
GEARINGRATIO <--- debt 1718.34 297.87 5.77 ***
EPS <--- GEARINGRATIO 0.2 0.06 3.09 ***
SHAREPRICE <--- GEARINGRATIO 1.26 0.35 3.64 ***
SHAREPRICE <--- EPS 7.35 0.68 10.82 ***
Source: Computed Data
Table 4: Correlations: (Group number 1 - Default model)
Estimate
equity <--> debt -.42
Source: Computed Data
Model Fit Summary
Table 5: RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .13 .98 .91 .26 Saturated model .00 1.00
Independence model 6056.15 .47 .20 .31
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Source: Computed Data
Table 6: RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .000 .000 .192 .553 Independence model .518 .447 .591 .000 Source: Computed Data
Inference
In the structural equation modeling the model fit will be assessed by considering four indicators such as Chi-square, GFI, AGFI and RMSEA. From the table the minimum was achieved with respect to the Chi- square. From the table 5 it is found that the GFI stands .98 which is greater than 0.9 and the AGFI stands 0.91 which is greater than 0.9. From the table 6 it is observed that RMSEA stands 0.000 which is lesser than 0.008.
Conclusion
From the study it is witnessed that the assumed model is fit based on the Chi-square, GFI, AGFI and RMSEA. The GFI and AGFI are greater than .9 and RMSEA is lesser than 0.008. Hence all the null hypotheses are rejected and the combined effect of Capital Structure and Earnings per share on the Market value of shares is proved.
References
1. John C. Groth, Ronald C. Anderson, (1997) "Capital structure: perspectives for managers", Management Decision, Vol. 35 Issue: 7, pp.552-561
2. Raheel Safdar, Chen Yan, (2016) "Information risk, stock returns, and the cost of capital in China", China Finance Review International, Vol. 6 Issue: 1, pp.77-95
3. George Athanassakos, (2007) "Value‐based management, EVA and stock price performance in Canada", Management Decision, Vol. 45 Issue: 9, pp.1397-1411
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4. Cécile Carpentier, (2006) "The valuation effects of long‐term changes in capital structure", International Journal of Managerial Finance, Vol. 2 Issue: 1, pp.4-18
5. Athanasios G. Noulas, Georgios Genimakis, (2014) "How do CFOs make capital structure decisions? A survey of Greek listed companies", Studies in Economics and Finance, Vol. 31 Issue: 1, pp.72-87
6. John Consler, Greg M. Lepak, Susan F. Havranek, (2011) "Earnings per share versus cash flow per share as predictor of dividends per share", Managerial Finance, Vol. 37 Issue: 5, pp.482-488,
7. Mohammed Ibrahim Obeidat, (2009) "The Internal Financial Determinants of Common Stock Market Price: Evidence from Abu Dhabi Securities Market", Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences, Vol. 25 Issue: 1, pp.21-46
8. Scott Pirie, Malcolm Smith, (2003) "Accounting earnings, book values and share prices in Malaysia", Asian Review of Accounting, Vol. 11 Issue: 2, pp.31-52
9. J.C.Y. How, C.S. Teo, H.Y. Izan, (1992) "The Interaction Effect of Earnings and Dividend Announcements on Share Price: Australian Evidence", Managerial Finance, Vol. 18 Issue: 1, pp.22-33
10. J. Dahyaa, A.A. Lonie, D.M. Power, (2000) "Changes in corporate management: do they have an impact on share prices and company earnings?", Managerial Finance, Vol. 26 Issue: 9, pp.66-79
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REVISITING RESERVATION POLICY FOR THE GUJJAR TRIBE OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR Dr.Javeed Ahmad Bhat Post-Doctoral Fellow (ICSSR) Department of Political Science Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University Lucknow Abstract Indian subcontinent has vast diversity of cultures, religions, regions as well as diverse communities inhabiting all across the country. One of the significant communities of this diverse cultural heritage is the tribals with assorted socio-cultural, economic and geographical background. Apart from being entitled to all the basic human rights, these communities are also entitled to certain special rights guaranteed under the Constitution. The state of Jammu and Kashmir is also inhabited by different tribal communities; the most prominent are the pastoral Gujjars. In order to provide the constitutional protection to these tribal communities, the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir has notified 12 such tribal communities as scheduled tribes. The Gujjars constitute 69 percent of the total ST population in the State. Like other parts of the country Gujjars are still living a miserable and pathetic life. They are lacking the basic facilities of food, shelter, health care, education etc. Most of the Gujjars are living in far flung remote areas, quite distant from the cities and towns though lacking the accessibility to the basic amenities of life. Because of the nomadic character and seasonal migration along with their livestock, the life of Gujjars is totally dependent on their flocks as a means to their livelihood which compels them to live in abject poverty, illiteracy and backwardness. The purpose of reservation was to do away the past injustices to the tribes and bring them in mainstream but unfortunately the reservation has been used as a political vote bank by the ruling political parties to achieve their vested interests. This paper is an attempt to examine the socio-economic condition of Gujjars of Jammu and Kashmir and the reservation policy of the State and also analyze the impact of the reservation on the Gujjar tribe. Keywords: Gujjar tribe, reservation, socio-economic backwardness.
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Introduction The societies all around the world are highly stratified. Indian society is also composed of intersecting and overlapping groups and subgroups based on religion, sect, vocation, wealth, language, location and political affiliation. However, one of the most significant features of the Indian society is the hierarchal caste system. These caste barriers from centuries together created a highly stratified social structure with a hierarchy of castes and communities separated by barriers of exclusiveness and social inequality. With the passage of time, the perpetual injustice leads to conflict. The history is replete with instances of conflict arising from inequality. The classes excluded from culture, education and jobs have raised their voices against those whom they saw as their oppressors. In western societies, these conflicts have essentially been drawn on economic lines. The third world countries, however, are witnessing conflicts not only on economic basis but also on the basis of primordial divisions like religion, race, and caste etc.The Indian society is also divided into different groups and classes, known as castes with varying degrees of respectability and circles of social mingling. These disadvantaged groups have their own ways of living often disconnected from the mainstream population due to distinct characteristics and identity. One of such ethnic group is the nomadic Gujjartribals of Jammu and Kashmir. The Gujjars of Jammu and Kashmir The state of Jammu and Kashmir is a land of many cultures, religions and ethnic groups, distinct in their looks, dress, food habits, customs, speech and traditions. The State is inhabited by different tribal communities; some settled, quite a few are nomadic. In the latter category, the most prominent are pastoral Gujjars. The Gujjarsform part of a large conglomerate of tribal communities inhabiting many adjoining parts of the sub-continent and are commonly known as Gijar, Girijars and Gujjars.1 In the state of Jammu and Kashmir the Gujjars are highly concentrated in the district Poonch(39.34%), Rajouri(30.31%), Udhampur(11.6%) Doda(9.09%) Anantnag(7.14%) and Kupwara(7.6%).2 In Jammu region they are more in number than the
1Mohd Bashir Magray, Tribal Geographical of India- Jammu and Kashmir, Oberoi Book Service, Jammu, 2003, p. 46 2 Census of India, 2011
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valley of Kashmir because Jammu region is mostly a mountainous area with abundant pasture land on the Siwaliks and its Pirpanjal range. The Gujjartribe living in Rajouri, Reasi, Jammu, Poonch, Udhampur and Kathua regions claim their ancestry from the Gujarat district of Punjab (Pakistan), have migrated to these hills after the outbreak of a grave famine. They settled along the Mughal road leading to Srinagar via Rajouri and Pirpanjal pass. The Gujjars claim that their ancestors had entered the territories of Kashmir in 1539-42 A.D. 3The Gujjar dynasty of Poonch came to an end in1824 when the State was conquered by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. With the conquest of Poonch by Ranjit Singh, the Gujjars lost their hold in the region and were reduced to a subservient position. The loss of political supremacy also gradually disrupted the cohesion of the Gujjars society, which split into small groups who settled in different areas of the state, mostly along the Mughal road and the slopes of the Pir-panjalmountain where pastures for animals were available. The Gujjars, on the basis of their occupation and settlements in the State of Jammu and Kashmir, are classified as (i) cultivators (Muqami) who have settled in the villages on the slopes or valleys, (ii) The Gujjars who practice transhumance. They are further sub-divided into Baniharaor DodhiGujjars (milkmen) and BakarwalGujjars (who rear sheep and goats). The Baniharaor the DodhiGujjars tend buffaloes and sell dudh(milk) and milk products and for this reason they are known as dodhi(milkmen). They live in bans (forests) for which reason they are also known as Baniharas(the residents of forests). The GujjarBakarwalskeep large herds of bakri(goats) and this is the reason they are called Bakarwals. The nomenclature of transhumant Gujjar groups is based on the type of animals and animal products used for their economic pursuits. The Bakarwalstend goats and sheep whereas the Baniharasrear buffaloes.4 There are almost 150 casts/gotras of Gujjars in the State of Jammu and Kashmir out of the total 900 castes of Gujjars scattered in the subcontinent. Gujjars are divided into several “Gotras”, “Kabilas” and “Deras”. Some of their main Gotras are Bajran, Khatana, Awana,
3 K. Warikoo, Tribal Gujjars of Jammu and Kashmir, (Journal of Himalayan Research and Cultural Foundation) Vol. 4 No. 1 January - March 2000 4Ibid
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Boken, Berger, Banth, Baru, Balesher, Bogdi, Baniya, Gorci, Barwal, Chopra, Kohli, Chabra, Chad, Doi, Rathore, Dhahre, Jegi, Hakla, Jagal, Kandal, Kasana, Khaiper, Kalas, Khari, Lohda, Mehsi, Mander, Mehlu, Mukri, Noon, Nager, Poswal, Pore, Sangu, Sood, Thekria, Tass, and Bhati. Each Kabila has its own Muqdam and a council of Jirgas (panchayat).5 While as the Mugdam controls the clan and looks after its needs at the local level, Jirgas administer justice in civil and criminal cases to which the members of the clan are parties. The Gujjars form a distinct identity in the state of Jammu and Kashmir; they are usually identified mainly on the basis of their occupation and settlement. They are generally known to be nomadic even if many of them have abandoned their nomadic life and have settled and had taken to cultivation. So unique is their identity that despite their stay in Jammu and Kashmir for centuries together, they maintain their identity in terms of their language, customs and culture. Despite the fact that Gujjars follow the religion of Islam yet they assert their distinct identity vis-à-vis the other Kashmiris and Jammu Muslims. The pattern of social structure which has emerged out of the needs to meet the demand of migrating mode is based on kinship groups and functional groups. The Gujjars and Bakkarwals have ordered themselves in three principle kinship groups, the Dera (household), the Dada-potra (lineage) and the Gotra (clan). The importance enjoyed by each group has tended to vary according to series of both internal and external changes to which the Gujjars and Bakkerwals have been exposed from time to time. Dera is the basic unit among the Gujjars and Bakkerwals. They count their members and describe grazing and Kafila groups in terms of number of Deras. According to R P Khatana, a Dera usually comes into existence when a person establishes an independent household which normally happens after his marriage. Each son thus establishes his own Dera as he gets married. The Dada-Potra unit is to be understood in terms of lineage and property. As far as property distribution is concerned, father divides his property when his children get married, but the division of pastures and migration routes are
5Hari Om, Beyond The Kashmir Valley, HarAnand Publications, New Delhi, 1998, p. 81
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postponed. This happens in a situation when all the descendants continue to depend upon him for migration and access to pasture roots. The generation of Dada-potra unit extends into several generations and includes cousins and other relatives. The right to pastureland remains within this unit of Dada-potra. The gotra is the third unit which is a distinct system of clans. The members of a clan are supposed to be descendants of a common ancestor. To quote Khatana, ‘the presence of Gotra among the Gujjars, Bakkerwals seem to be derived from their Hindu ancestry. This view receives some support from the fact that the names of the Gujjar-BakkerwalGotras are the same as those found among the Hindu Gujjars in other parts of the country. The gotra names are usually used by the Gujjar, Bakkerwal as a suffix to their names.6 The Gujjars, like most of the tribal societies, are highly conservative. In fact, conservatism, backwardness, and belief in superstition and myths are the hallmark of the Gujjar’s day-today life. Socio-Economic and Educational Backwardness The living condition of the Gujjars is very miserable; they usually live in huts and tents at the high lands. On account of their migratory character, they do not invest much on their housing. The huts which are locally known as Kothas are without any ventilation and windows, and are made up of mud and rough stone. The hut room is packed during night with the herds, flocks and other human inmates which adversely affect their respiratory system. The life which they lead is absolutely intolerable.7 The traditional profession of the Gujjars and Bakkerwals is to graze their cattle and supply its produce: milk, ghee etc. to the urban people.Gujjar economy is, therefore, quite traditional and the economic conditions of the community is very backward. Many of the Gujjars do not even possess the flock. Khatana has referred to a class of agri- shephard as Ajris who graze not their own animals but of others, the actual owner of the flock is known as Malik. During migration, hired Ajris also migrate with the Malik; the wages for flock grazing are paid
6 R. P. Khatana, Tribal Migration in Himalyan Frontier, Vipin Publishers, New Delhi, 1942, pp. 35-42 7A.N. Bharadwaj, History and Culture of HimalyanGujjars, Jay Kay Book House, Jammu, 1994, p.51.
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in food and clothing not in cash. 8There is a clear cut distinction maintained between Malik and the Ajris and is quite pronounced in the socio economic field, but due to migration, this distinction is not very apparent in day-to-day life. Gujjars are mostly illiterate due to the migratory character; they do not prefer to send their children to school on the plea that they would not take up their ancestral and traditional occupation of cattle rearing. They usually send their children with cattle for grazing in the pastureland. Moreover, most of the Gujjars lead nomadic and semi- nomadic life. Their migratory mode of life stands biggest hurdle in the way of getting regular education. The Jammu and Kashmir Government has opened up a number of mobile schools for them which move to high altitude and come down to plains with the movement of Gujjars. Nonetheless, due to the lack of effective supervision and control by the government authorities over the field staff working in such remote and far-flung areas, regularity and punctuality on the part of staff employed is rare, nominal even though they belong to their community and areas. The people of this community do not favor girl education out of their sheer ignorance, age old social taboos, outdated thinking and backwardness. Gujjars are known to be very conservative. It is because of their lack of exposure to the modern ways of life that they are known to be governed by the superstitions. According to MasoudChoudhary, “they are highly superstitious due to illiteracy and backwardness which has also made them timid. The superstitions and myths of course play dominant role in their day to day life”.9 The backwardness of the community becomes clear from their stagnated life style, they do not seem to have taken much advantage of modernization and their pattern of life does not have changed much by the ameliorative action programme of the Government. This becomes clear in the words of Fedrick Drew, who in his book, Jammu and Kashmir Territories, published in 1875, where he wrote:
8 R. P. Khatana, Tribal Migration in Himalyan Frontier, Vipin Publishers, New Delhi, 1942, p. 8. 9ChoudharyMasud, The Gujjars over the Centuries, Awaazi-e-Gujjar, July- August, 1995, p. 8
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I their stay among pastures though holding some lands. They do not found them to be a possessor of herds of buffaloes. They have with them their families and wives, spinning wheels…. Their gains are chiefly derived from the sale of ghee, butter, the preparation of which occupies them continually, during chiefly depend on it for sustenance. They are migrating pastoral tribe who seek for their needs, pastures in various parts and live mostly by the produce of their cattle.10 Zutshi, in a field study conducted in 1997, noted that “there was no significant increase in literacy pattern among Gujjars, wide variations in the literacy rate was found among the villages from Gujjar and Bakerwal areas compared to other areas.” Zutshi further argues that the low literacy is one of the major reasons for the continued backwardness of the Gujjars.11With the exception of the small class of educated Gujjars, most of the members of the community do not have many opportunities for their socio-economic mobility. Despite settling in villages and towns, cattle rearing and milk selling remain their major profession. But for the new generation, the traditional vocation is seen with a lot of contempt. So there is now shift of preference for non- traditional vocations. The Reformative Movements With the passage of time the Gujjartribals become conscious about their cultural rights and identity and have started to think about their socio-economic backwardness. The Gujjar leaders have launched reformative movements on several fronts with certain demands.These demands have been ranging from socio-economic empowerment and modernizP-ation of the community to political representation. The demand for socio-economic empowerment arises from the very basic context of backwardness, arising mainly due to the nomadic nature of their lifestyle as well as their existence on the edges of the society.
10Fedrik Drew,Jammu and Kashmir Territories: A Geographical Account, New Delhi, Cosmo Publication, 1976, p. 13 11BhupenderZutshi, Gujjar and Bakerwals of Jammu and Kashmir: Demographic, Social and Economic Characteristics, Vikas Books, New Delhi 2001.
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Keeping in view their backwardness, the community leadership has been demanding special attention.In this direction, former Minister Ch. Muhammad ShafiKhatana was entrusted the job of Advisor to Government of Jammu and Kashmir for Gujjars Affairs in 1971-72. This is for the first time that political importance of the Gujjars was recognized in order to achieve maximum gains. At that time, a good chunk in the budget outlay of the state specified for the development and welfare of the Gujjars in the state. During 1971-72, funds were also earmarked and placed at the disposal of District Development Commissioners of different districts for the development of this down trodden community.To cater to such plan, a board for development of Gujjars, namely Jammu and Kashmir Gujjar and Bakerwals Advisory Development Board, was constituted in1974-75. However, constitution of such a board could not improve much the overall situation of the Gujjars. Gujjar leaders and intellectuals seriously contest the role of the Board in providing a positive direction in the empowerment of the community. According to them, this Board has failed to serve the cause of Gujjars. It could not, they feel, take advantage of the initial package meant for the development purposes. To promote and safeguard the educational and economic interests of these weaker sections of the society is one of the basic obligations of the government. To alleviate the sufferings, the border regions where mostly these Gujjar tribe resides, were declared ‘Bad Pocket Areas’ and the benefits of the schemes were equally shared by all the sections of the people in respect of reservation for recruitments, border allowances for the government employees, scholarship etc. From the time of partition of the subcontinent till 1990, the people in these areas were identified as a single unit with all the benefits reaching equally to Paharis, Gujjars, Bakerwals, Sheenas and Ladakhis, without any discrimination on the basis of name, caste or creed.12 This had created a sense of unity amongst these groups and a feeling of being the members of the same family without any consideration of the differences in caste, religion and sect to which they belong. Apart from backwardness, Gujjarsalso have been asserting their identity as a separate tribal identity and have been demanding reservation for them in the educational institutions, in the state
12Sharafat Ali Khan, Why Scheduled Tribe Status to PahariTribals, Pahari Cultural and Welfare Forum, Srinagar, 2011, p. 2.
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government and in the legislative Assembly. In early eighties, Gujjars were declared a definite social caste and 3 percent reservation was made for them in professional colleges. It was in 1989 that the Jammu and Kashmir Government recommended to the Union Government vide cabinet decision number 159 dated 8-8-1989, the following seven classes to confer Scheduled Tribe status upon:
1. Pahari speaking 2. GujjarBakerwal 3. Argone of Leh 4. Sheena Dard 5. Gaddi 6. Sippi 7. Balti However, they achieved a major breakthrough on April 19, 1991, when President of India at the instance of the ChanderaShekher’s caretaker Government took a historic decision and conferred on the Gujjars and Bakerwals the status of Scheduled Tribe. The Government has notified twelve tribal communities as scheduled tribe. Eight communities i.e. Balti, Bot, Beda, Broopa, Garra, Champa, Mon and Purigpa, among them were given this status in 1989, and GujjarBakkerwals, Gaddis and Sippis were notified as scheduled tribes vide Constitutional (Scheduled Tribe) Order (Amendment) Act, 1991.13 All twelve scheduled tribes were enumerated officially for the first time during the census 2001, recording the population of 1,105,907. As per census 2011, the total population of the scheduled tribes in the state is 1,493,299 comprising 11.9 percent of the total population of the state and about 1.43% of the total tribal population of the country.14 The April 19 decision, inter-alia, entitled the Gujjars and Bakerwals to a share of 10 percent reservation in the state services and other sectors and it also entitled the Gujjar-dominated areas to liberal financial grant. To quote JaveedRahi, “this was a mile stone in the social amelioration of Gujjars in Jammu and Kashmir and with 10 percent reservation (to 12 tribes) opened up educational and service
13 Presidential order, April 19, 1991 14Showkeen Bilal Ahmad Gul, M.Y.Ganai, Myths and Realities of Tribal Education in Jammu and Kashmir: An Exploratory Study, American Research Thoughts, Vol.2, issue 4, 2016.
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avenues for the Gujjars.”15 In other words, the Gujjars alleged that the decision of the Centre had produced two-fold impact: First, it provided for a definite mechanism which would enable the Gujjars to secure their due, if not fully, at least partly, in the state’s politico administrative and economic structure; and Secondly, it stimulated the rapid growth of a movement by other tribes in Rajouri, Poonch, Kupwara and Baramulla districts for achieving the Scheduled Tribe status. The fulfillment of the demand for the grant of ST status has opened way for other demands of the Gujjars. Among other demands that are being made by them include: inclusion of Gojri in the 8th Schedule of the Indian Constitution, recognition of this language by the Sahitya Academy, and opening of a Gojri department in the universities of Jammu and Kashmir, Providing the political reservation for them in the Houses of the state Legislature, speedy implementation of development schemes for Gujjars, suitable market facility for livestock and milk products etc. Present Socio-Economic Status It has been an active policy of government to encourage the Gujjars to settle down at one place so that they can overcome the handicaps of nomadic life and get exposed to the benefit of development. The small section of Gujjars who somehow managed to get education and got the government jobs due to reservation scheme are now settled in towns and cities and left their ancestral profession. It is pitiable to say that most of the deprived sections of the community are unfortunately still living a miserable life and are not able to get the benefit of affirmative action policy of the government. It is also pertinent to mention that a small miniscule section of the community has become the perpetual beneficiary of the reservation scheme and emerged as a creamy layer within the community. This stark reality is quite visible from the below studies carried out by the social scientists time to time. As compared to other communities, the Gujjars of Jammu and Kashmir are much more deprived and backward. They are not
15AvneetPrasher, (ed.), Conflict and Politics in Jammu and Kashmir: Internal Dynimics, Sakshem Books International, New Delhi, 2007, pp. 173.
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represented in government services in any significant form. Muzaffer Ali16in his study described that the tribals of Jammu and Kashmir are still lagging behind than the general population of the state. Even though the state government has made various schemes and policies for their upliftment but due to the challenges being faced in the implementation process of policies due to lack of communication the desired result are not being achieved. Luv Puri17 in his article mentioned the poor economic condition of Gujjars and Bakkerwals of Jammu and Kashmir. He stated that the lack of separate ministry in the state cabinet to look after their affairs, poor implementation of welfare schemes for tribal people and attack on the traditional occupation by the land mafia are the main challenges before the community which could not be solved despite of the constitutional protection.Gul and Ganai18 explored in their study the current status of education of Gujjars and Bakkerwals and stated that despite the constitutional protection and awareness their level of education is very low, due to low rate of enrolment and high dropout rate at elementary and higher levels. They suggested for the serious efforts by the Government, NGOs and other agencies like removal of school fees, free text books and uniforms, enhancement in mobile school and accountability of teachers, enhancement of admission quota for tribal students and forced schooling should be practiced.Dar and Sarvanand19 discussed in their study the socio-economic and health status of scheduled tribe in Anantnag district of Jammu and Kashmir that Gujjars and Bakkerwals are living in miserable conditions. The lack of infrastructures, inaccessibility to health institutions, ill-treated by government hospital staff, nomadic tribal environment and inaccessibility and unaffordability to health care facilities are some of the main problems contributing to their poor health. They suggested for proper health education and awareness and establishment of health
16Muzaffar Ali, Tribes in Jammu & Kashmir: their rights, challenges and solutions, retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/12019094 17 Luv Puri, A Struggle for Survival, Frontline, Vol.22, Issue 01, Jan 01-14, 2005 18Supra note 14 19Tanveer Ahmad Dar & R. Saravanan, Economic Analysis Of Health Seeking Behaviour Of Scheduled Tribes In Anantnag District, Jammu And Kashmir, International Journals of Multidisciplinary Research Academy, Volume 5, Issue 4 (November 2015)
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care centers near villages.AzharUd Din (2015)20 in his study focused upon the socio-economic condition of Gujjars living in various districts of Kashmir region and concluded that their condition is very pathetic as compared to Gujjars of Jammu province. Due to seasonal migration and adoption of family profession they are educationally backward. Low literacy rate, unemployment, lack of financial support, lack of road connectivity are the major problems of Gujjars of Kasmir Region. JaveedBhat (2014)21 in his study discussed about the ethnic identity and life style of the Gujjar tribe of Jammu and Kashmir and stated that nomadic and pastoral living pattern and migratory practices are being affected by harsh climatic conditions and political instability of the state. He analyzed that despite the constitutional protection from decades together they are still living in the socio-economic backwardness. JaveedBhat (2013)22 in another study mentioned that the reservation policy of the state has been driven by the vote bank politics. The criteria for reservation have always been controversial and debatable. Either it has been given on caste basis, area basis or profession basis while in the rest of the country only caste has been a criteria. Despite of several commissions and committees appointed for rectifying the loop holes in the reservation policy, it is being amended day in and day out to provide space for the vested interests of the ruling political class. This negligence on part of policy makers sowed the seeds of division at regional, linguistic, ethnic and communal lines which proved to be a tower of Babel in the State. Azad Indrabi(2013)23in his study says that the scenario of education amongst the scheduled tribe of Jammu and Kashmir reflects pathetic scenes. Their level of education is very low and declines sharply at higher level. He suggested for a quick implementation of strong and effective education policy in
20AzharUd Din, Socio-economic Conditions of Gujjarand Bakerwal Tribe of Kashmir, International Journal of Recent Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 2. Issue2, April 2015. 21Javeed Ahmad Bhat, GujjarPahari tussle in Jammu and Kashmir, International Journal of Society and Humanities, Vol-4, No.1, Jan-june 2014 22Javeedahmadbhat, Assement and Evolution of Reservation Policy of Jammu and Kashmir, The Anthropos( A Journl of Human Spectrum),Vol 2, Number 1, January-June 2013 23 Azad Ahmad Andrabi, Development of Education of Scheduled Tribes in Jammu and Kashmir, International Journal of Social Science Tommorow, Vol 2 No. 4, April 2013.
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the state. KavitaSuri24 in her study analyzed the impact of armed conflict on the migratory practices of Gujjars and Bakkerwals and finds that conflict has greatly affected the livelihood as the presence of militants in upper reaches and compelled them to abandoned their annual migratory practices and they are forced to remain restricted to lower low lying areas. The researcher suggested for the corrective measures like adequate security, more channels for communication with security forces and district administration. The most of the Gujjartribes of Jammu and Kashmir are still struggling for their survival. Even after the thirty years of reservation, small section within the community enabled themselves touplift their lives. Reservation has unduly given birth to a new section within the community who took the lion’s share of reservation. This creamy layer is continuously taking the perpetual benefits of the reservation policy at the cost of unaware illiterate lot living in far flung remotest areas of the state. The reservation policy has not made any substantial change in the socio-economic status of the majority of the people within the community because of number of reasons. The main reason of this failure can be said as;unawareness, nomadic pattern of life, conservatism, poverty, lack of educational institutions, lack of mass mobilization programme, lack of political will etc. Therefore, the process of socio-economic upliftment has not reached to the bottom level. Majority of the community still reflects very pathetic story. Only a few have reached to the process of modernization and development. The marginalization of the Gujjar tribes of Jammu and Kashmir can also be viewed by survey conducted by Tribal Research and Cultural Foundation which reveals that only 37 percent Gujjars who are migratory by tradition have relinquished their nomadic lifestyle during the last 20 years. Many Gujjars have left their basic profession and now doing wage work here and there. Because of this force shift they are not able to sustain their economy. The survey also found that during last 62 years only three women from this community have qualified combined service exam of state of Jammu and Kashmir. In the police department the situation is worst as there is no representation of Gujjar women among officer level posts. The same
24KavitaSuri, Impact of armed conflict on the seasonal migratory practices of Gujjar and Bakerwal tribes in Jammu and Kashmir, Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol 19, Issue 2, Febuary 2014.
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is the case with state judiciary. The data reveals that only 7 percent of the Gujjars get education in the schools and for girls the number is still lower- only 3 percent. As per the survey, 40 percent of the children leave their studies at the primary level, whereas poverty does not allow 30 percent children to get admission, while 10 percent students have enrolled themselves in the schools only to get scholarship.25 Conclusion The reservation policy was framed with the main objective to give benefit to sufferers but this question is searching for appropriate reply and justification. Even after three decades, the reservation policy has proved a political gimmick rather than an affirmative action policy for the poor and downtrodden section of the society. Same story is reflected in the case of Gujjar tribes of Jammu and Kashmir where we can see that Government has framed different schemes from time to time but the fact remained that majority of the nomadic Gujjars are still living a pathetic and deplorable life. All these schemes and programmes majoritarily have only reached to the upper class of the community known as creamy layer. The history of reservations is replete with the record that the real benefits have never trickled down to the intended beneficiaries because the latter had never an opportunity to come to the educational level required for the earmarked claim, as the persons for whose benefit the provisions were made in the constitution, suffered throughout from the lack of educational upliftment. The unintended outcome of the intended purpose behind reservations went on multiplying, this leads one to the crucial point at stake whether the son of Deputy Inspector General of Police or that of a Commissioner of Revenue from Scheduled Castes or scheduled tribes or other backward classes is entitled to the benefits of reservations? In the same context comes the question whether the son or daughter of an illiterate peasant or labourer from the Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes or other backward classes would ever be entitled to claim much less than getting the reservation? Nehru was against undertaking any steps which would lead to separatism and create a psychology of dependence in this section of the Indian society. He had said so many times, that external props like
25Greater Kashmir, November 11, 2003
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reservation should be used only as a transitory measure to help the reserved categories to overcome the socio-economic handicap. Like Gandhi, he also favoured programmes to help them develop inner strength to compete in a healthy manner with other sections of the society on an equal footing. So long as they continued to rely heavily on the external props of reservation, they would not learn to stand on their own and the moment these external props are withdrawn they would find themselves in a helpless situation from where it may not be possible to pull them out easily. Even after 30 years of implementation of reservation policy of Gujjar tribes of Jammu and Kashmir, it has not fulfilled the entrenched objectives; it has not made any noticeable change in the social & economic condition of this disadvantaged group. Majority of them still continue to the socially isolated, illiterate and poor. Special programmes of financial aid, special scholarships, special training programmes, relaxed standards in admissions and recruitment etc. are illustrations of various steps taken to keep these groups contended and happy. Whether these concessions are reaching to the poorest of the poor among Gujjars is hardly anybody’s concern. Suggestions The foregoing discussion clearly shows that all is not well with the reservation policy of the state and it is high time that a dispassionate thinking is focused upon it. The following suggestions are mooted in order to make the reservation policy judicious, reasonable and purposive.
Government of Jammu and Kashmir should definitely look into the upliftment of backward sections of the society in general and the Gujjars in particular. However granting a privilege forever is not an apt solution to the problem. One time package for education, livelihood, or holistic welfare of Gujjars can be a step ahead. Government should seriously look into the repercussions before granting any such status to any section of the society.
If the government is really concerned about the upliftment of the Gujjar tribe of the state, then why not to adopt the BPL formula. All the BPL households of the state whether they belong to any community, area or linguistic group should be declared as reserved category without consideration of their caste or color.
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Periodic review of reservation is necessary. Once a person has been benefitted, he should not be further provided quota. The benefits of reservation should be provided only once that is at the stage of admission in educational institutions or recruitment or promotion and not at every stage of one’s career.
Despite of giving reservation, reformatory measures and developmental schemes should be launched by the Government. The following step should be taken to uplift the socio-economic condition of the Gujjar tribes of Jammu and Kashmir:
1. Access to education to all section of the community should be the first priority. More mobile schools should be opened and facilities should be provided to them.
2. Vocational training institutions should be established to provide professional, skill development training to Gujjars to make them self-reliant.
3. Awareness programme should be conducted by the Government and civil society to make them aware about their rights.
4. The benefit of the welfare scheme should reach to the actual sufferers.
5. Remote areas should be made accessible; so approach roads should be constructed and modes of communications should be available.
6. Health facilities should be provided by the Government at the remote areas. Mobile health Centre should be established and facilities should be provided to them.
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RAYALASEEMA’S ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN THE ERA OF GLOBALISATION
Dr.G.Somasekhara Department of History Acharya Nagarjuna University Ongole Campus Ongole
Introduction Rayalaseema region, comprising of Cuddapah, Kurnool, Anantapur and Chittoor districts of Andhrapradesh state, enjoyed enormous prosperity both agriculture, trade and commerce from centuries ago. The decline of this prosperity of Rayalaseema started with the fall of Vijayanagara Empire after the battle of Tallikota in 1565 A.D. A prosperous thick forested region that was under the Vijayanagara kings. It fell upon bad days after the decline of the empire. Gradually, the thick forests were cut down and the tanks that provided water for cultivation fell into disuse with no maintenance, over the years, the region came under the rule of the Nizams. But it was later ceded to the English as part of a treaty. The benefit of the English rule was mainly felt in coastal Andhra. The Rayalaseema region is located in the heart of Deccan plateau in South India. In Physical terms, Rayalaseema is knitted together by the hill ranges of the Eastern Ghats, the Seshachalam ranges, the Nallamala, the Erramalas and the Sandur hills.1This underdeveloped region has the unconvinced peculiarity of suffering from the twin problems of drought and poverty. With its hinterland position and scarce forest cover, Rayalaseema has certain limitations in attracting monsoons. Economic globalization and domestic structural adjustment programmes have opened up many development and social sectors to new competition and policy changes in the developing world. In this context, the paper on Rayalaseema’s economic development in the era of globalization is very important. The relatively poor quality of the cultivatable land, the hinterland position of the region with sparse forest cover making for semi-arid climate, scanty rainfall and paucity of wter sources influenced the crop pattern in Rayalaseema. A vast extent of land was, and is
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occupied by dry or rain-fed crops and only a small extent was brought under wet and garden cultivation. Thus, while most of the people of Rayalaseema took to agriculture as a source of livelihood despite the natural limitation attendant upon it, others took to such occupations as weaving and making. In the face of uncertain returns, not commensurate with the labour they had put in; they remained economically backward for centuries. Chittoor: Around 70% of the lands in Chittoor district are dry lands and rain fed crops is grown in them. As a part of the Eastern Ghats, most of the district is studded with hills. Traditionally several chains of small tanks had been built, especially during the reign of Vijayanagara kings and these form the backbone of irrigated agriculture in the absence of any major river or cannal projects. The farmers in our grow paddy for one season and follow it up with two years of sugarcane. Some areas in eastern part of the district the soil is sandier and there is more rainfall. Farmers opt for a cycle of paddy and groundnut. In the western part, the climate is moderate, but there is water shortage although the soils are red and rich. They prefer to grow vegetables, particularly tomato. While some do grow mulberry (for silk), the location of two metropolis close by, Bangalore and Chennai (175 kms respectively from Chittoor) has spurred the cultivation of vegetables like tomato, bringal, beans and potato apart from flowers and grapes in a few pockets. It has also meant rapid growth in allied activities such as poultry and dairying the district is known for its jaggery. The Jaggery comes in two categories, the white or golden yellow colored, mostly from Aragonda or western region is for consumption. The second variety is of darker colour due to the nature of the soil. Generally, soils which are alkaline will give rise to paler jaggery, which though attractive by look it is not sweet as the darker one. It is mostly meant for brewing liquor. Climatically the area is suitable for mango. Once a mango garden is raised, it requires little maintenance and fetches. A number of juice making factories have sprung up in the district are seasonal in operation. The highly volatile vegetable market is very labour and capital intensive and farmers prefer to grow them in small plots of one or two acres generally. Vegetables and sugarcane crops are the
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mainstay of small and marginal farmers. As there aren’t enough cold storage plants, farmers are often put to heavy losses in vegetables, especially tomato. Groundnut is the mainstay of the dry land farmers, and most marginal farmers double up as agricultural workers. For every one season of good crops there will be two bad years of heavy loss and two years of bare sustenance. Of late, the cost of raising groundnut crop is also rising, pushing the farmers into greaten debt. Along with these, Chittoor’s agriculture consists of rice, maize, horse gram, red gram, turmeric, rajm beans, curry leaves, ragi, tamarind, potatoes, beet root and chilies. Anantapur: In Anantapur, 30% of the total population constitutes agricultural labour and cultivators. The Department of Agriculture aids farmers in ensuring timely input supply, empowering the farmer with advanced agricultural practices, and promoting cultivation of low risk and low cost demanding crops. The geographical position of the Peninsula renders it, the driest part of the State and hence, Agriculture conditions are more often precarious, Monsoons North East Monsoons and being cut off by the high Western Ghats, the South West Monsoons is also prevented from penetrating and punching the first of these parched soils. As a result the district is deprived of both the monsoons and often subjected to droughts. Agricultural for their livelihood the share of Agriculture and allied sectors in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the districts ranges from 24 to 37%. Main crops In Anantapur include groundnut, Jowar, rice and maize. Yield of groundnut is recorded as 516 kg per hectare in Anantapur district, 760 kg per hectare in Andhra Pradesh while it was 1,188 kg per hectare in the country as a whole. However, there is a declining trend in groundnut production since the mid-1990. Rice is one of the chief grains of India. The yield of rice averages at around 2800 kg per hectare in Anantapur. The paddy is cultivated during the Kharif and Rabi seasons. Jowar is one of the main staple crops of India. Jowar too is cultivated during the Kharif and Rabi seasons. Jowar production has declined in Anantapur over the last decade and averages around 680 kg per hectare. Maize was introduced to India from the Americans and is very popular due to high yields and smooth flexibility. Other
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crops produced in Anantapur in clued cotton, sunflower, ragi, bajra, cow gram, and red gram. Kurnool: About 70% of the working population of the district is either directly or indirectly engaged in agricultural and allied activities. Major crops include mango, citrus, bananas, and onion. Other major cash crops like cotton, castor, tobacco and groundnut are extensively grown. Other principal food crops are jowar, bajra, and paddy. These crops are grown in many villages in the district. Cotton is responsible for steady prices and stable yields. With introduction of Bt hybrids and highly efficient pesticides including weed control chemicals, cotton cultivation has become almost trouble- free. The area under cotton rose from 26, 000 hectares to 52, 000 hectares. Castor, which began with 3,000 hectare a few years ago, rose to 67, 251 hectare this year. Last year, the crop occupied nearly 20,000 hectare. Also, farmers found the crop less cumbersome and with little pest problem. Most of the groundnut farmers who suffered from irregular yields were shifting to castor. Kadapa: Kadapa contains 4.01 lakh hectare of cropped land. The main crops in Kadapa include paddy, ragi, bajra, and jower. Kadapa District is one of the most potential for the development of various horticultural crops. The soil and climate conditions of the district are most suitable for growing horticultural crops. Kadapa district despite having low rainfall has prone to be a congenial place for Citrus Plantations and Mango orchards. Mango which is considered as one of the best crop among horticulture crops has gained popularity among the farmers and is fast replacing the other crops in a large way due to its high return. The area under horticulture is 49177 acres. The important fruits grown in the district are Mango, Sweet Orange, Lime, Banana, Guava and Papaya. Ragi is produced year round in Kadapa. Production is averaged at around 400 hectares, and similar other crops like other districts additionally Cantaloupes. All the districts of Rayalaseema are not uniform development. Ananatapur is the least development district. It is absolutely barren with no agriculture and no industry. Mining is prevalent in Kadapa and Anantapur but the experience is unsavory. Over the last three decades,
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the people of the Rayalaseema region have witnessed changing climate that has stretched their ability to adopt beyond limits. With 13 million inhabitants, the Rayalaseema region in South India has always been a drought prone area. But the region has experienced an unprecedented frequency of droughts in the last 20 years, which has traumatically affected the lives of millions of people. The intervals between rainfall events have increased, as has rain outside the crop season, whereas the volume of rainfall has not increased. The Regional Agricultural Research Station at Anantapur analysed the rain fall data and traced a clear pattern of less rain in the month of September. September rains, however, are crucial for rainfall for rainfed crops (groundnut, millets and pulses) as they will be in the grain-forming stage. Farmers are experiencing an increase in temperature variability. The changes in rain fall and temperature have dramatically impacted crop production, cattle, livestock and other rural livelihoods in this fragile, arid region. The major rain fed crop in the region is groundnut, and other crops are sorghum, pearl millet, pigeon pea, cowpea and chickpea. The aggravated crisis in rain fed farming has caused people desperate to survive to over exploit groundwater resources. This is depleting the groundwater table and gyring up the bore wells at an unprecedented rate. As a result, crops and even fruit tress such as sweet lime, citrus and pomegranate are wilting. These are high value crops using deep bore wells, which farmers had invested heavily in. Now these trees are drying up, plunging farmers into deep debt. The increased intervals between rainfall events have affected the collection of surface water in traditional surface water bodies. Surface water bodies used to fill up at least once every three years. Now they are filling up only once every six to seven years or so. Traditional water bodies used to provide drinking water for cattle and livestock. Now they are often dried up, forcing the cattle to travel as far as 10 km to quench their thirst. Cattle and livestock used to be components of many farming systems in the region. They were once farmer’s main coping mechanism against droughts. The crops farmers grow mostly serve dual purposes, as grain and fodder. With crops failing more often, however, fodder has become scarce now. The traditional pastures are completely
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barren now, without a blade of grass. To make matters worse, the severe agricultural crises of recent decades have forced farmers to sell their cattle and livestock to survive or cope with droughts. These changes have severely affected the farming system and pushed farmers into despair. The impact has been even more telling on vulnerable small and marginal farmers. As a result, the region is experiencing stormy social upheaval. The rainfed farmers the small ones in particular are giving up farming and resorting to wage employment under the government run employment programmes. Others are migrating to cities to work as casual labour in the construction industry or as office gatekeepers of security guards and their numbers have risen to unprecedented numbers in recent days. The upshot is a large-scale occupational swing from farming to labour. Little has been done to support farmers in their efforts to adapt to climate change. In fact the liberalization, privatization and globalization policies of the early 1990s in India have led to agricultural crises and deepened rural poverty. The import of palm oil from Malaysia caused the groundnut oil prices to crash, and groundnut was a major crop in the Rayalaseema. Prices for mulberry silk the region’s main crop grown with bore well irrigation in the 1990s also crashed following the import of Chinese silk. The liberalization of import policies did not take into consideration the adverse impact it would have on Indian farmers. Farmers have had to invest substantially more in their crops since fertilizer subsidies were cut. Indeed, input costs have quadrupled. There were no remunerative prices for agricultural produce, so farmers experienced price droughts even during good crop years. The green revolution paradigm of agriculture also termed High Extent Input Destructive Agriculture (HEIDA) has favoured rich farmers with irrigation facilities and rendered the multitude of small and marginal farmer’s poverty stricken and their farms non-viable. The second Administrative Reform Commission of Government of India in 2006 identified 250 most backward districts in India. Anantapur, Chittoor, Kadapa are included in this list. CONCLUSION Rayalaseema continuously faced with drought and famines. In the past a number of Committees have examined the needs of the area
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and made many suggestions, the most important recommendations are expansion of irrigation facilities, particularly minor irrigation works like tanks and wells, and the establishment of a net-work of small and village industries on co-operative basis to ensure gainful employment to the under-employed village population. Promote rain fed horticulture and agro-forestry in cultivated areas. Tree crops like mango, lime, crops more droughts tolerant and they improve the environment and mitigate climate. There is an urgent need to develop the agricultural system, the ecology, the environment and the rural livelihoods of the people in the Rayalaseema region. REFERENCES 1. Yenadi Raju, Rayalaseema during colonial times, New Delhi-2003, p.3 2. Rayalaseema (www.jairayalaseema .org), Andhra Pradesh, India 3. Y.V.Mallareddy Director, AF Ecology Centre, Anantapur, India. Article published ‘Receding rains in Rayalaseema’, 8th June 2012 4. A.V.Raman Ro., Economic Development of Andhra Pradesh, 1765- 1957, Bombay-1958.
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THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PRACTICAL ENGLISH IN SPECIALIZED TRAINING Dr.G.Ramamurthy Associate Professor of English Usha Rama College of Engineering and Technology Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh Introduction Down to earth English plays out a particular capacity like scholarly examination, letters, look into and so on., it empowers the client to work unquestionably, adequately in life and also work. These scholastic capacities can deal with the requests of the work put and further training. Universities have discovered educating Practical Skills is an all the more captivating approach to instruct and learn. Understudies are given chances to apply their insight and aptitudes to genuine circumstances. The primary segments of Practical English are Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing Skills. Here the businesses are searching for individuals who can explain plainly, take and pass on messages, the method for managing the clients, spelling, sentence structure and accentuation.
Confronting Interviews:
Nowadays in Technical instruction, understudies are focusing on their scholastics as it were. Be that as it may, when they confront an open door, businesses find crisscrosses in them. To get great open doors, understudies need to learn Practical English to satisfy the business requests.
The accompanying focuses are proposed to enhance their Practical English. 1. Understudies need to pick suitable specialized techniques 2. They should guarantee that their specialized techniques are fit for reason 3. Impart legitimately to address the issues of the gathering of people
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and circumstance. 4. Understudies need to apply English Skills in a scope of significant settings 5. Understudies need to wind up plainly progressively free in their learning Catchphrases: Practical English, Listening, Speaking, Writing, Reading Skills, Employers, confounds and so forth., Viable English - Practicing strategies: The accompanying strategies enable students to wind up plainly more Practical with English a. Learning through Application b. Student – Centered methodologies c. Dynamic Learning d. Association Learning (establishing pretends) e. Appraisal for Learning.
Understudies ought to take part in discourses to create capacity until the point when authority is accomplished in their talking and listening attitude. The advancement of Writing, Speaking, Listening abilities have to meet significance to perusing in the Literacy course. Talking and Listening aptitudes will end up plainly unequivocal with various chances to participate in genuine and significant circumstances to create and rehearse.
The Significance of Good Oral Communication Skills:
With Good Oral Communication Skills, we keep up beneficial associations with other individuals and they can without much of a stretch acquire the data from associations. Through Good Oral Communication we can clarify things unmistakably and relate well to associates and partners. At last, it decreases the danger of encountering struggle and hostility from others keeping in mind the end goal to get more achievement in their professions. Instructing of Speaking and
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Listening has been portrayed as the "Cinderella" of English. In their educational modules, understudies are given restricted time to talking. So they are not taking an interest in dialogs, pretends and so on.,
Step by step instructions to enhance Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing Skills:
Tuning in: Listening assumes the key part in correspondence. With a specific end goal to listen viably, a man set an aside his/her conclusions while the other individual is talking. The audience must recognize the manner of speaking of the speaker.
Reasonable Activities: to enhance Listening Skills understudies ought to establish the pretends by utilizing the most well-known inquiries words like what, who, where, when how et., Learners ought to have chances to make inquiries in genuine circumstances, outside the classroom. When they suggest a conversation starter, they are extremely sharp in tuning in about the data.
Speaking: Learn to talk by talking. There are two primary sub aptitudes of talking. They are Linguistic Skills and Communicative Skills. Semantic Skills are the dialect abilities which incorporate phonology, sentence structure, grammar, and vocabulary. Relational abilities are the social attitudes.
Viable activities: Group discourses, pretends, describing stories and so on.,
Composing: In composing abilities the theme ought to be intelligible.
Brought together: In this, every one of the sentences of a solitary passage ought to be identified with a solitary controlling thought.
Applicable: Each sentence ought to be identified with the point.
Reasonable: Sentences ought to be encircled in a sensible way and must demonstrate an arrangement for improvement
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All around created: when we clarify the information and equality with legitimate cases is called all around created.
Perusing: Reading appreciation envelopes a few abilities.
1. Seeing: Title, headings and photograph inscriptions are used to get a feeling of the structure and substance.
2. Anticipating: utilizing information about the writer to make expectations about composing style, vocabulary, and substance.
3. Skimming and Scanning: Using snappy study of the content to get the fundamental thought, structure and so forth.,
4. Speculating from Context: we need to discover Clues to the obscure words as opposed to ceasing perusing.
5. Summarizing: Stopping toward the finish of the area and check the thoughts of the content.
Showing Methodology: Different strategies, methodologies, and techniques are proposed to enhance Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing Skills.
To enhance tuning in and talking abilities, let one understudy read a passage from a lesson or an article from the news paper. One understudy poses a few inquiries in view of the passage and others reply. It enhances their talking. Once in a while lead banter on that specific circumstance. For composing change understudies need to investigate for point sentence, supporting sentences, move words, connect words and conclusion. Toward the end as them to compose a comparable section utilizing diverse vocabulary.
Utilizing Visual Aids: Visual Aids accessible, for example, freebies flip charts, slides, objects and so forth here certainly accompanies practice and it is useful to give a decent introduction.
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Assessing Feedback: Constructive criticism can be exceptionally valuable and talk about with students fitting methods for offering input to each other that is not harming.
Conclusion:
Practical English is vital in Technical Education. These understudies may work in MNCs, diverse associations, processing plants and so forth., here in the work put they require all these four abilities to run the work easily and viable separated from their capability. Now and again they need to send Technical Reports, sends, Business letters, delicate product investigation and so forth., Lack of these aptitudes the data goes out off-base. The poor achievement rate of employability was therefore to the absence of presentation of Practical Skills.
References: 1. Wood, P. (2001) 'Inventive Literacy' in Craft, A., Jeffrey, B. what's more, Labeling, M. Inventiveness in Education, London: Continuum.
2. Cohen, L, and Manion, L. (1986) Research Methods in Education, London: Croom Helm Ltd.
Sites: 1.http://www.ncation.org.uk. 2.www.nptel.ac.in 3. Learningalive.co.uk
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MENTAL ILLNESS AND JUVENILE DELINQUENCY Dr.G.Padmaja Lecturer Department of Social Work SPW Degree & PG College, Tirupati
INTRODUCTION
The age between 10 and 19 years is an exciting transition from childhood to adulthood. This period of adolescence is where more than one billion people around the world are enjoying, spending a lot of time with friends and exploring new experiences. While most adolescents are healthy, many are suffering from the effects of drug and alcohol abuse, obesity, sexually transmitted disease and violence. Adolescence problems are now becoming more common, and these can affect these young people’s ability to grow and develop into healthy adults with full potential for a bright future. Adolescence and young age is important because of major physical, physiological, psychological, and behavioural changes with changing patterns of social interactions and relationships. Worldwide, escalating humanitarian crises and conflicts, economic recession, climate change and rapid urbanization have posed new threats to the aspirations of young people – and the situation is only expected to worsen over the next decade. Recognizing the unprecedented challenges faced by ‘generation next,’ UNICEF has placed adolescents at the center of its annual flagship report, ‘The State of the World’s Children 2011 – Adolescents: An Age of Opportunity.’
It is estimated that there are almost 200 million adolescents in India (ages 15–24). It is expected that this age group will continue to grow reaching over 214 million by 2020. Adolescence (10-19 Years) is a vital stage of growth and development. Misconceptions about various issues make them anxious. Their anxiety and confusion is further
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compounded by adults who expect them to conduct themselves in a more mature manner without preparing them for their new role. The National Mental Health Association accords a high priority to the care of all children, especially those with emotional and behavioral problems.
Increasing numbers of children with emotional disorders are entering the juvenile justice system. This growing trend is the result of multiple systemic problems including inadequate local mental health services for children and more punitive state laws about juvenile crime. Because these children are disproportionately poor and children of color, they and their families are in special need of advocacy.
CONCEPT OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
In India, the concept of juvenile delinquency is confined to the violation of ordinary penal law so far as the jurisdiction of the juvenile court is concerned. Hirasingh 13 (1979) has stated that delinquency is the non confirmist behaviour. J. V. Jayesingh 15 (1987) expressed that juvenile delinquency is the result of breakdown of cultural controls and it is the unaccepted and unapproved
In India, the present law which governs the juveniles who are in conflict with law and children who are in need of care and protection is " Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children ) Act, 2000 ( No. 56/2000 and 33/2006 ) in which the definition of juvenile is given. 'Juvenile' or 'child' means a person who has not completed 18 years of age 18. In fact, the J.J. Act, 2000 caters to the justice needed to two types of children. The first group is of those, who are in conflict with the law and have committed an offence while the other group includes those children who are in need of care and protection. The act defines a "child in need of care and protection" Juvenile means a child - i) who is found without any home or settled place of abode and without any ostensible means of subsidence, ii) who resides with a person (whether
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a guardian of a child or not) and such person a) has threatened to kill or injure the child and there is reasonable likelihood of the threat being carried out or b) has killed, abused or neglected some other child or children and there is a reasonable likelihood of the child in question being killed, abused or neglected by that person, iii) who is mentally or physically challenged or ill children or children suffering from terminal diseases or incurable diseases having no one to support or look after, iv) who has a parent or guardian and such parent or guardian is unfit or incapacitated to exercise control over the child, v) who does not have parent and no one is willing to take care of.
CAUSES OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
Various causes can be attributed towards Delinquency like Urbanization, Family and environment, Lack of discipline, Broken Homes, Criminalization of families, Movies and media, Adolescent Instability, Labeling, Gangsubculture, Hunger, poverty, malnutrition and unemployment, Uncongenial homes or whose parents have abandoned him or who is missing and ran away child and whose parents can not be found after reasonable inquiry, 1) who is being or is likely to be grossly abused tortured or exploited for the purpose of sexual abuse or illegal acts, 2) who is found vulnerable and is likely to be inducted into drug abuse or trafficking, 3) who is being or is likely to be abused for unconscionable gains, ix) who is victim of any armed conflict, civil commotion or natural calamity.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The variety of material in the form of books, journals, research articles is available in the branch of juvenile deliquency in India and abroad too. Since long the topic of juvenile delinquecy is added in the form of single chapter in the law discipline under the heading of, 'criminology and penology'.
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The Federal Advisory Committee on Juvenile Justice (2011) reports that barriers to providing adequate services include, insufficient resources, inadequate administrative capacity, lack of appropriate staffing, and lack of training for staff.
According to Garascia (2005), the juvenile justice system was originally both a rehabilitative and preventative approach, emphasizing the needs and rights of children over the appeal to punish them. In accordance with The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974, the ultimate goal of juvenile justice was to divert youth from the formal, punitive processing of the adult justice system. This in turn resulted in the use of community-based programs rather than large institutions.
Greenwood (2008) posits that it would be more economically practical if the focus was placed on preventing juveniles from becoming adult criminals. In recent years it has become more apparent that although incarceration and detainment is necessary for a small percent of juveniles, long-term confinement experiences tend to do more harm than good, often leading to continued offending and recidivism. In contra st, community-based alternatives have been found to decrease re- offending, even for youth who commit serious and violent crimes
Harms (2002) posits that the number of youth processed via the juvenile justice system has increased. The National Juvenile Justice Council (NJJC) estimates that the number of delinquency cases increased 30% between 1985 and 2009, however there was a 9% decrease between 1985 and 2013.
Juri Baruah (1991) wrote an article on Disciplining the Child rural-urban variation. Bedi M. S. (1985, 1988 & 1995) wrote on significance of J.J. Act, co-ordination among J.J. functionaries
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and practical problems of correctional institutions in India. Shri Chokalingam K.
Vedkumari (2009) has written two research articles on juvenile justice act, rights and reality and on has rightly pointed out that the quagmire created by the conflicting and narrow interpretations by the Supreme Court on the age issues has narrowed down the applicability of the J.J. Act to an increasing number of cases contrary to the scheme and words of the legislation as well as the intention of the legislature.
Research indicates that from one-quarter to one-third of incarcerated youth have anxiety or mood disorder diagnoses, nearly half of incarcerated girls meet criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and up to 19 percent of incarcerated youth may be suicidal. In addition, up to two-thirds of children who have mental illnesses and are involved with the juvenile justice system have co- occurring substance abuse disorders, making their diagnosis and treatment needs more complex.
PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENTSFOR ADOLESCENTS
There is increasing recognition that psychological interventions are important in the management of psychological problems in adolescents. There is a need to adopt evidence-based therapies in practice in order to make interventions more scientific and effective. Evidence-based interventions are practices that are based on empirical research and carried out on populations with similar diagnoses or problems. These interventions have been demonstrated to be superior and offer treatment or alternative interventions for people with specific diagnoses. They are specifically matched to target problems/needs.
Mental health treatment can both prevent children from committing delinquent offenses and from re-offending. Intensive work with families at the early stages of their child's behavioral problems can
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strengthen their ability to care for their children at home. NMHA believes the needs of children and families are best met through a system of collaborative community-based mental health services. These services include prevention, early identification and intervention, assessment, outpatient treatment, home-based services, wrap-around services, family support groups, day treatment, residential treatment, crisis services and inpatient hospitalization. NMHA further believes that these services are most effective when planned and integrated at the local level with other services provided by schools, child welfare agencies, and community organizations.
Researchers have identified several different types of psychological interventions that are considered either well established or probably efficacious. These include behaviour modification, multisystemic therapy, functional family therapy, graduated exposure, modelling, exposure and response prevention (ERP), cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) for a variety of problems and parent managementtraining (Ollendick and King 2004).
TREATMENT DURING CONFINEMENT
When children with mental and emotional disorders must be confined in correctional settings, certain principles should be observed. All youths should be screened upon admission by trained personnel for mental health and substance abuse problems. When the screening detects possible mental health problems, children should be referred for further evaluation, assessment and treatment by mental health professionals. Children and their families who are already receiving treatment before they enter should be assisted in continuing treatment. All juveniles who are not released within one week should have behavioral, mental health and/or substance abuse evaluations done by qualified mental health staff with expertise in children and adolescents.
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Juveniles who suffer from acute mental disorders or who are actively suicidal should be placed in or transferred to an appropriate medical or mental health facility and returned to confinement only with medical clearance. Correctional facilities should have written arrangements with local medical or mental health facilities for providing emergency medical and mental health care.
Mental health services should be available to incarcerated children 24 hours per day, seven days per week. Treatment should be provided in an atmosphere of empathy and respect for the dignity of the child. Different types. of mental health interventions should be available, including the full range of medications. The type of intervention should be tailored to meet the child and family's needs and developmental status, and should be delivered by qualified mental health staff with expertise in children and adolescents. When medications are used, they should be consistent with the treatment plan and well monitored by a qualified mental health professional with expertise in children and adolescents.
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY AS AN EFFECTIVE TREATMENT IN ADOLESCENTS
CBT is a time-oriented and problem-focused psychological therapy. Cognitive behaviour therapies are a group of therapies that include both cognitive and behavioural interventions. Dobson (1988) identified nearly 22 varieties of therapies that come under the categories of cognitive and cognitive behavioural therapies. Broadly, three major groups of CBT have been recognized. These include therapies aimed at cognitive restructuring such as the approaches by Beck et al(1979), Ellis (1958), the coping skills training (CST) that includes interventions and finally problem-solving skills training (PSST).
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1. Assessment and Case Formulation in CBT The three main assumptions in CBT are that thoughts precede changes in emotions and behaviours, thoughts can be monitored and assessed, and changes in thinking can lead to changes in emotions and behaviours.
Assessment Assessment of symptom severity, beliefs and assumptions and other cognitive phenomena such as negative automatic thoughts, hopelessness, suicidal ideation and self-concept is an important step in carrying out the therapy. Assessment can be carried out using self- report measures, rating scales as well as self-monitoring or diaries and functional analysis. Many of the measures, in particular the rating scales are suitable for use in the Indian setting. Silverman and Ollendick (2005), provide a comprehensive list of interview-based as well as self-report measuresthat can be used in adolescents.
Case study Case study or case formulation in CBT considers the contributions of early experiences in the subsequent development of schema. The model takes into consideration the appraisals or thought processes at various levels, from core schema to dysfunctional assumptions and negative automatic thought. Cognitivetheory must be separated from case formulation. Case formulation is specific to each individual and is thought to link theory with actual therapeutic planning.
Treatment mode in CBT for Adolescents The nature of relationship in CBT is one of collaborative. Thus, in therapy, the therapist does not assume that he/she already knows better than the adolescent. Prescribing solutions or deciding for the adolescent is avoided. They work jointly on the discovery of
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dysfunctional patterns in thinking, setting goals and deciding on activities. Collaboration is to be followed at all points in therapy. This includes the start of therapy at which point goals are set. Thus, therapy is a joint effort between the adolescent and the therapist and the family as well.
CBT involves the acquisition of skills for new patterns of thinking and coping. An important way of achieving this is through practice. Homework compliance has been found to be a major predictor of treatment outcome. Factors such as poor understanding of the therapy, anxiety, cognitive distortions and inadequate motivation/ opportunities affect compliance. The therapist must be aware of these factors and work on them to ensure that compliance is maintained. CBT in adolescents involves the use of activities, worksheets and various other methods of communicating formulation, educating and increasing participation.
2. Cognitive Behavioural Strategies The threefold aim of CBT is (a) symptom reduction, (b) belief modification or identification and modification of unhelpful thinking and (c) preventing relapse. Thus, CBT shares certain common strategies that help achieve these goals. Depression and anxiety in adolescents are two major mental health concerns
Anxiety reduction methods: Anxiety reduction is an important therapeutic goal as it leads to symptom reduction. Several different types of strategies can be used to help the adolescent client reduce arousal or anxiety. They include deep muscle relaxation, biofeedback procedures (EMG and galvanic skin response), deep breathing and Eastern methods such as Shavasana and mindfulness-based stress reduction programmes. These methods have also been found to be helpful in anger management and help the adolescent in coping with anxiety and
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anger by teaching them self-regulation. Arousal reduction methods are most effective when practised regularly.
Cognitive exposure is a behavioural strategy based on the learning principle of habituation and extinction. It is the treatment of choice in the management of specific phobia, panic disorder, social phobia and other anxiety disorders. Graded exposure addresses avoidance and fear, by systematic exposure to fear-evoking stimuli. The therapist and client prepare a hierarchy that includes fear-evoking situations or triggers and the level of anxiety or fear (subjective unit of distress). Based on this list of situations, the client is gradually exposed to cues, allowing for habituation to occur and subsequently extinction of fear.
Social skills training (SST) is a skills-based programme developed on the principles of social learning. SST assumes that social skills can be learned and acquired with training. Skill deficits in adolescents account for several emotional and behavioural problems such as anxiety, anger, poor interpersonal relationships and overall adjustment leading to stress. SST focuses on building verbal and nonverbal skills that are essential in initiating and maintaining interpersonal skills. Assessment plays a very important role in setting goals for SST. It includes both self-report and observation and behavioural data. Role-play and modelling are some of the important methods by which SST is imparted.
3. Cognitive Behavioural Strategies in the Management of Anxiety and Depression
Depression and anxiety shares many common strategies. An overview of these main strategies is provided below with reference to depression and anxiety.
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Learning and Applicability is an important stage in CBT. Depending upon the severity of depressive or anxiety symptoms and existence of comorbid disorders, the process of aplicability can vary in terms of time and difficulty. The process of applicability can be challenging, particularly with difficult adolescents.
Stimulating behavior through activity schedules aims at increasing activity levels as well as enhancing mastery and pleasure, thereby improving mood. This is particularly important in depression wherein low motivation and activity could be a presenting complaint as well as in anxiety disorders in the form of avoidance. This is achieved through pleasant events as well as tasks that are graded in terms of difficulties. In anxiety disorders, activity schedules can also incorporate tasks that have been previously avoided and provoke anxiety.
Self-assessment (thought diary) is used to identify these patterns of dysfunctional thinking, and through this activity, the adolescent is helped to gain an understanding of the vicious cycle between thoughts, emotions and behaviours. Exposure, role-plays and other behavioural methods are also helpful in eliciting dysfunctional cognitions.
Learning relaxation skills help manage arousal symptoms. Several types o relaxation skills have been found to be helpful including deep muscle or progressive muscle relaxation, deep breathing, guided or positive imagery and biofeedback. Behavioural strategies are also helpful in the reduction of anxiety and are based on the learning principles such as habituation and extinction and social learning. These include, in session exposure, role-play and modelling, imagery basedmethods and graduated exposures (or step ladders). For
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specific anxiety, symptoms such as worry and worry management techniques can also be recommended. These include worry postponement, worry exposure and prevention of worry behaviours such as checking and reducing reassurance by seeking help from the parents.
Parental Involvement While many of cognitive behavioural programmes are carried out with the adolescent, additional parental involvement becomes important for many of the behavioural problems. The therapist can involve the parents as cotherapists, as collaborators or as consultants who provide important assistance to the therapy. Thus, parents can function as ‘cognitive behavioural coaches’.
The frequency at which parents may be called can vary depending upon the tasks required. Parents are often involved in planning exposure activities, in desisting reassurance giving or in carrying out proxy compulsions. Parents are also instructed to provide positive reinforcements during the course of treatment.
CONCLUSIONS
CBT is a problem-focused, time-oriented and evidence-based psychological intervention. Problem-solving skills and coping skills are effective for a variety of emotional and behavioural problems in adolescents. In addition to core cognitive components such as cognitive restructuring, CBT also includes behavioural techniques such as relaxation training, exposure, role-play and activity scheduling. Parental involvement has been recommended in many formats of CBT for adolescents; however, care needs to be taken to inform the adolescent,
Special treatment should be available to children who are sexually abused, who have substance abuse problems, health problems, educational problems, histories of family abuse or violence, and who are
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sex offenders. Programming in facilities should be appropriate to the child's age, gender and culture. Linguistically and culturally appropriate therapy with the child's family should be encouraged. Under no circumstances should a child be penalized for seeking or receiving mental health treatment.
REFERENCES
1. Balasubramanian P 2005. Health needs of poor unmarried adolescent girls. A community based study in rural Tamil Nadu. Indian Journal of Population Education, 28-29: 18-3 3.
2. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.
3. Bailey, V. (2001). Cognitive behaviour therapies for children and adolescents. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 7, 224– 233.
4. Cartwright-Hatton, S., Roberts, C., Chitsabesan, P., Fothergill, C., & Harrington, R. (2004).
5. Compton, S. N., March, J. S., Brent, D., Albano, A. M., Weersing, R. V., & Curry, J. (2004).
6. Cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy for anxiety and depressive disorders in children and adolescents: an evidence-based medicine review. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(8), 30–959.
7. Ellis, A. (1958). Rational psychotherapy. The Journal of General Psychology, 59(1), 35–49.
8. Kaufman, N. K., Rohde, P., Seeley, J. R., Clarke, G. N., & Stice, E. (2005). Potential mediators of cognitive-behavioral therapy for adolescents with comorbid major depression and conduct
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disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(1), 38–46.
9. Soechting, I., & March, J. (2002). Cognitive aspects of obsessive compulsive disorder in children.
10. In. R. Frost & G. Steketee (Eds.), Cognitive approaches to obsessions and compulsions: Theory, assessment, and treatment (pp. 299–314). Amsterdam: Pergamon/Elsevier Science Inc.
11. Spence, S. H. (2003). Social skills training with children and young people: Theory, evidence and practice. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 8(2), 84–96.
12. Treatment for Adolescents with Depression Study Team (TADS). (2003). Treatment for adolescents with depression study (TADS): Rationale, design, and methods. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 531–542.
13. Urvashi Anand. (2013). Effectiveness of a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program in reducing stress in adolescents. Unpublished PhD thesis. Bangalore: NIMHANS (Deemed University).
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STATUS OF WOMEN IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT - A FRESH OUTLOOK IS NEEDED
Dr. Veeraiah Bollikonda Dr. D. Sandhya Faculty Lecturer in Economics Department of Economics Govt. Degree College for Women Kakatiya University Marripalem Warangal Visakhapatnam. Dist
Abstract The nature of functions performed by women in rural families varies from region to region and from one social group to another. There are certain agricultural operations which are undertaken by men labour alone and certain others by women labour exclusively. Sometimes, sex considerations do not figure in certain tasks. Normally, tasks which need more of physical strength are done exclusively by men labour while lighter jobs are entrusted to women labour. Digging and deepening of wells, climbing a coconut tree for collecting ripe coconuts, carrying heavy agricultural equipment and tools, driving a tractor for ploughing and transport purposes, threshing, etc., are normally done by men. Application of manure, transplanting of seedlings, weeding, cleaning and storing grams, kitchen gardening are done exclusively by women. Sometimes, there is no such rigid division of labour as between men and women. Different tasks are performed by both men and women labour like application of manure/chemical fertilizer, irrigating fields, etc. Normally, high caste women of land owing households do not undertake field work, although they are involved in post-harvest phases of work within the homestead. Most of the field tasks on such farm households assigned to women are performed by hired female labourers from the scheduled and other low castes. Any intervention for improving the condition of women involved in agricultural activities should begin with an understanding of their role profile in terms of various agriculture and related activities. Analysis of their role, both traditional and current will enable one to identify the areas of intervention. This becomes the input for designing programmes of development by way of opening of new avenues of income generation and matching technologies to the specific tasks. However, in carrying out the programmes, appropriate research and extension, input supply
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and policy backup is of supreme importance. Once the programme of women's development in agriculture is launched fulfilling all these necessary conditions, it facilitates better performance of the role of the women, thereby enabling them to increase income, reduce drudgery and enhance their status in the society enabling them to increase income. Introduction: Women have been playing a crucial role in the development process since the early stages of civilized life. Historians believe that it was women who first started cultivation of crop plants and initiated the art and science of farming. It is said that women who was not only discovered fire, but also the use of fire, the basic cooking techniques like boiling, roasting, backing, steaming, etc., It is also said that woman is the first potter and weaver. There is a widespread view among the scholars that the best way to judge a nations progress is to find out the status of women living there. A substantial proportion of the rural workers is self-employed or works as unpaid family workers and is under employed. Females provide a large part of the unpaid family labour in agriculture and the proportion of women and children in the labour force tends to be higher than in other sectors. The unsustitutable function of child- bearing must be performed by women alone. They bear the major responsibility of child care and educating the child in all respects at infant stage. In their hands, the burden of health and well-being of present, past and future generations of the labour force. Importance of the study A majority of female workers in rural areas are engaged in agriculture and constitute a vast human resource. The farm operations of women include application of manure, sowing, planting, irrigating field, fertilizer application, plant protection, weeding, thinning, harvesting, husking, winnowing, cleaning, storing grains, feeding the cattle, taking care of livestock, particularly dairy cattle, looking after poultry, kitchen gardening, marketing of vegetables, etc., management of household routine affairs, etc., Women also play a significant and crucial role in agricultural development and allied fields including in the main crop production, livestock production, horticulture, post-harvest operations, agro
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social forestry, fisheries, etc. The nature and extent of women's involvement varies widely among different ecological sub - zones, farming systems, castes, classes and stages in the family In some of the farm activities like processing and storage, women predominate so strongly that men workers are numerically insignificant. Infact, studies on women in agriculture conducted in various parts of our country has come to conclusion that women contribute far more to agricult ure production than other sex and it has generally been acknowledged. The nature of functions performed by women in rural families varies from region to region and from one social group to another. There are certain agricultural operations which are undertaken by men labour alone and certain others by women labour exclusively. Sometimes, sex considerations do not figure in certain tasks. Normally, tasks which need more of physical strength are done exclusively by men labour while lighter jobs are entrusted to women labour. Digging and deepening of wells, climbing a coconut tree for collecting ripe coconuts, carrying heavy agricultural equipment and tools, driving a tractor for ploughing and transport purposes, threshing, etc., are normally done by men. Application of manure, transplanting of seedlings, weeding, cleaning and storing grams, kitchen gardening are done exclusively by women. Sometimes, there is no such rigid division of labour as between men and women. Different tasks are performed by both men and women labour like application of manure/chemical fertilizer, irrigating fields, etc. Normally, high caste women of land owing households do not undertake field work, although they are involved in post-harvest phases of work within the homestead. Most of the field tasks on such farm households assigned to women are performed by hired female labourers from the scheduled and other low castes. Objectives of the Study:
1) The study focuses on the role of women in agricultural development.
2) To find out the relative share of cultivations and agricultural labour among rural women.
3) To assess the performance of women after the implementation of globalization policies in agriculture sector.
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Methodology The study is based on Secondary sources and the data were collected from various books, magazine, journals, newspapers and websites. Role of Women in Agriculture The NSSO survey result shows that there is high female unemployment in the rural sector. Therefore, the Successive Plans also focused on programmes for increasing the work opportunities and productivity of female farmers. Increasing women's access to productive land by regularizing leasing and share cropping of uncultivated agricultural land by women's groups, encouraging collective efforts in bringing wastelands under cultivation and providing policy incentives to women in low input subsistence agriculture will have immediate benefits in terms of the household's food security and women's empowerment along with additional employment generation. The agricultural sector is a crucial component of the Indian economy and it accounts for two thirds of the employment. It further provides food, nutrition and employment security. Women are an integral part of agriculture. They contribute substantially from seedling to storage, germ plasma conservation and environment protection round the year. All over India a large number of women are involved in agriculture. Indian women's contribution to agriculture is a significant and crucial way both to agricultural production and the women's household sector. A large number of adult women in India are in fact farmers working on land. However, agricultural policy is still dominated by the false view that 'farmers are men', women are only housewives'. In fact agriculture employs 85% of all economically active women. It is also related to the fact that although women work to sustain their families, most of their work is not measured in wages. Women's work also became invisible, because, women are concentrated outside market related or remunerated work and they are normally engaged in multiple tasks. Yet very rarely do women get the recognition for their perpetual contribution in agriculture in the rural economy. Their work is concerned as secondary by and large by policy makers. The problem for women is exacerbated by discrimination and they
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are often paid less than their counterpart of the men. The women carry the double burden of poverty and discrimination. They have less access than men to credit, to production resources such as irrigation, water, fertilizers and improved technologies. The new global structural transformation is posing new challenges to the women in agricultural sector. These women, who are already exploited, now suffer under tremendous disadvantages in the contemporary world due to liberalization, privatization and globalization. Findings Over the years, there has been a decline in the number of cultivators and more and more women are working as agricultural laborers. According to the Census of India, in 1981 the percentage of women cultivators was 33.09 and in 1991 it was 34.22% but the percentage of laborers was 46.34 in 1981 and it declined to 43.93%. If we look at the distribution of women workers in agriculture, we can see an increase in the percentage of laborers from 31.9% in 1951 to 43.93% in 1991 while the number of cultivators declined from 45.4% in 1951 to 34.22% in 1991. More recently, the increased commercialization of agriculture and monetization of economy have resulted in the transformation of agriculture labour into wage employment. At the national level, the rate of economic participation of women is 20.85% as compared to 53.20% for men. Nearly 79.40% of all economically active women were engaged in agriculture compared to 63.30% of men. The invisibility of women's work and its undervaluation in the development discourses has been discussed widely. The low value and the social status given to women's manifold activities such as domestic labour, child care and other remunerated employment including agriculture, reflects the reinforcement of gender inequities at ideological and practical levels as well. The debate on role of women's domestic labour and its value has initiated serious discussions in and outside feminist and academic circles. It has been estimated that the house work is equivalent in value about a third of total production per year in modern economy. However, the nature and extent of their involvement differs from the variations in agro-production systems. The mode of female participation in agricultural production varies from the landowning status of farm households. Their roles range from managers to landless labourers. In over all farm production, women's average contribution is
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estimated at 55 percent to 66 per cent of the total labour with percentages, is higher in certain regions. In the Indian Himalaya, a pair of bullocks works 1064 hours, a man 1212 hours and a woman 3485 hours in a year on one hectare farm, a figure that illustrates women's significant contribution to agricultural production. The recent NSS and census data shows a marginal increase in women's employment participation when compared to previous decades. The important feature of this trend is the increasing casualisation and informalisation of women's work. The introduction of capital-intensive technologies in the agriculture sector has had differential impact on different sections of people. The women are negatively affected due to women's lack of access to technology. Added to this the green revolution technologies have enhanced class polarisation and deepened gender inequities in many ways. Agarwal points out that following the introduction of new technologies in agriculture, casualisation of work is increased for both men and women. While it is more enhanced in the operations such as transplanting, weeding and harvesting where female labour is primarily employed. Declining status of Women Labourers The Women Agricultural Labourers belong to the disadvantaged sections of Indian rural society, constituting about 25 per cent of the total labour force. Indeed, they should be paid special attention to lessen their aggravating employment situation and provided with other social security fields. We find a declining proportion of cultivators and an increasing proportion of agricultural laborers. However, the occupational structure has remained more or less stagnant over the last three decades. The percentage of agricultural work force was 69.51 per cent between 1961 and 2001 wit slight increase at present, i.e., 68.79 per cent. Further women role in the conservation of basic life support systems such as land, water, flora and fauna is well recognized. They have protected the health of the soil through organic recycling and promoted crop security through the maintenance of varietals diversity and genetic resistance. Therefore, without the total intellectual and participation of women, it will not be possible to popularize alternative systems of land management to shift cultivation, arrest gene and soil erosion and promote the care of the soil and the health of economic
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plants and farm animals. Despite their importance to agricultural production, women face severe handicaps. They are in fact, the largest group of landless labourers with little real security in case of break up of the family owing to death or divorce, inheritance laws and customs which discriminate against women. Agricultural development programmes are usually planned by men and aimed at men. Mechanization, for example alleviates the burden of tasks that are traditionally men's responsibility, leaving women's burdens unrelieved or even increased. The excess burden of work on women (i.e. the farm work plus house work), also acts as a stimulus to have many children so that they can help out with chores from an early age. Extension workers almost exclusively aim their advice at men's activities and crops. In some regions, this bias may depress production of subsistence food crops (often women's crops) in favour of increased production of cash crops (often men crops) in favour of increased production of cash crops (often men's crops) so that family nutrition suffers. Impact of modern Technology on women labour Participate The development experience in India reveals that, agricultural modernization through HYV technology and mechanical technology have displaced women from several newly mechanized operations and at the same time increased their involvement in labour intensive activities. Men took over from women, those activities in which technology has substituted machinery from manual labour both in the harvesting and post-harvesting operations. Thus the introduction of tractors, harvesters, insecticides, weedicides, HYV, seeds and mechanical cotton pickers have appropriated women's traditional means of livelihood. Women were hired increasingly in those areas were mechanization was low, crop intensity was high and area irrigated was high. Modernization and advancement of technology have not benefited women. In fact, in many areas women have been displaced from their traditional jobs as the technology necessitates training, up gradation of knowledge and skill which are put out of their reach. Improved agricultural technology accompanied by partial mechanization had affected women from all socio-economic
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background positively, either by relieving the women cultivators who were from higher socio-economic strata. Full mechanization of agriculture had to relieve the women of high socio-strata and it had negatively affected the women from lower caste and lowest income groups by reducing the demand for employment in peak season. Women participate in decision making related to farming and household service, despite their access to production resources and extension services which had so far been very limited. Though, there are rural women, who have been largely neglected, it is being increasingly felt that the technical knowledge acquired by the farm women over the generation is not being updated. However, during the recent years, farm women are being viewed as an important source of diffusion of technology and thereby strengthening the process of decision making in agriculture. Though decision making is a complex process, nevertheless, farm women knowingly or unknowingly participate in the decision-making process regarding the farming enterprise which is based on their long standing field experience.
The issue of women empowerment is thus very complex and multidimensional. Besides, providing rights and creating awareness does not solve the problem of women. The development programmes and policies, which aim at women empowerment, should categorize women based on their age, caste, class, region, education, etc as they are not homogeneous group which aims at empowerment. Impact of WTO on Women Agricultural Labour The impact of World Trade Organization (W.T.O) rules and policies of trade liberalization in the agriculture sector on women is distinctive for four reasons. Firstly, women have been the primary seed keepers, processors. They have been both the experts and producers of food, from seed to the kitchen. W.T.O impacts on women's expertise and productive functions throughout the food chain. The Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement impacts women's knowledge of and control over seed. The Agreement on Agriculture impacts women's livelihood and income security, and also has secondary impacts in terms of increased violence against women. The sanitary and phyto sanitary agreement has a direct impact on women's expertise and economic role in
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agroprocessing. Secondly, as globalization shifts from agriculture to capital intensive, chemical intensive systems, women bear disproportionate costs of both displacement and health hazards. Thirdly, Women carry the heavier work burden in food production, and because of gender discrimination get lower returns for their work. When WTO destroys rural livelihoods, it is women who loose the most. When WTO rules allow dumping which leads to decline in prices of farm products, it is women's - already low incomes, which go down further. Fourthly, their position vis-a-vis WTO is also more vulnerable because as the livelihoods and incomes of farmers in general, and women agriculturists in particular are eroded, they are displaced from productive roles, women in agriculture and their status is further devalued, while the patriarchal power of those who control assets and benefit from asset transfer due to globalisation is increased, other social processes are triggered which result in increased violence against women. The violence associated with displacement, devaluation and dis- empowerment takes the form of intensive violence, increasing incidences of rape, the epidemic of female foeticide, and growth in trafficking of women. Women also bear the ultimate burden of farm suicides, since they are left to look after their households without assets but with the burden of indebtedness. A Policy for Fresh Outlook: Any intervention for improving the condition of women involved in agricultural activities should begin with an understanding of their role profile in terms of various agriculture and related activities. Analysis of their role, both traditional and current will enable one to identify the areas of intervention. This becomes the input for designing programmes of development by way of opening of new avenues of income generation and matching technologies to the specific tasks. However, in carrying out the programmes, appropriate research and extension, input supply and policy backup is of supreme importance. Once the programme of women's development in agriculture is launched fulfilling all these necessary conditions, it facilitates better performance of the role of the women, thereby enabling them to increase income, reduce drudgery and enhance their status in the society enabling them to increase income.
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Reference
1. National commission for women "Agriculture sector in India", Impact of W.T.Oon Agriculture 2005 pp9
2. C.U Thresia "Women workers in Agriculture" a paper presented in Kerala Research programme on Local development Studies, Thiruvanthapuram, 2004, pp 5-6
3. National Commission for Women "Agricultural Sector in India", Impact of W.T.O on Agriculture, 2005 pp.1
4. C.U Thresia "Women workers in Agriculture' A paper presented in Kerala Research programme on Local development Studies, Thiruvanthapuram, 2004, pp 6-7
5. Bala Krishna "A Rural Land less Women Labourers Problems and prospect," Kalpaz Publications Private Ltd., New Delhi- 2005, pp-9-10
6. National Commission for Women "Agriculture Sector in India", Impact of W.T.O on Agriculture, 2005 pp.9
7. Jessy Thomas 'Women and Development", ISDA Journal, Vol. 19, No 1, 2009, pp54
8. K.P.Wasik "Farm Women and Modern Technology" Women in Agriculture Kalpaz Publications New Demi 2005 pp 14,15
9. K.P.Wasik "Farm Women and Modern Technology" Women in Agriculture, Kalpaz Publications New Delhi 2005 pp 16-17
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A STUDY OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF UNDERACHIEVERS IN SCIENCE IN RELATION TO THEIR INTELLIGENCE Dr. Umesh Chandra Kapri Associate Professor Gold Field College of Education, Faridabad Abstract
An underachiever is a person especially a student who fails to achieve his or her potential or does not do as well as expected. Various studies focus on the academic achievement of students who have not realised their apparent potential have identified as learning disabled students, and tried to find methods of addressing these problems. Current theories among academic scholars prefer to address underperformance problems with remedial help. Life is full of challenges and it is intelligence which prepares us for facing these challenges as successfully as possible. Underachievement refers to the case that a student attains a level of achievement that is below his or her potential. The study was carried out on 1284 students of 9th standard selected randomly from 18 secondary schools of Faridabad district of Haryana. Thus, 403 students who obtained at least 1 δ less score in achievement test in science in comparison to the score obtained in intelligence test were considered as underachievers in science and were taken as sample of the study. Descriptive statistics and t-test were used to analysis the data. The result revealed that there is significant correlation between academic achievement in science and intelligence of the underachievers in science of secondary schools.
Keywords: Underachievement in science, Academic Achievement, Intelligence;
INTRODUCTION
As a society becomes increasingly complex owing to rapid scientific and technological progress, it needs high capacity manpower to sustain and
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maintain the pace of progress of the society. For reasons such as this, the concept of intelligence is becoming increasingly important in modern societies. No sphere of life, whether it is education or social and physical science, literature or art etc. has remained uninfluenced by the intelligence. Intelligence not only enables an individual to attain great heights of success in life but also develops in him the ability by which he is well adjusted in his environment and saves himself from becoming its victim.
The relationship between measures of intelligence and achievement is significant to research, if there is a strong relation between them, it might be deduced that the intelligence test has an important contribution in connection with other variables for instance the curriculum, study program, the teacher, the characteristics of the school, and others in scholastic performance. Academic achievement of students in high school strongly correlates (.50 to .70) with intelligence scores, but in other study researchers experienced the hypothesis that the relationship between general intelligence and academic achievement was in large part associated with a mental speed component.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Achievement is the performance of the pupil’s accomplishment in a subject. An Achievement is a task- oriented behavior. It is degree of success in any task. In short, Academic Achievement may be defined as measure of knowledge, understanding or skills in a specified subject or group of subjects. Academic Achievement of is concerned with the quantity and quality of learning attained in a subject of study or group of subjects after a period of instructions. Perhaps, no one would deny the importance of academic Achievement in child’s life. Academic Achievement plays a very important role in the attainment of the ideal of harmonious development of the child. In this rapidly changing world
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and with the growing advancement in science and technology, the place of education has become so vital that every parent, today sets high goals for his child.
INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence consists of an individual’s those mental or cognitive abilities which help him in solving his actual life problems and learning a happy and well contented life. Intelligence is the capacity for relational, constructive and original thinking directed to the attainment of some end. It is the ability to learn, ability to solve problems and ability to make adjustment. According to Wechsler (1944), “Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with the environment.” According to Thorndike, Intelligence may be defined as “the power of good responses from the point of view of truth or fact.” Thus, Intelligence is a combination of the ability to learn, to pose problems, and to solve problems.
NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The effect of intelligence on students’ achievement has been debated for decades. How intelligence influences student achievement is not clear, and there have been many theories to explain the relationship. The intrigue of why some people become successful while others fail despite natural talents, gifts or intelligence has provoked inquiry into qualities that determine success. It is believed that successes in any area depends on the level of intelligence or intelligence Quotient (IQ) possessed by a person as reflected in his/her academic achievements, exams passed, marks obtained etc. All these are instances of intelligence of academic variety.
The current study reported here the relationship between intelligence and academic achievement in science, especially to see if the
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relationship can be different for females and males by administering Ravens Progressive matrices.
Taking into consideration the above observations, the investigator feels it necessary to look into the Academic Achievement in science and its relationship with intelligence of the secondary school students. The results of the study may be helpful to the teachers, students, school administrators, researchers and policy making bodies redesigning the process and products in improving the overall performance of the students.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM: The title of the research is given as: ‘A Study of Academic Achievement of Underachievers in Science in Relation to Their Intelligence’.
OBJECTIVES
1. To study the academic achievement in science of secondary school students.
2. To study the intelligence of secondary school students. 3. To find underachievers in science from secondary school students 4. To explore the relationship between academic achievement in science and intelligence of secondary school students. HYPOTHESES
1. There is no significant difference between academic achievement in science of male and female underachievers in science of secondary schools.
2. There is no significant difference between intelligence of male and female underachievers in science of secondary schools.
3. There is no significant correlation between academic achievement in science and intelligence of secondary school students.
METHODOLOGY
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The present research work was a descriptive study which is correlational in nature. It is concerned with functional relationship between two or more variables. The variables involved in the study were Academic Achievement in science and intelligence. The investigator has found out the correlation among these variables. The investigator visited the schools personally for the administration of the tool. Prior permission of the principals of those schools, from which the sample subjects were selected, was obtained and schedule of administering the test was fixed with them. The academic achievement in science of the students was measured by administering achievement test in science prepared and standardized by the investigator. The intelligence of the students was measured by administering advanced Ravens Progressive matrices.
Population and Sample: The students of class IX selected by random sampling of 9 government and 9 government-aided secondary schools of Faridabad district of Haryana. The sample comprised of 400 underachievers in science selected from 1284 of IX standard secondary school students.
Tools Used: The investigator used the following tools for data collection.
1. Academic Achievement in science of the students was measured by administering achievement test in science prepared by the investigator,
2. Advance Ravens Progressive Matrices was used to measure the intelligence of students.
Procedure of Data Collection: The investigator collected the required data by personally visiting the randomly selected schools of Faridabad for administration of the selected tools. At first academic achievement in science of 1284 students of class IX was measured by administering achievement test in science. Thereafter Advanced
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Ravens Progressive matrices were administered on them to measure their intelligence. The total marks obtained by each and every student in achievement test in science and intelligence were converted into standard scores. The difference between standard scores of achievement test in science and intelligence were calculated. All those students who scored at least 1 standard less score in achievement test in science in comparison to the intelligence test were considered as underachievers in science.
Delimitations of the Study: The study was delimited to:
1. The study was limited to 1284 secondary school students of Faridabad district of Haryana.
2. Secondary school students particularly, class IX was taken for study.
3. The government and Government -aided secondary schools were taken for study. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
The total marks obtained by each and every student in achievement test in science and intelligence were converted into standard scores. The difference between standard scores of achievement test in science and intelligence were calculated. On analyzing the data of achievement test in science and intelligence test of 1284 secondary school students it was observed that 403 (31.38%) students were found to be underachievers in science.
CORRELATION BETWEEN ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND INTELLIGENCE OF UNDERACHIEVERS IN SCIENCE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
A. Correlation between Achievement in Science and Intelligence of Male Underachievers in Science of Government –Aided School Students: The mean score of marks obtained in achievement test in science by male
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underachievers in science of government-aided secondary schools was calculated to be 23.64 with standard deviation 4.31 while mean of marks obtained in intelligence test by them is 35.59 with standard deviation 3.61.
Table-1:Correlation between Achievement in science and intelligence of Male Underachievers in science of Government – aided schools Std. Std. Correlation Scores N Mean Deviatio Error coefficient n Mean Achievement in 100 23.64 4.31 .431 Science .521* Intelligence 100 35.59 3.61 .361 A significant correlation was found between achievement in science and intelligence of male underachievers in science of government –aided schools as calculated coefficient of correlation was found to be 0.521 which is significant at 0.01 and 0.05 levels of significance.
B. Correlation Between Achievement In Science And Intelligence Of Female Underachievers In Science Of Government –Aided School Students: The mean score of marks obtained in achievement test in science by female underachievers in science of government-aided secondary schools was calculated to be 24.34 with standard deviation 4.69 while mean of marks obtained in intelligence by them is 36.74 with standard deviation 3.66. Table-2:Correlation Between Achievement In Science And Intelligence Of Female Underachievers Of Government –Aided Schools Std. Std. Correlation Scores N Mean Deviatio Error coefficient n Mean Achievement in Science 100 24.34 4.69 .469 .407* Intelligence 100 36.74 3.66 .366
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The calculated coefficient of correlation was found to be 0.407 which is significant at 0.01 and 0.05 levels of significance. Thus, it can be concluded that there is significance Correlation between Achievement in science and intelligence of Female Underachievers of Government – aided schools.
C. Correlation between Achievement In Science And Intelligence Of Male Underachievers In Science Of Government Secondary School Students: The mean score of marks obtained in achievement test in science by male underachievers in science of government secondary schools was calculated to be 22.80 with standard deviation 5.82 while mean of marks obtained in intelligence by them is 33.99 with standard deviation 4.95.
Table-3:Correlation Between Achievement In Science And Intelligence Of Male Underachievers In Science Of Government Schools
Std. Std. Correlation Scores N Mean Deviatio Error coefficient n Mean
Achievement in Science 100 22.80 5.82 .582 .941* Intelligence 100 33.99 4.95 .495
The calculated coefficient of correlation between achievement in science and intelligence of male underachievers of government schools was found to be 0.941 which is significant at 0.01 and 0.05 levels of significance. Thus, it can be concluded that there is significance correlation between achievement in science and intelligence of male underachievers of government schools.
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D. Correlation Between Achievement In Science And Intelligence Of Female Underachievers In Science Of Government Secondary School Students: The mean score of marks obtained in achievement test in science by female underachievers in science of government secondary schools was calculated to be 23.08 with standard deviation 5.58 while mean of marks obtained in intelligence by them is 36.09 with standard deviation 4.45.
Table-4:Correlation Between Achievement In Science And Intelligence Of Female Underachievers Of Government Schools
Std. Std. Correlation Scores N Mean Deviatio Error coefficient n Mean
Achievement in Science 100 23.08 5.58 .558 .888* Intelligence 100 36.09 4.45 .445
* Significant at 0.01 and 0.05 level of significance
The calculated coefficient of correlation between achievement in science and intelligence of male underachievers of government schools was found to be 0.888 which is significant at 0.01 and 0.05 levels of significance. Thus, it can be concluded that there is significance correlation between achievement in science and intelligence of male underachievers of government schools.
MAIN FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
The important findings that have emerged out for the analysis and interpretation of data collected for the present study are given below:
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On analyzing the data of achievement test in science and intelligence test of 1284 secondary school students it was observed that 403 (31.38%) students were found to be underachievers in science.
A perfect and significant correlation was found between achievement scores in science and intelligence test scores of male underachievers in science of government-aided secondary schools.
A significant correlation was found between achievement scores in science and intelligence test scores of female underachievers in science of government-aided secondary schools.
There is a significant correlation between achievement scores in science and intelligence test scores of male underachievers in science of government secondary schools.
There is a significant correlation between achievement scores in science and intelligence test scores of female underachievers in science of government secondary schools.
CONCLUSION
Intelligence correlates significantly with academic achievement in science of the students of secondary school as well as male underachievers in science and female underachievers in science taken separately. As far as gender differences concerned it was found that for intelligence and academic achievement gender differences exist. The findings of investigation may provide help to the school personnel, teachers, counselors and guidance workers to develop suitable methods of teaching and instruction so as to develop self-confidence among the secondary school students a contributing factor for developing intelligence which is essential for high academic achievement particularly in science.
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EDUACTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
The analysis and interpretation of data clearly reveal that the Academic Achievement in science of secondary school students is not up to the mark. 31% students were found underachievers in science which is not a good sign for such students because their talent is being wasted. So there is need to raise their academic achievement in science.
Schools provide an important social context to secondary schools, as it in here that they spend a greater part of their waking time on learning about curriculum components. Secondary schools look for freedom, identity, autonomy and connectivity to raise their level of intelligence and achievement in science.
The classroom is a complex social system, in which teachers engage in as many as 1,000 exchanges with students each day. A good teacher responds to the needs of children and their learning.
Development of scientific attitude and to create scientific environment in school is essential to enhance achievement in science. References & Bibliography
1. Aggarwal, J.C (2006), Psychology of learning and development, Shift Publication, Delhi.
2. American Psychological Association (2006), Psychological Abstract (Vol. 93, No.-5), APA Washington.
3. Best, J.W. and Kahn, J.V. (2003). Research in education. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
4. Bindu T.V. Achievers and Non-Discrepant Achievers In Education In 2008-09.
5. Garrett, H.E. (1981). Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vakils, Feffer and Simons Ltd.
6. Mangal, S.K., “Advanced Educational Psychology” Edition, 2001. 7. Wechsler, D. (1944). The measurement of adult intelligence (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
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DEVELOPING ECONOMICS PRESERVES TEACHERS’ GROUP META COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN A COMPUTER SUPPORTED COLLABORATIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Dr. Sneha Raikar Assistant Professor Pillai College of Education & Research Chembur Abstract
This study investigated the development of group metacognition by four small groups of preservice economics teachers (PSETs) engaged in the collaborative construction of computer-based economics lesson planning activity. These four groups were chosen for the group metacognition study because they were anxious about economics teaching. During the six and a half weeks period of the study, the four groups were provided with sets of Metacognitive scaffolds and strategies to facilitate group metacognition. The study found that providing the students with Metacognitive scaffolds and strategies resulted in positive changes in the preservice teachers’ cooperative work and increased levels of knowledge-building activity. The students formed a ‘collective cognitive responsibility’ for their group work and developed an understanding of how to contribute effectively to the knowledge building progress of the group.
Introduction
The focus of this study was on creating and maintaining an economics knowledge-building community of practice. Four groups of preservice teachers within this study were engaged in the task of creating economics lesson plans that could be used for practice teaching lessons. In order to create lesson plans, each group of preservice teachers was required to search for relevant teaching aids, framing developmental
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questions, framing evaluation questions, searching for an activity to be incorporated in the lesson plan. Following the development of their lesson plan, each group of students was required to post their lesson plan into Meta-Studio, a computer supported collaborative learning environment (CSCL) that enables PSETs to share their lesson plans with other group’s lesson plans. Thus, following the posting of their own lesson plan, each group of students looked at the lesson plans the other groups had posted on Meta-Studio and provided constructive feedback (such as comments, rating, questions, suggestions) to the other groups about their lesson plans. They also simultaneously engaged in the process of iteratively revising and improving their lesson plans based on the feedback they received from the other groups of students.
While several studies have suggested that groups are more productive than individuals (Archer-Kath & Johnson, 1994; Johnson & Johnson, 1999), not all groups are co-operative (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). It was apparent to all involved in this study that the majority of PSETs needed to improve their group work skills, as they were not working co- operatively. One group in particular was dysfunctional and was having a deleterious effect on the overall functioning of the learning community. Therefore, the major aim of this study was to investigate how the introduction of group metacognitive strategies to these four groups of students would affect their group work at computers. This study also aimed to discover the nature of group Metacognitive knowledge by describing how group behaviours changed due to the Metacognitive experience.
Conceptual framework for the study
The conceptual framework for this study was derived from research literature from the fields of metacognition, group work, and computer- supported collaborative learning (CSCL). A review of the research
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literature from the field of metacognition revealed that group metacognition can be scaffolded in these three ways: 1) knowledge about learning processes and strategies being explicitly taught (Hartman, 2001; Schraw, 2001; Wilson & Johnson, 2000; Xiaodong, 2001); 2) metacognitive strategies such as planning, monitoring and evaluating being promoted by introducing self reflection of learning through the use of tools such as a diary (Blakey & Spence, 1990; Wilson & Johnson, 2000) and checklists (Tombari & Borich, 1999) the creation of a supportive social environment in which students can practice and evaluate their use of metacognitive strategies(Gourgey, 2001; Xiaodong, 2001). Research conducted regarding group work indicates that: 1) Working together in a problem solving group means that an effort must be made in order to help all group members understand the task (Johnson, Johnson, & Johnson-Holubec, 1993); 2) Students need to encourage one another’s learning and feel responsible for helping each other for the sake of the group product (Cohen, 1994). Research from the field of CSCL indicates that: 1) The type of CSCL task determines how students co-operatively work around the computer (Bennet & Dunne, 1992); 2) Students need to metacognitively consider their group work as a component of group problem-solving around the computer (Antaki & Lewis, 1986); 3) When students are engaged in knowledge building activity within a CSCL environment, they need to take responsibility for metacognitive functions (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1989; Scardamalia, in press); and 4) How students communicate and behave around the computer also influences group learning (Crook, 1999; Light & Littleton, 1999).
The conceptual framework shows effective group metacognition requires three important factors. First, social skills and group roles need to be scaffolded in order to assist groups’ co-operative processes. Second, the metacognitive strategies of planning, monitoring, and
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evaluating are important in fostering metacognition. Finally, a supportive environment needs to be fostered in which PSETs are motivated and receive positive feedback. These three factors form the conceptual basis for the interventions employed in this study.
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework
The Study
Because the major focus of this study was on the co-operation aspects of group problem solving rather than the problem solving per se, using the lesson planning activity, the researcher placed preservice economics teachers in a well designed research setting. Aspects of a teaching experiment approach were incorporated into the study in order to study the influence of group metacognition instruction on the co-operative groups (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2000). The Purposive Convenient Sampling Technique was used as this study revolved around PSETs from Pillai College of Education & Research, Chembur. The total
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samples thus selected were 20 PSETs consisted of 18 females and 2 male members. Participants were Graduates as well as post graduates. Three sources of data were utilized in this study: 1) Biographical information, 2) Lesson plans, 3) Meta studio data base.
In this section, three main aspects of this setting were described: selection of the topic as per the perceived difficulty of economics concepts of the PSET, the details of the lesson preparation task; and the Meta studio data base by preservice economics teachers.
1. Selection of topics:
Each participant’s perceived difficulty of economic concepts was determined. Following this, the participants were divided into groups of four. Each group consisted of five PSETs. The topics about economics were delivered to 4 groups according to their difficulty level. The four economic concepts were from Std. IX (SSC) which are as follows:
a)Introduction to Economics, b) Basic concepts of Economics, c) Sources of Income, d)Family Budget
The researcher further divided the topics into 20 sub-units. All twenty PSETs were given the topic as per their perceived difficulty level.
2. Details of the lesson preparation task:
In the first face-to-face meeting PSETs were allotted into small groups of four with whom they collaborated as a team throughout the study. These self-selected groups were formed on the basis of the pragmatics of practice teaching groups. In order to assist PSETs with the development of their lesson plans, they were introduced to the functions of CSCL software called Meta Studio. The purpose for using metastudio was that it provides an effective platform facilitating learning that is centred on ideas and deeper levels of understanding. Also a safe environment where PSETs interpretations were revealed and shared as afforded by Meta studio provide PSETs with a sense of
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ownership over what and how they interpret and make sense of their own learning. After the completion of group lesson planning activity, the PSETs were required to a) post the lesson plans on Metastudio, b) make comments on other PSETs/group’s lesson plans, c) rate PSETs / group lesson plans.
3. Meta studio data base
To examine the contributions of the PSETs to the Meta-Studio lesson planning activity, a coding scheme was used with four dimensions: cognitive, affective, regulative contributions, and Non-task-related remarks. Participation in the CSCL environment was defined in terms of the number of written notes produced by the participating groups. Two levels of elaboration were distinguished and used to characterize the contributions of the students in the database: high- versus low- level elaboration. A high percentage build-on notes indicates a high level of Collaboration. To explore the extent to which discussions were sustained or endured, the length of a discussion thread in the present study was defined as the number of notes, including the initial note and all replies.
The research study proceeded in two phases: 1) Direct instruction of group learning skills, 2) Development of group metacognition skills.
Direct instruction of group learning skills: In order for the groups to incorporate effective co-operative behaviours around forty lesson plans were prepared using CSCL environment over a period of three weeks. The activity required them to know about to get hands on training in operating Meta-studio and to then post the lesson plans to be used for the online activity. The activity was scaffolded by sets of explicit instructions.
Development of group metacognition skills: This online collaboration involved each member of a group in the processes of generating and posting lesson plans on to the Meta-Studio discussions,
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providing questions, comments and propositions to other members of the group via the Meta-studio. During this, the PSETs had begun to establish a stronger community and had recognized among themselves some changes that would help the meta-studio discussion after posting of every lesson, and exchanges. At the end of every lesson, face-to-face interaction was held with four main components: a) sharing of reflections; b) exchange of lesson plans; c) sharing of meta-studio discussions, and d) exchange of ideas of new lessons for the next day.
Results and Discussion
Analysis of data from the Meta studio data base of groups co- operatively working indicated that a number of new group behaviours were adopted by each of four groups in order for their group to work effectively. As the study proceeded, positive group behaviours such as encouraging others, being nice to other group members and listening and being supportive of other group members were seen to develop. These changes to their group behaviours were clearly reflected in the Meta studio data base.
A total number of 97 notes were contributed to the meta-studio discussion during the study. The result shows 61.9% of all the contributions to the meta-studio discussion to be of a cognitive nature followed by 19.6% of a regulative contribution and 12.3% of affective contributions. 6.2% of the contributions were non- related. As presented in the figure given below, most of the cognitive contributions were found to be high- level elaborations with low-level elaborations occurring less frequently. With regard to the high-level elaborations, the most frequently occurring categories were: lesson planning, Giving answers, providing information. Regulative categories were: execution of the task, distribution of task, commenting on the group process, monitoring the conduct of the task. Affective category indicated lesson planning critiquing and the last category was non related task.
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Notes per Number of notes per dimension group
Group Cognitive 1(29) Dimensio ns (60) Group 2(22)
Summary and Conclusions
The results from this study indicate that providing the four groups with knowledge of group skills and metacognitive scaffolds resulted in more efficient group work. The students built an understanding that their co-operative process could be improved through the use of relevant metacognitive group strategies including planning, monitoring, and evaluating. By planning which group skills would be focused on, PSETs were able to identify group skills that needed to be improved. PSETs were also able to monitor and evaluate their group’s success, discarding inappropriate group skills. As the study progressed, the groups assumed increasing responsibility for planning and regulating their group learning through the use of lesson planning activity in CSCL environment, building on past group understanding and collaboratively refining ideas on effective groups (Hyde & Hyde, 1991). By having choices on what skills to incorporate, and by recognizing certain group behaviours as promoting more effective group work, PSETs continued to use them. Previously exhibited non-functional behaviours such as anxiety, disruption, aggression, or withdrawal from the group, were mainly replaced with positive functional group behaviours, as members were encouraged to participate and group members constantly clarified the group goal. Individual group member’s perception of their contribution to the group also improved. The groups reflected this
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increased cohesiveness in improved knowledge building. These findings are consistent with those of previous cooperative learning and metacognitive research, which have shown that students benefit from the explicit instruction of both co-operative group skills and metacognition strategies (Flavell, 1976; Johnson & Johnson, 1993; Tombari & Borich, 1999; Xiaodong, 2001).
Because of the improved functioning of these four groups, by the end of this study each group was able to make significant contributions to the knowledge-building activity of the whole community engaged in the process of constructing economics lesson plans within the context of a CSCL environment. For example, by the end of the study, each group had posted to the CSCL environment more than forty lessons. They also had forwarded many constructive feedback notes that assisted other groups in the process of improving their lesson plans. Therefore, by the end of the study, the four groups had become legitimate participants in the CSCL-mediated learning community contributing to the advancement of knowledge by the whole community.
References
Chai, C.S., Tan, S.C. (2009). Professional Development of Teachers for Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning: A Knowledge-Building Approach. Retrieved from http://www.tcrec ord.org/Con tent.as p?Co ntentId=15239 Gillies, R. (2000). The maintenance of co-operative and helping behaviours in co- operative Group s. The B ritish Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 15. Nazeer, A. (2006). Teaching economics at secondary school level in the Maldives: a cooperative learning model. Retrieved from http://resea rchco m mons.waikato.ac.nz/handle/10289/2540 Nurmela, K., Lehtinen, E., Palonen, T. Evaluating CSCL log files by social network analysis. Retrieved from http://dl.ac m.org/c itat ion.cfm?id=1150294
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PROGRESS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN VARANASI DISTRICT(WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN) Dr. Ramesh Dhar Dwivedi Associate Professor Dept. of Teacher Education Udai Pratap College, Varanasi
Education has been conceived as basis for ensuring dignity of human life. It is the most important element for growth and prosperity of a nation. Primary education acts like a framework over which entire building of education is erected. Primary schools are potential nurseries for all round development of a child because school education involves the formatived years in person's life. The beautiful mansion of life is built on the foundations that are laid at this particular stage.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is a comprehensive and integrated flagship programme of Government of India to attain Universal Elementary Education (UEE), covering the entire country in a mission mode. SSA has been launched in 2001-2002 in partnership with the State Governments and Local Self Governments. The programme aims to provide useful and relevant, elementary education to all children in the 6 to 14 age group by 2010. It is an initiative to universalize and improve quality of education through decentralized and context specific planning and a process based, time bound implementation strategy. The programme lays emphasis on bridging all gender and social category gaps at elementary education level with time bound objectives. On one hand, SSA is a programme with its own targets, norms and processes and on the other it is an umbrella programme covering other programmes like District Primary Education Programme (DPEP), Lok Jumbish, Operational Blackboard, etc. The gigantic dimensions of the programme and the financial implications call for a meticulous planning and a rigorous appraisal.
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India has made long strides in the last 50 years in the field of education. The National Policy on Education 1986 and Programme of Action 1992 also accorded top priority for achieving the goals of Universal Elementary Education. A number of programmes / schemes were launched during the last four decades for Universalisation of elementary education. Some of these efforts have been in the field of primary education and a few also covering upper primary sector. Due to these interventions, initiated by Government of India and the respective state Governments, there has been considerable progress in providing access, improving retention and the quality improvement in primary education sector. However, much needs to be done for the special focus groups, and the upper primary sector. Quality improvement still remains a major concern, especially for upper primary sector. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is an attempt to fill this vacuum and covers all the districts in the country unlike the earlier programmes on elementary education. The programme covers the whole gamut of elementary education sector and is flexible enough to incorporate new interventions like specific interventions for girls, e.g., NPEGEL, Kasturba Gandhi Programme.
SSA adopts, “the bottom-up” process of planning, wherein the felt needs of the served communities and educational needs of learners are well taken care of and the plan fits into the broad framework of SSA. In view of the fact that the desired improvement and sustenance of the improved efficiency level cannot be achieved without the active involvement of the community in the schooling system, SSA has emphasized the involvement of local people & stakeholders in planning. This also ensures reflection of local specificity, which is essential for achieving the goals of the programme.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is an attempt to provide quality education to all children through active participation of community in a mission mode. The major characteristics of SSA are:
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• A programme with a clear time frame for universal elementary education.
• A response to the demand for quality basic education all over the country.
• An opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education. • An effort at effectively involving the Panchayati Raj Institutions, School Management Committees, Village and Urban Slum Level Education Committees, Parents' Teachers' Associations, Mother Teacher Associations, Tribal Autonomous Councils and other grass roots level structures in the management of elementary schools.
• An expression of political will for universal elementary education across the country.
• A partnership between the Central, State and local government • An opportunity for States to develop their own vision of elementary education. Aims and objectives of SSA
The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan aims to provide useful and relevant elementary education for all children in the 6 to 14 age group by 2010. There is also another goal to bridge social, regional and gender gaps, with the active participation of the community in the management of schools. Following are the main objectives of SSA:
• All children in school, Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate School, 'Back-to-School' camp by 2003. • All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007. • All children complete eight years of elementary schooling by 2010. • Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on education for life. • Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at elementary education level by 2010. • Universal retention by 2010.
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As we know, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is time bound, centrally sponsored scheme in partnership of states to achieve the goal of Universal Elementary Education. As the time is going to end, it is necessary to evaluate the programme at different levels and aspects.
Ever since its inception Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) programme has emphasised decentralised planning of education with a focus on district planning thus adopting down top approach to planning with habitation as a unit for planning. Elementary Education in India - District Report Cards developed by NUEPA annually provide district and subdistrict level school data for planning, nonitoring and review of various project interventions. These sets of data has been used in planning for good quality elementary education at different levels. In addition, they also provide a number of indicators which may safely be used for providing research based interventions under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. Progress of Elementary Education in Varanasi District based on available DISE, report with special reference to SSA has been discussed under following headings:
(1) ENHANCEMENT IN SCHOOLING FACILITIES:-
To provide free and compulsory education for every child in age group of 6-14 years, the first and foremost requirement is the availability of schools. Large number of schools are being opened every year to cater schooling needs of un served habitates throughout the country and Varanasi district too is not lagging behind. Enhancement in the schooling facilities in the Varanasi district after introduction of SSA has been given in Table-1.
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Table : 1- Status of Category wise Schools
Category/ 2002- 2004- 2006- 2008- 2010- 2013- 2015- Year 03 05 07 09 11 14 16 Total No. 1170 1525 1718 1954 2064 2420 2488 of Schools Govt. 1109 1243 1279 1392 1410 1400 1400 Schools Private 01 282 439 562 654 1020 1088 Schools Primary 929 1076 1185 1270 1316 1361 1370 only It is clearly evident from the table-1 that number of schools has gone up radically after the year 2002-03. It is observed that about 350 schools were opened in the next two years and about 100-150 schools were opened in every subsequent years. It is also obvious from the table that about 60% of total schools of the district run by Government. There seems some inconsistency among data pertaining to private schools. The possible reason for this may be the fact that certain schools and management have considered this exercise as one time data collection process. Hence, they may not have responded in the subsequent years. The second reason may be the fact that district has witnessed mushrooming growth of private institution of elementary education which may not have obtained the recognition of Basic Shiksha Parishad. Also, there is no punitive arrangement for schools run by private management for not providing relevant data under DISE project, this inconsistency is difficult to remove. It is also remarkable that progress in primary schools, are more rapid than other category. Thus, condition regarding schools is satisfactory as norm of primary schools at 1 Km. distance.
(2) STATUS OF ENROLMENT IN SCHOOLS:-
A school is an useless building unless it has sufficient enrolment of student. In the present study we have tried to assess the status of
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enrolment in schools. Due to inconsistency in providing the data by private institutions, enrolment of students in government primary schools have been taken up for study. Table-2 presents the relevant data.
Table : 2– Status of Enrolment in Schools
Category/Ye 2002-03 2004-05 2006-07 2008-09 2010-11 2013-14 2015-16 ar Total 242391 286689 314889 284560 204607 157372 212448 Enrolment % Girls 50.4 50.4 50.3 50.6 50.5 49.5 49.6 % SC 25.6 23.9 22.3 22.3 23.9 22.2 22.5 enrolment % SC Girls 48.6 49.1 48.9 48.9 48.9 48.3 48.4 % ST 0 0.1 0.015 0.03 0.045 0.251 0.4 enrolment % ST girls to 47.7 48.9 54.9 33.3 53.8 42.7 45.6 ST enrolment % OBC N.A. N.A. 67.7 68.3 67.4 66.6 65.4 enrolment % OBC girls to N.A. N.A. 50.6 50.3 50.6 49.6 49.3 OBC enrolment GER 50.5 58.8 76.8 73.8 73.5 81.2 83.43 It is evident from the data that about 34000 new student were admitted in the year 2003-04, 10500 the year 2004-05, 13500 in year 2005-06 and 15000 in 2006-07. This trend is similar to the trend of opening of new schools. In the session 2007-08, and 2008-09 enrolment is about 16000 and 14000 less than just respective previous year 2006- 07 and 2007-08. This declining trend shows that in the initial year of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, the numbers of children out of school were more and as a result of initiative taken in SSA, large numbers of new students were admitted in schools. In the subsequent years left over children were less and hence the growth rate of enrolment has shown a declining trend. Other reasons for this decline in enrolment may be the quality of education in the government primary schools, duplicity in enrolment, and stoppage of scholarships.
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We have also tried to study the enrolment trend of students category wise as well as sex wise. The data pertaining to OBC category was available only from the year 2005-06. Girl's enrolment shows consistant patterns i.e. about 50% of the total enrolment are girls. A close analysis of the data from 2005-06 gives an impression that approximately 90% student belong to the reserved categories like SC and OBC. Only 10-12% general students are taking admission in the government primary schools. This requires a serious thought on the part of state and central government.
To understand overall trend of growth in student enrolment, a more scientific indicator, Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) has also been considered. The GER has been calculated using formula :-
GER = Total Enrolment in Grade I-V x 100
Population of age 6-11 years
The GER in the table-2 indicated that during the last 7 years it has gone up from 50.5% to 83.8%. However, the target of GER under SSA was 100% by the year 2003 and it was desired that all the students would complete 5 years of schooling by the year 2007. In this condition, it is obvious that about 16% students are still not able to complete their primary schooling. This is not a good symptom for the government and society too.
(3) DEPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS :-
Only erecting school buildings can not provide education to students. It is the teachers who are the pivot of the system. Table-3 gives an account of deployment of teachers in elementary schools during last 7 years. It is observed from the table that number of teachers have increased sharply in the year 2003-04 and 2005-06. During these years special drive for recruitment of teachers were launched. Also, the Govt. has a policy to post at least para teachers in a school. Average number
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of teachers per school is also improving showing at least 5 teachers per school. A process of selection of teacher is still in progress. However a disturbing fact is that the deployment of teachers in schools is not proper. The main problem is the geographical situation of the district.
Every teacher wants to be posted in a school which is on the road and near city head quarter where he/she can get certain more allowances. It is therefore, required that the posting of teacher should be done on rotation basis and they may be transferred to remote villages compulsorily for a year or two. This policy will not put hardship on any particular teacher and closed schools will get teachers for their smooth functioning.
Table : 3- Status of Teacher's Deployment in School
Category/Ye 2002-03 2004-05 2006-07 2008-09 2010-11 2013-14 2015-16 ar Total 4512 4837 6697 6558 7047 8312 8304 Teachers Govt. 4348 4335 5402 5282 5456 6186 6097 Private 164 502 995 1276 1591 2126 2207 Regular 3759 3625 5159 4875 5211 6492 7598 Teacher Para Teacher 753 1212 1538 1683 1836 1820 706 Average No. of ... 4.5 5.7 5.2 5.4 6.0 6.1 Teachers Pupil-teacher 54 59 47 43 39 28 27 ratio % Female 36.8 40.5 42.2 43.9 46.5 50.8 51 Teacher % Single 3.1 5.9 1.7 2.8 1.2 0.3 0.4 Teacher School % Schools 8.3 12.5 6.3 4.2 ------with PTR>100 % No Female 24.7 16.8 13.9 10.4 7.4 6.0 -- teacher School Pupil teacher ratio and percentage of female teacher is a major indicator of quality of elementary education. An ideal percentage of these indicates is 40 for PTR and 50 for female teacher. The PTR for
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the district as is evident from the Table-3, was 54 in the year 2002-03 and 57, 59, 47, 43, 39, 28 and 27 in the subsequent reported years. Percentage of female teacher in the schools has also increased during the period under review. Only 36.8 female teachers were in position during 2002-03 which has gone upto 43.9 in the year 2008-09 and 51 in 2015-16. . The problem of suitable or difficult posting is more with female teachers. It is the policy of the government to recruit 50% females of the total teacher's positions and the district has reached this level.
A more serious problem with primary schools which is affecting its quality is single teaches schools. In the year 2002-03, 3.1% schools had only one teacher in position but this situation is improving satisfactorily and only 0.4% schools are falling in this category.
(4) Availability of Physical facilities :-
Here, needless to state that the existence of congenial physical environment is basic not only for an effective transaction of the curricular inputs but also for ensuring healthy conditions for the children and teacher during schools hours.
.Table-4 : Status of primary Schools having various facilities
Category/Ye 2002- 2004- 2006- 2008- 2010- 2013- 2015- ar 03 05 07 09 11 14 16
Student 63 59 49 40 37 28 27 Classroom ratio (SCR)
% Single 2.7 2.0 2.1 2.0 2.2 0.6 0.5 classroom Schools
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% Schools -- 99.4 100.00 100.00 100 100 100 with B.B.
% schools with -- 96.1 100.00 100.00 100 100 99.1 drinking water facilities
% schools with 86.1 90.00 93.2 95.0 6.1 -- -- common toilet
% schools with 74.2 86.9 90.0 91.5 95.1 98.5 97.4 girls toilet
A major indicator of quality of elementary education is student classroom ratio(SCR). Every student should get sufficient space in the school. Ideally 35 to 40 students should be seated in a classroom
The SCR for district, as obvious from the table:5 was 63 in the year 2002-03 and 61, 59, 52, 49, 43 and 40 in subsequent years. Thus, SCR Blackboard and drinking water facilities have almost fulfilled. There are still 2% single classroom schools till 2008-09, needs attention of government. Condition regarding toilet, drinking water facilities seem to satisfactory but our question is about the quality of these facilities.
When we trace progress of elementary education at different aspect within this stipulated time period of SSA we find that no. of schools, infrastructure, pupil teacher ratio, female teacher ratio, school class room ratio etc. seem to be satisfactory as norm of SSA. But as we noticed about deployment of teachers, toilet and drinking water facilities, comparatively less enrolment of general category students etc. need immediate attention of government and society also. It should be appreciable, stride that made in provision of primary education in quantitative terms, our understanding of the quality parameters of elementary education has remained poor.
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References:
• Mehta, A.C. (2004). Elementary Education in India: District Report Cartds 2002-03, New Delhi. NUEPA.
• Mehta, A.C. (2006). Elementary Education in India: District Report Cartds 2004-05, New Delhi. NUEPA.
• Mehta, A.C. (2008). Elementary Education in India: District Report Cartds 2006-07, New Delhi. NUEPA.
• Mehta, A.C. (2010). Elementary Education in India: District Report Cartds 2008-09, New Delhi. NUEPA.
• Mehta, A.C. (2012). Elementary Education in India: District Report Cartds 2008-09, New Delhi. NUEPA.
• Mehta, A.C. (2015). Elementary Education in India: District Report Cartds 2008-09, New Delhi. NUEPA.
• http://www.dise.in
• http://www.schoolreportcards.in
• http://www.nuepa.org
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RULE BASED APPROACHFOR TRANSLITRATION OF ENGLISH TO TIGRIGNA Gebremedhin Hailu Dr. Gurpreet Singh Josan Lecturer Assistant Professor Department of Computer Science Department of Computer Science Arbaminch University, Ethiopia and Engineering Punjabi University, Patiala
Abstract Machine transliteration has come out to be an emerging and a very important research area in the field of machine translation. Accurate transliteration of named entities plays an important role in the performance of machine translation and cross-language information retrieval. The purpose of this article is for transliteration of English to Tigrigna language.There are many challenges in transliteration of roman script to Tigrigna script, like character gap in both the scripts. This paper discussRule based transliteration system that consists of collection of rules based up on grammar, lexicon. This paper focuses about the issues of rule based approach of transliteration from English to Tigrigna language. Our system is evaluated by using word accuracy rate. The experimental results show that our research effectively achieves 90.9% accuracy. Keywords:-Transliteration, Transliteration Rules and Transliteration Algorithms I. Introduction Transliteration is the process of converting one language script to another language script. Using this system of transliteration we can convert for example roman script like a,b,c to another target language script which are converted to characters that have similar pronunciation in the target language. There are list of candidate transliterations that consists in representing the characters of a given script by the characters of another.For example, consider word in source language ‘selam’which is tokenized into transliterated units ‘s’ ’e’ l’ ‘a’ ‘m’, and these units are transliterated into target language units ‘ሰ’ ‘ላ’ ‘ም’ and finally these target transliterated units into final target language word
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‘ሰላም’.Transliteration and transcription are opposite to each other. Transcription maps the sounds of one language to script of another language. Transliteration maps the letters of source script to letters of pronounced similarly in target script. Transliteration is particularly used to transliterate proper names, name entities and technical terms from languages. Translation is the action of interpretation of the meaning of a text and subsequent production of an equivalent text also called a translation that communicates the same message in another language. Like Transcription and transliteration, Transliteration and translation are both different. Transliteration maps the letters of source script to letters of pronounced similarly in target script. Transliteration is particularly used to translate proper names and technical terms from languages. II.Machine Transliteration Approaches Various techniques for transliteration are being used, each having its own advantages and disadvantages 2.1 Grapheme based Models These models are the basic unit of a written language that has its own meaning or grammatical importance. In these models, transliteration is viewed as a process of mapping a grapheme sequence from a source language to a target language ignoring the phoneme level processes. So, they are also called direct methods.Rule based approach is an example of grapheme based model 2.1.1 Rule based Approach It is a transliteration system that consists of collection of rules called grammar rules, lexicon and software programs to process the rules. This approach is the first strategy ever developed in the field of machine transliteration. Rule Based Machine Transliteration has much to do with morphological, syntactic and semantic information about the source and target language. Linguistic rules are built over this information. Rules play major role in various stages of translation: syntactic processing, semantic interpretation, and contextual processing of language. Rule based transliteration is based on linguistic information about source and target languages. In this approach, human experts specify a set of rules, aiming at describing the translation process. It then applies rules that map the grammatical
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segments of the source sentence to a represent tation in the target language.Interlingual RBMT systems use an abstract meaning. Transliteration in rule based system is done by pattern matching of the rules. The success lies in avoiding the pattern matching of unfruitful rules. General world knowledge is required for solving interpretation problems such as disambiguation [12]. Deep and Goyal (2011) have proposed Punjabi to English transliteration system using rule based approach [15]. Goyal and Lehal (2009) have developed Hindi to Punjabi transliteration system using rule based approach. They have implemented various rules for Hindi to Punjabi transliteration [5]. 2.2Phoneme based Models They are the model which is the smallest significant unit of sound and the smallest contrastive units of spoken language. Grapheme based models work by directly transforming source language graphemes into target language graphemes without explicitly utilizing phonology in the bilingual mapping. Dhore et al. (2012) “he/she stated a phonetic approach for Hindi to English and Marathi to English transliteration [16]”. “To improve Punjabi to Hindi transliteration, Josan and Lehal (2010) have employed phonetic matching technique”. They have performed character mapping based on phonetic sounds [3] 2.3 Hybrid Models Transliteration is a complex process, which does not rely on either phoneme or source grapheme. Hybrid model is the combination of two or more transliteration approaches for a better result. These approaches simply combine the grapheme based transliteration probability and the phoneme based transliteration probability using linear interpolation. Lee and Choi (1998) have proposed English to Korean transliteration system. “They have proposed a hybrid method that is more effective for transliteration”. They have used statistical machine translation as a base system for both direct and pivot method [20]. III.Introduction to Languages This study is restricted to the language pair English -Tigrigna.So this section briefly discuss the language pair under study as below:
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3.1 English Language English was first spoken language in west Germen in the early medieval period. It is now becomes a global language and it is named after the person called Angela who is one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England. It is ultimately drives its name from the Angela in the Baltic Sea.English is either the official language or one of the official language in almost 60 sovereign states English is almost spoken in United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, Ireland, NewZealand and it is also spoken language in Africa, south Asia English is one of the widely learned second language and official language of the United Nations, European Union, and many of other regional organizations It has aleast 70%of speaker’s Indo-European branch
3.2 Tigrigna (ትግርኛ) language Tigrigna also known as Tigrinya is a member of the Ethiopic branch of Semitic languages with about 6 million speakers mainly in the Tigrayregion of Ethiopia and the whole Eritrea. There are also large immigrant communities of Tigrigna speakers in USA, Saudi Arabia, the Sudan, Italy t UK, Germany, Canada and Sweden, as well as in other countries. The language Tigrigna is written using the version of the Geez script and first appeared in writing during the 13th century in a text on the local laws for the district of Logosarda in southern Eritrea. Tigrigna is Afro-asiatic language of the Semitic branch. It is mainly spoken in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia in the Horn of Africa, with around 7,915,000 total speakers. 3.3Advantages of Transliterating from roman to Tigrigna scrispt The main advantage of Tigrigna language is for communicating among peoples and sharing their messages among people each other.
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The need of transliteration of from roman to Tigrigna script is expressed below:-
Native speakers of Tigrigna want to search different books, different articles and journals which are written in English and other foreign languages from library. In case those native speakers of Tigrigna may not understand this foreign language so that by the helping of transliteration system from roman script to Tigrigna script they can easily search the books and different journals from library without any difficulty by using Tigrigna script.
Native speakers of Tigrigna may useinternet café to order different food items and drink items which is prepared on the top restaurant menu but the menu may be written in English and another foreign languages. Due to that native speakers can’t understand this foreign language so that by the helping of the transliteration system of roman script to Tigrigna script they can easily order foods and drinks bywithout any difficulty by using Tigrigna script.
Native speakers of Tigrigna may want reading different international news and different magazines but those things are written in English and other foreign languages. Due to that they can’t read because of language barrier. So that by the helping of transliteration system from roman script to Tigrigna script they can easily read the international news and different magazines without any difficulty by using Tigrigna script 3.4 English to Tigrigna consonant mapping Table 3.4 English consonant and Tigrigna consonant alphabets English Tigrigna English Tigrigna consonant consonant consonant consonant alphabet alphabet alphabet alphabet B በ M መ C Q ቀ and ቐ D ደ P ፐ F ፈ R ረ
G ገ S ሰ and ሠ H ሀ, ሐ and ኀ T ተ and ጠ
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J ጀ V ቨ K ከ W ወ L ለ N ነ X አ Y የ Z ዘ 3.5English to Tigrigna vowel mapping
Table 3.5 English consonant and Tigrigna vowel alphabets
English Tigrigna vowel vowel
A ኣ E ኤand እ
I ኢ O ኦ U ኡ IV. Issues/problems of transliteration of English to Tigrigna Transliteration is difficult in both English and Tigrigna languages due to following reasons:
One -to-Multi mapping Problem: Here a single character in one script is transforming to multiple characters in another script. The one to multi Problem is associated with following characters as shown in Table. For example, character ‘q’ in English language can be transliterated into two characters in Tigrigna, ‘ቀ’ and ‘ቐ’, character ‘h’ in English language can be transliterated into two characters in Tigrigna ‘ሐ’ and ‘character k in English can be transliterated into character ከ and ኸ. Multi-to-One map problem: The problem here is that multiple characters in one character set leads to single character in another character set. This problem makes transliteration process difficult. This problem is associated with characters shown in a list tables below. For example, in following name, the combination of two characters
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‘tse’ in English language forms the single character in Tigrigna language ’ፀ’and the combination of two characters she creates character ሸ Double occurrence of certain characters The problem here is that a double character in in English leads to single character in Tigrigna . This problem makes transliteration process difficult. For example the English characters ‘ss’ maps to a single Tigrigna character ‘ሰ’ and the English characters ‘mm’ maps to a single Tigrigna character ‘መ’ Example the city name in English ‘assosa’ maps to ‘ኣሶሳ’ in Tigrigna and the city name in English ‘jimma’ maps to ‘ጂማ’in Tigrigna . V. Previous work
Machine transliteration has received significant research attention in recent years. Many transliteration applications are done still now specially in foreign languages but is it not that much in local languages for example Tigrigna language.
Gurpreet Singh Josan and Gurpreet Singh Lehal [1] presented a novel approach to improve Punjabi to Hindi transliteration by combining a basic character to character mapping approach with rule based and Soundex based enhancements. The results show that following the rule based followed by Soundex approach produces the best results and the words can be transliterated with considerable accuracy. A fully accurate transliteration system is not possible due to the inherent problems, missing corresponding letters in two scripts. Although it is possible to transliterate across the scripts preserving the basic sounds of the source language, there will be some variations because the word in the source script may be pronounced somewhat differently in the target script, as per local conventions in each region.
Fujii and Ishikawa [2] describe a transliteration system for English-Japanese cross language IR that requires some linguistic knowledge. They evaluate the effectiveness of their system on an English-Japanese cross language IR task. The problem they look at is somewhat different from the one we
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address, as they only attempted to produce one acceptable translation per word. In Japanese, foreign words are written in a special orthography so it is easy to select which words to transliterate. Our research differs in that our system requires no linguistic knowledge or heuristics. We perform a similar evaluation of our system on the retrieval task and also compare our system with other bilingual resources
Arbabi et al. [3] Developed a hybrid neural network and knowledge-based system to generate multiple English spellings for Arabic person names.
Knight and Graehl [4] developed a five stage statistical model to do back transliteration, that is, recover the original English name from its transliteration into Japanese Katakana.
Stalls and Knight[5] adapted this approach for back transliteration from Arabic to English of English names. These systems are very complex, involving a great deal of human design, probably because they were dealing with a more difficult problem than that of forward transliteration. However, as the Milosevic example reveals, forward transliteration for information retrieval is not as simple as the problem of forward transliteration for machine translation, in which one reasonable transliteration is good enough.
Veerpal Kaur, Amandeep kaurSarao and JagtarSingh [6] published a comprehensive survey and proposed a system for transliteration purpose using Statistical machine translation approach. The proposed system works in two phases. First phase comprises of System Training Phase and second is System Transliteration Phase.
Deepti Bhalla, Nisheeth Joshi and ItiMathur[7] developed transliteration system for English-Punjabi language pair using rule based approach. They have constructed some rules for syllabification. Syllabification is the process to extract or separate the syllable from the words. In this they have calculated the probabilities for name entities (Proper names and location). For those words which do not come under the category of name
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Gurpreet Singh and JagroopKaur [8] described the transliteration system build on statistical techniques. They worked on the combinations of approaches and the baseline model produces 73.13% accuracy rate and Statistical method shown 87.72% accuracy rate.
Navneet Garg, Vishal Goyal and SumanPreet[9] described the part of speech tagger using rule based technique. Tokenized words are searched in the database and if not found then appropriate rules are applied. There is problem in handling the words that can act as both common noun and proper nouns.
Er.Sukhnandan kaur, Ms.RupinderKaur and Er.NidhiBhalla [10] presented a system based on hybrid approach. They proposed the architecture of the hybrid system used for transliteration and this architecture reduces the rate of error in transliteration system to a great extent.
Kamaljeet Kaur Batra and G. S. Lehal[11] developed a system to translate simple sentences in legal domain from Punjabi to English using rule based approach of translation. The steps involved are preprocessing, tagging, ambiguity Resolution, phrase chunking, translation and synthesis of words in target language. The accuracy is calculated for different phases of the system and the overall accuracy of the system for a particular type of sentences is about 60%.
Darwish et al. [12] described a transliterator used for TREC- 2001, but provided no evaluation of it effectiveness. Most prior work in Arabic-related transliteration has been for the purpose of machine translation, and for Arabic/English transliteration.
AlOnaizan and Knight [13] have produced a simpler Arabic/English transliterator and evaluates how well their system can match a source spelling. Their work includes an evaluation of the transliterations in terms of their.
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VI.Design and implementation The system architecture, giveninfigure5.1, consists of various stages through which source language text has to be passed to be converted into target language.
VII. Rules and algorithms of the proposed system In this topic rules and algorithms are discussed 7.1. Rules of transliterating from Roman script to Tigrigna script
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Now, while mapping these characters, as same English character are mapped to different Tigrigna character depending on their position in a word. 7.1.1 Rules for a character at first position Only direct mapping is not sufficient for transliteration, which may lead to very low accuracy of the system. Due to that the following rules are proposed for the character when they occur at first position in a word. Rule 1: If starting token of the string in English file is ‘a’, it should be transliterated into ‘አ’.For example name ‘abebe’ should be transliterated into ‘አበበ’ but if it doesn’t start by ‘a’ it will display another word that starts not by ‘a’. Example if it is starts by ‘b’ it should transliterated to ‘በ ‘example the English word ‘belay’ is transliterated to the Tigrigna word ‘በላይ’ Under this category there are 6 rules followed. For example the word ‘abebe’ has 3 rules a+be+be and the word ‘belay’ has 3 rules be+la+y Rule 2: If starting token of string in English file is ‘i’, it should be transliterated into ‘ኢ’ .for example person name ‘isayas ‘ should be transliterated into ‘ኢሳያስ’. But if it doesn’t start by ‘I’ it will display another word that starts not by ‘I’. Example if it is starts by ‘j’ it should transliterated to ‘ጀ’ example the English word ‘jebena’ is transliterated to the Tigrigna word ‘ጀበና’.Under this category there are 7 rules followed. For example the word isayas has 4 rules i+sa+ya+s and the word jebena has 3 rules je+be+na. Rule 3: If the first token in the English string is ‘y’, it will be transliterated into ‘የ’. For example, name of a person ‘yirga’ will be transliterated into ‘ዪርጋ’. but if it doesn’t start by ‘y’ it will display another word that starts not by ‘y’.example if it is starts by ‘l’ it should transliterated to ‘ለ’ example the English word ‘letebrhan’ is transliterated to the Tigrigna word ‘ለተብርን’.Under this category there are 9 rules followed. For example the word ‘yirga’ has 3 rules yi+r+ga and the word ‘letebrhan’ has 6 rules le+te+b+r+ha+n. Rule 4: if starting token of string in English file is ‘e’, it should be transliterated into ‘እ’. For example name ‘edom’ should be transliterated into ‘ኤዶም’. but if it doesn’t start by ‘e’ it will display another word that starts not by ‘e’.example if it is starts by ‘o’ it should
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transliterated to ‘ኦ’ example the English word ‘omo’ is transliterated to the Tigrigna word ‘ኦሞ’.Under this category there are 5 rules followed. For example the word ‘edom’ has 3 rules e+do+m and the word ‘omo’ has 2 rules o+mo 7.1.2 Rules for a character at last position In order to achieve more accurate result there is need to refer to previous characters because their pronunciation is also affected by the consonants or vowels, they follow. The following rules are proposed to handle last character in a word Rule 1: If in the English word second last token is ‘y’ then ‘y’ will be transliterated into ‘ይ’. For example name ‘may’ will be transliterated to ‘ማይ’.but if it doesn’t end by ‘y’ it will display another word that ends not by ‘y’.Example if it is ends by ‘r’ it should transliterated to ‘ ረ’ example the English word ‘core ’ is transliterated to the Tigrigna word ‘ኮሬ’ Under this category there are 4 rules followed. For example the word ‘may’ has 2 rules ma +y and the word ‘core’ has 2 rules co+re. Rule 2: If in the English word second last token is ‘s’and the last token is ‘a’ then ‘ba’ will be transliterated into ‘ሳ’. For example name ‘saba’ will be transliterated to ‘ሳባ’.but if it doesn’t end by ‘s’ it will display another word that ends not by ‘s’.Example if it is ends by ‘t’ it should transliterated to ‘ ተ’ example the English word ‘telo ’ is transliterated to the Tigrigna word ‘ቴሎ’.Under this category there are 4 rules followed. For example the word ‘saba’ has 2 rules sa+ba and the word ‘telo’ has 6 rules te+lo. Rule 3: If in the English word second last token is ‘s’and the last token is ‘a’ then ‘sa’ will be transliterated into ‘ሳ’. For example city name ‘assosa’ will be transliterated to ‘አሶሳ’.but if it doesn’t end by ‘s’ it will display another word that ends not by ‘s’.Example if it is ends by ‘k’ it should transliterated to ‘ ኻ’ example the English word ‘ leka’ is transliterated to the Tigrigna word ‘ለኻ’. Under this category there are 5 rules followed. For example the word ‘assosa’ has 3 rules a+sso+sa and the word ‘leka’ has 2 rules le+ka
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7.1.3 Rules to handle double consonants Table 7.1.3 Rules to handle double consonant Word English word Tigrign Tigrigna word combination mapping
‘i’+double Jimma ‘ማ’ ጂማ consonants
‘a’double Assosa ‘ሶ’ ኣሶሳ consonant The above example are name of the city that have double characters in the same word if rules are not properly handled in this case the accurate name of the city is not displayed so that to solve this we have developed rule that handle double characters in the same word. From the above example the word like ‘jimma’ and ‘assosa’ and other words which have same consecutive character are displayed properly by the system after the rules are correctly created. VIII.The Algorithm of the proposed system Our developed system was designed and developed accordingof the following algorithm. Step 1. Read English word from the user Step 2. Perform tokenization of the word Step 3. Apply Rules of the transliteration on the tokens Step 4. Combine the Tigrigna mapped character from step 3 Step 5.Display Tigrigna word Here is the explanation of how the aboveproposed algorithmworks:- According the algorithm ofthe proposed system above the first step is inputting English words. Tokenization of the input words is the most important and crucial step of the system.Tokenization is defined as the process of chopping of a given word or text in to a sequence of words or characters called tokens. A token can be of individual character of a word or words of a sentence. In natural language processing most of the time to process tokenization it needs delimiter or demarcation,
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most of the time English sentence use space as demarcation to split the sentence in to tokens. Punctuation marks are also used as delimiter of words in English sentence. In our system there is no such demarcation indicator, if the English word is single, our algorithm uses the character themselves as delimiter, based on the rules given to it. For example the algorithm may segment the given word on the position of vowel appearance, between two consecutive consonants and others also. Here the input English word is segmented (tokenized) as per our requirement. For example if the input word is “France ” it is segmented as f, ra, n, andce then for each segmented tokens apply the rules of Tigrigna character. According to our system the first token “f” is mapped with ፍ, “ra“mapped with ራ, “n” is mapped withንand there is no mapping with “ce” from the English Tigrigna character mapping. Therefore, rules are applied which is “ce” is mapped with ስ. Then the processes pass through the combination of these Tigrigna fidels, and finally give as output of Tigrigna word. Here the outputs are ፍራንስ, but the native speaker can easily identify which is the correct Tigrigna output IX.Evaluation and results The evaluation of transliteration system can be done manually by the use of metrics which is word accuracy, precision, recall and F-score .For evaluating the performance of this transliteration system, word accuracy of the transliteration system is checked by determining the number of correct transliterations generated divided by total number of generated transliterations. Word accuracy rate = number of correct transliterations * 100% Total number of generated transliterations 9.1 Test data to be used In this work, we have developed and used various testing data sets which are as follows: Names in English language: 1000 English names of different person and locations belong to English speaking regions and written in roman script had been collected.Some of the examples persons are:-the name of persons like Abebe and Sahil are written in roman script. Some of
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example locations: Japan and France and India they are written in roman script Names in Tigrigna language: this is similar to above list but locations and persons belong to Tigray region. The names are written using Tigrigna script.
Some of example person:ኣበበ and ሳሂል. Some of example of location: ጃፓን, ፍራንስ and ኢንድያ Commonly known Tigrigna words: we have collected 178 commonly known Tigrigna words. They are other than person names and location but they are commonly spoken Tigrigna words. For evaluation, the data is further categorized into various categories as follow:
Names with Ethiopian origin Names with Foreign Origin Names of Places (country Names, city names) Accuracy rate of the whole system Evaluation Metrics Performance of the system in percentage (%)
Word accuracy rate 90.9% Precision 90.9% Recall 89.9% F-score 88.45% From the above table shows the total system performance achieves 90.9% 9.2 Results obtained from the proposed system Word accuracy rate of the whole systemcomes out to be 90.9%.Some of the person names which are correctly transliterated by the system are as follows:-
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Table 9.2.1 results of person names Roman script Tigrigna script
Abebe ኣበበ Negassi ነጋሲ Negisti ንግስቲ Abeba ኣበባ Some of the locations which are correctly transliterated by the system are as follows:- Table 9.2.2 results of location names English word Tigrigna word English word Tigrigna word Tigray ትግራይ Chili ቺሊ America ኣሜሪካ Addis ኣዲስ
9.3 ErrorAnalysis From the proposed system the following words are fail to transliterate well Multi to one mapping problem generated by the system Table 9.3.1 multi to one mapping error output English Tigrigna word word Chegora ቸጎራ The above table 5.3.1 shows the word ‘Chegora’ is error output due to the multi to one mapping problem. Here‘che’ in English is mapped to ‘ጨ’,’ቸ’ in Tigrigna. Theoutput of the word ‘chegora’ in English must be ‘ጨጎራ’ but the system gives the error output ‘ቸጎራ’ One to multi mapping problem generated by the system
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Table 9.3.2 one to multi mapping error output English Tigrigna English Tigrigna word word word word Tiyel ቲየል Papas ፓፓስ
From the above table shows all the one to multi is not failed because of the normalization .our system is followed normalization which means normalized according of the official written system in Tigrigna for example the character H in English is mapping to three characters in Tigrigna like ሐ, ሀ, ኸ but according of the official written system in Tigrigna the character H in English is normalized in to one character ሐ only X.Conclusion Most native Tigrigna speakers know simply the Tigrigna word but they donot know properly how to write it grammatically. But with the help of transliteration they will able to write in Tigrigna word because they know phonetically, what to write in roman script and transliteration application will convert into Tigrigna script .With the advent of new technology and the flood of information through the Web, it has become increasingly common to adopt foreign words into one's language. Transliteration is helpful in situations where one does not know the script of a language but knows to speak and understand the language. The focus of this paper is finding the spelling equivalence of Tigrigna language for the given of English language spelling A transliteration system for English-Tigrigna language pair has been proposed using a rule based approach.The accuracy rate of the system is 90.9%.The system fails on one to multi mapping and multi to one mapping but the rest it fine. XI. Feature scope Although the system performs well, still there is room for improvement.The proposed system is developed by rule based approach but still it needs further improvement by using another approaches such as hybrid approach.Example To resolve this issue, the future work can be based on referring to the context of the words in order to choose correct transliteration. Although every possible rule has been
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implemented, but rule list is not exhaustive. There is a scope of adding new rules. Accuracy can be furthered improved by adding new rules when identified.The system performance is good but there is some failure due to shortage of time period. REFERENCES [1] Gurpreet Singh Josan, and Gurpreet Singh Lehal. “A Punjabi to Hindi Machine Transliteration System” The Association for Computational Linguistics and Chinese Language Processing Vol. 15, No. 2, June 2010, pp. 77102. [2] Fujii, Atsushi and Tetsuya, Ishikawa. Japanese/English Cross- Language Information Retrieval: Exploration of Query Translation and Transliteration. Computers and the Humanities, Vol.35, No.4, pp.389-420, 2001 [3] Arbabi, Mansur, Scott M. Fischthal, Vincent C. Cheng, and Elizabeth Bar. 1994. Algorithms for Arabic name transliteration. IBM Journal of research and Development, 38(2):183-193. [4] Knight, Kevin and Graehl, Jonathan. 1997. Machine transliteration. In Proceedings of the 35th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 128135. Morgan Kaufmann. [5] Stalls, Bonnie Glover and Kevin Knight. 1998. Translating names and technical terms in Arabic text. http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/glover98translating.html [6] VeerpalKaur, AmandeepkaurSarao and Jagtar Singh. “A Review on Hindi to English Transliteration System for Proper Nouns Using Hybrid Approach” International Journal of Emerging Trends & Technology in Computer Science (IJETTCS) Volume 3, Issue 5,September-October 2014. [7] DeeptiBhalla, Nisheeth Joshi and ItiMathur. “Rule Based Transliteration Scheme For English To Punjabi” International Journal on Natural Language Computing (IJNLC) Vol. 2, No.2, April 2013. [8] Gurpreet Singh Josan ,JagroopKaur.“Punjabi to Hindi Statistical Machine Transliteration” International Journal of Information
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Technology and Knowledge Management, July-December 2011, Volume 4, No. 2, pp. 459-463. [9] NavneetGarg,VishalGoyal and SumanPreet. “Rule Based Hindi Part Of Speech Tagger” Proceedings of Coling 2012: Demonstration Papers,pages 163-174,Coling 2012 ,Mumbai ,December 2012. [10] Er.Sukhnandankaur, Ms.RupinderKaur and Er.NidhiBhalla. “English to Punjabi using Hybrid Approach” International Journal of Computer Science and Information Technology & Security, ISSN:2249-9555 Vol.2, No.2 April 2012 Page 482-485. [11] KamaljeetKaurBatra and G. S. LEHAL. “Punjabi to English for Simple Sentences in Legal Domain” International Journal of Translation, Vol. 23, No. 1, Jan-Jun 2011 page 79-98. [12] Darwish, Kareem, David Doermann, Ryan Jones, Douglas Oard and Mika Rautiainen. 2001. TREC-10 experiments at Maryland: CLIR and video. In TREC 2001. Gaithersburg: NIST. http://trec.nist.gov/pubs/trec10/t10_proceedings.html [13] Al-Onaizan, Y. and Knight, K. Machine translation of names in Arabic text. Proceedings of the ACL conference workshop on computational approaches to Semitic languages, 2002.
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EFFECT OF SOCIAL CAMPAIGNS ON FEMALE FOETICIDE Dr. Renu Yadav Assistant Professor Dept. of Education & Convener, Women Empowerment Cell Central University of Haryana, Haryana
Abstract Haryana is struggling hard to improve girl child sex ratio in 0-6 years of age group as Census 2011, provisional data placed the state at lowest rank. Mahendragarh district of Haryana is second worst in sex ratio after Jhajjar in 0-6 age group. Sources revealed that the prominent reason of imbalanced sex ratio is female foeticide. Thus to fight with female foeticide Haryana government has initiated many conditional cash transfer schemes and social awareness campaigns. The present study will analyse the impact of social campaigns on female foeticide in Mahendragarh District, one is conditional cash transfer scheme ‘Ladli’ and other is social awareness campaign ‘Beti Bachao Beti Padhao’ as both the campaigns are meant to curb female foeticide. Key words: Female Foeticide, Conditional Cash Transfer Schemes, Ladli, Beti bachao Beti Padhao Conceptual Framework Indian constitution by virtue provides equal opportunity to individuals irrespective of caste, creed and sex. However, when it comes to implementation, the half population (48% females) confront with unequal distribution of resources, denial of rights, even denial to take birth. The designation Women is perceived and treated as synonym to subjugation and second individual in Indian society (Data on increasing violence approve the statement). Girl child often face severe discrimination in every arena of life may be nutrition, health, employment opportunity or property right (National Crime Record Bureau reports approve the statement). Due to deep rooted gender bias practices on the name of religion, custom or rituals (some ritual are meant only for male like fierce the pyre, Kanyadan in North India) give birth to preference one sex over another. Strong son preference leads to
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elimination of daughters in womb. India is facing crisis as her daughters are missing day by day. The child population in 0-6 year’s age group is 13.1% of the total population and there has been decline of 2.8 points from census 2001 in child population. (Census, 2011). According to provisional data of Census 2011, the decade saw an overall drop in share of children to total population (0-6 years), nearly three million girls, one million more than boys, are “missing” in 2011 compared to 2001 and there are now 48 fewer girls per 1,000 boys than there were in 1981 (The Hindu, Oct.9, 2012). The 2011 census data for India shows that 18 million girls were exterminated from the population before the age of 15 years. People often assume that this is primarily due to sex-selected abortions (Banerjee, 2013). Haryana (877) has been placed lowest among low sex ratio states at national level. Haryana (877) and Punjab (893) both are adjoining states having prosperity but are not able to retain their daughters’ survival. Although the 11th plan rose awareness campaigns to ensure market economy and family planning but the campaigns did not enhance gender equality rather lead to male child planning. (Census, 2011) Table 1: Sex ratio in age group 0-6 years Year Sex Ratio (0-6 years) 1961 976 1971 964 1981 962 1991 945 2001 927 2011 914 (Source- Census 2011, Registrar General of India) The trend in child sex ratio in age group 0-6 is constantly declining since independence which is an indication of female foeticide. However, the origin of sex selective abortion is not new; it is rooted in deep history of India. One British official, James Thomason, while speaking to a group of landowners in Uttar Pradesh in 1835 referred to one of them as a son-in-law of another. His remark raised a sarcastic laugh among them and a bystander briefly explained that he could not be a son-in-law since there were no daughters in the village. Thomason was told that the birth of a daughter was considered a most serious calamity and she was seldom allowed to live (Miller, 1981). Realization
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of the occurrence of this practice prompted the British to pass the Infanticide Act in 1870, making it illegal. (Patel) Female foeticide involves two-step process. The first step involves determination of the sex of the foetus in one of three ways: amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, or ultrasound. The second step consists of the therapeutic abortion which, in India, was legalized in 1971 under the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act and is readily available and free of charge in government hospitals and clinics throughout the country (Solapurkar, 1991). Skewed sex ratio in Haryana Over the last few decades if we see the trend the child sex ratio it is towards declining order in 0-6 year age group. Since 1991 to 2011 Haryana is showing declining sex ratio in 0-6 age group. Although for child sex ratio it has been increased from census 2001 (861) to census 2011 (877) but, in 0-6 age group it has been declined from 15.8 to 13.0% of the population. If we compare Haryana with neighbouring states then lowest sex ratio is found in Haryana (830), then in Punjab (846).
Table 2: Haryana and Neighbouring States Sex 0-6 Sex S.N. State Ratio Share of Ratio Literacy Rate 0-6 Population P M F to Total Popu.
India 940 13.12 914 74.04 82.14 65.46
1 Haryana 877 13.01 830 76.64 85.38 66.77 Himachal 2 Pradesh 974 11.14 906 83.78 78.26 58.01
3 Punjab 893 10.62 846 76.68 90.83 76.60
4 Chandigarh 818 11.18 867 86.43 90.54 81.38 5 Delhi 866 11.76 866 86.34 91.03 80.93
6 Rajasthan 926 15.31 883 67.06 80.51 52.66
7 Uttar Pradesh 908 14.90 899 69.72 79.24 59.26
8 Uttarakhand 963 13.14 886 79.63 88.33 70.70 (Source- Census, 2011, Registrar General of India)
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The data in above table shows that Haryana is not providing favourable environment to females to grow and flourish. If we compare the literacy rate of Haryana (76.64 % in population, 85.38% of males and 66.77 in females) from neighboring states then we found that female literacy of Haryana is more than all over India (65.46%), Himachal Pradesh (58.01%) , Rajasthan (52.66%), Utter Pradesh (59.26%) but less than Punjab (76.60), Chandigarh (81.38), Delhi (80.93) and Uttrakhand (70.70). The trend shows that Haryana is having more female literacy than National level which shows that women are getting more educated then why female foeticide is in inverse ratio? Why the researcher has raised this issue? The literature shows negative impact of education on female foeticide. The following literature approves the statement. Education and female foeticide There are many studies which show that only increased literacy is not an indicator of women empowerment. Study by International Union for health promotion and Education, Punjab Chapter, Ludhiana shows that education leads to more accessibility to technology in Punjab so more female foeticide is prevalent in these classes. While discussing the role of new technologies and sex selective abortions Dagar, 2007 asserted that there was a wide gap between the identified problem of female foeticide and the methods of its resolution. She explained that only legal literacy and its fear impact couldn’t bring desired behavioural changes in the masses. Therefore, the view that awareness and facilities for enhancing women capacities can bring about the requisite behavioural changes was not proven formula. The policy approach to combat female foeticide through spread of legal literacy seemed ill-conceived given that the groups which were found to practiced female foeticide were predominantly aware that sex determination was illegal and they belonged to upper income group as well as the educated section of the society. The study by Prabhat Jha et.al. (2011) estimated that selective female abortion rose from 0 to 2.0 million (average 1 million) in 1980s to 1.2 to 4.1 million (average 2.6 million) in the 1990s, and to 3.1 to 6.0 million (average 4.5 million) in the 2000s. In 2010 birth rates and child mortality rates, for every 1% drop in the child sex ratio at ages 0-6
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years implied about 1.2 to 3.6 million additional selective abortions. Overall, between 4.2 to 12.1 million selective female abortions occurred from 1980-2010. The study showed that increased sex selective abortions are due to persistent son preference, decreased fertility in which third or high order birth rate decreased from 49% in 1990 to 38% in 2005. Son preference varies little by education or income but foeticide is more common among educated and richer families. The Indian Medical Association (IMA) estimates that five million female fetuses are aborted each year, and estimated in 1999 that India had approximately 20,000 ultrasound clinics, most unregistered and staffed by unqualified doctors. (Siwal) These studies are showing that only providing education is not solving the problem of female foeticide. More efforts must be done by government officials and NGOs to curb the problem of female foeticide. While considering economic aspect as significant domain to promote girls as economic asset for parents many conditional cash transfer schemes are introduced by the government. As only education is not leading to empowerment of girls thus many social awareness campaigns run by government are in full swing. Haryana government also introduced some conditional cash transfer schemes and social awareness campaigns to curtail the problem of female foeticide. Conditional Cash Transfer Schemes (CCTs) for girl child in Haryana Conditional cash transfers (CCTs) are evolved on the principle of economic benefits associated with the birth of girl child and projecting her as economic asset to parents. This type of social measures provides money to poor families under certain conditions. It also endeavours to encourage long term accumulation of human capital through supply of health and educational services. CCTs are effective in providing economic resources to disadvantaged section of the society in providing education and health care of their girl children. However, there are many incentive like different scholarships, Right to Education Act, 2009 for providing free education with books, uniforms, mid-day meal to provide nutrition in schools, 25% reservations in private schools for economically weaker section of the society, free immunization etc. but all these facilities can be availed by only those girls who can survive thus first priority is to connect birth of girl child with economic
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incentive. To fulfil this vision CCTs are boon for parents who want to abort the child due to scarcity of resources. If implemented effectively and monitored efficiently, the conditional cash transfer schemes may be successful in addressing the needs of the social service schemes. (Sekher, 2010). There are few prominent cash transfer schemes run by Haryana government like Apni Beti Apna Dhan , Ladli Yojna for second girl child , Haryana Kanya Kosh for first girl child, Apki Beti Hamari Beti etc. . 1. Apni Beti Apna Dhan (ABAD) The government of Haryana in 1994 developed “Apni Beti Apna Dhan (ABAD)” CCT programme, which was first CCT schemes for girls and the first scheme implemented systematically by an Indian state. ABAD which was operated between 1994-98, was unique among all large scale CCT interventions in India. The beneficiaries of this scheme faced a protracted 18 years period before receiving any cash transfer as the conditionality was explicitly based on delayed marriage. The scheme was for the poor parents and disadvantaged caste groups. The mothers got 500 rupees within 15 days of delivery and within three months of birth and on enrollment government had to purchase a saving bond of 2500 in the name of daughter which was redeemable at a maturity of 25,000 rupees at age 18, provided the girl was not married. 2. Ladli Scheme Ladli scheme was started in 2005 in 137 Integrated Child Development Scheme Blocks in 20 Districts. This was for the parents whose income was less than 2,00,000 per annum on the birth of second girl child. The scheme was publicized through the print media and at the Gram Sabha meetings. Over the years, the scheme has become very popular, with the actual number of beneficiaries surpassing the targeted numbers. Under this scheme, 5,000 per year per family is given on the birth of second daughter for five years.
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Table 3: Salient Features of Ladli Scheme Objectives To combat female foeticide, increase number of girls in families, improve sex ratio, and raise status of girl child in the society Eligibility All state residents are eligible if they have a second girl child born on or after 20 August 2005. Parents should ensure proper immunization and enroll both sisters in school. Parents receiving benefits from any other schemes are also eligible. Incentives Government will invest a cash incentive of Indian Rupee (INR) 5,000 per year for a period of 5 years or until the scheme is extended, in designated investment bonds (Kisan Vikas Patra), with an interest rate of approximately 8.29 percent, in the name of the second girl child and the mother. The accumulated amount will be given when the girl child turns 18. If either of the girls gets married before 18, the incentive will expire. Beneficiaries 87,705 beneficiaries including 23,251 new beneficiaries have been benefited upto January, 2015. A sum of 6,600 lakh is provided in the budget for the year 2014-15 out of 4,939.03 lakh has been incurred upto January, 2015. (Economic Survey, 2014-15) 3. Ladli Social Security Allowance Scheme To remove the sense of economic insecurity in the mind of parents who have only daughters, Ladli Social Security Allowance Scheme was implemented w.e.f. 1st January, 2006. Under this scheme, the rate of allowance is 1,000 per month per beneficiary and allowance is being paid to the families from the 45th birthday of the father/mother, (whoever is older) till their 60th birthday i.e. for 15 years. Thereafter, they are eligible for Old Age Samman Allowance at rupees 500 per month to all senior citizens. 26,538 beneficiaries covered under this scheme upto December, 2014. Out of which numbers of female beneficiaries are 8,758. Under this scheme, Govt. has approved the rate of allowance 1,200 per month from January, 2015 (payable in February, 2015) (http://web1.hry.nic.in/budget/Esurvey.pdf)
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4. State Level Awards for Improvement in Sex Ratio The scheme aims to combat the problem of female foeticide and infanticide , educating the community on the issue this scheme was initiated in 2006-07. The prize/ cash award of Rs. 5.00 lakhs, Rs 3.00 lakhs and Rs. 2.00 lakhs respectively is given to the districts as standing 1st, 2nd, 3rd respectively who have shown maximum improvement in sex ratio and the amount will be spent by district administration on the welfare of women. 5. Ch. Devi Lal. Rashtriya Uttan Aivam Parivar Kalyan Yojna “Devi Rupak” This scheme is provide monthly incentive to eligible couples in order to stabilize the population of the state and to check the declining trend in sex ratio, adoption of one child norm and spacing of child birth. Couples within the age group upto 45 years (for male) and 40 years (for female) are covered under the scheme irrespective of their date of marriage. The benefit will be available after the terminal method is adopted before the youngest child attains the age of 5 years. Table 4: Incentive under the scheme Devi Rupak
S. No. Stage of Adoption Incentive amount per month 1 At the birth of the first girl child Rs. 500/- 2 At the birth of the first male child Rs. 200 /- 3 At the birth of second child girl (provided first child is girl child) Rs. 200/- (Source-MoWCD, 2014-15) 6. Haryana Kanya Kosh, 2015 Haryana government has started Haryana Kanya Kosh scheme in 2015 to curtail female foeticide and for the poor and schedule caste parents on the birth of first girl child a sum of 21,000. The amount would increase to one lakh after the girl attain the age of 18 years. The scheme gives importance to birth of girls. As for second girl child there was already Ladli scheme so government has started Haryna Kanya Kosh for the first girl child.
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7. Aapki Beti Humari Beti' scheme Aapki Beti Humari Beti scheme is implemented in both rural and urban areas of the state covering first-born girl child of Scheduled Caste (SC) and Below Poverty Line (BPL) families and all second girl child born on or after January 22, 2015 of all families. Under this scheme, the first girl child born on or after January 22, 2015, in SC and BPL families will be eligible to receive Rs 21,000. Similarly, all second girl children born on or after January 22, 2015 of all families will get Rs 21,000. Families, where twin girls or multiple girls are born, will get Rs 21,000 per girl child. Social Awareness Campaigns Social awareness campaigns are also required (Jha, 2011) as only economic empowerment is not sufficient to fight with female foeticide. Thus awareness generation at mass level is required to change mindset of the people towards the girl child. These schemes sensitize people by organizing various programmes like gender sensitization workshops, theatre, street plays, public functions involving various stakeholders, awarding best practices etc. to promote birth and significance of female child for family and society. In this category few of the initiatives are Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP), Nari ki chaupal, Girl Rising campaign, Selfie with daughter, Beti Janmotsav, Mann ki Baat are promoted by Haryana government. 1. Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) This campaign is much cited and popular campaign of government to stop female foeticide and to enable her education. In the meeting on 7th July, 2014 in Prime Minister’s Office decided to launch this campaign under Ministry of Women and Child Development (Nodal Ministry) and supported by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and Department of School Education and Literacy. BBBP Scheme was launched through a national campaign and focussed multi sectoral action in 100 selected districts, covering all States and UTs. This campaign was started from Panipat in Haryana on January-22, 2015 in the benign hands of Prime Minister. The Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) initiative has two major components. (i) Mass Communication Campaign and
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(ii) Multi-sectoral action in 100 selected districts (as a pilot) with adverse CSR, covering all States and UTs. (i) Mass Communication Campaign on Beti Bachao Beti Padhao The campaign aims at ensuring girls are born, nurtured and educated without discrimination to become empowered citizens of this country. The Campaign interlinks National, State and District level interventions with community level action in 100 districts, bringing together different stakeholders for accelerated impact. (ii) Multi-Sectoral interventions in 100 Gender Critical Districts covering all States/UTs:- Coordinated & convergent efforts are undertaken in close coordination with MoHFW and MoHRD to ensure survival, protection and education of the girl child. The District Collectors/Deputy Commissioners (DCs) lead and coordinate actions of all departments for implementation of BBBP at the District level. Multi-sectoral interventions includes: (a) Ministry of Women and Child Development (WCD): Promote registration of pregnancies in first trimester in Anganwadi Centres (AWCs); Undertake training of stakeholders; Community mobilization & sensitization; Involvement of gender champions; Reward & recognition of institutions & frontline workers. (b) Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MoHFW): Monitor implementation of Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCP&DT) Act, 1994; Increased institutional deliveries; Registration of births; Strengthening PNDT Cells; Setting up Monitoring Committees (c) Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD): Universal enrolment of girls; Decreased drop-out rate; Girl Child friendly standards in schools; Strict implementation of Right to Education (RTE); Construction of Functional Toilets for girls. (Official website of BBBP (http://wcd.nic.in/BBBPScheme/main.htm)) A budgetary allocation of Rs. 100 Cr. has been made under the budget announcement for Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao campaign and Rs. 100 Cr.
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will be mobilized from Plan Outlay of the Planned scheme ‘Care and Protection of Girl Child - A Multi Sectoral Action Plan” for the 12th Plan. In the Union Budget, the Government has allocated Rs.100 crores for the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao scheme, being rolled out in 100 districts across India, having the worst child sex ratios. The grant in aid of rupees 2,23,000,00 has been sanctioned for 1/01/2015 to 31/03/15 during the financial year of 2014-15. (Compendium, MWCD). School Education department organized various competitions i.e. Slogan Writing, Essay Writing and Painting at Primary, Middle and Secondary levels in all over the State regarding ‘Beti Bachao- Beti Padhao’ Programme, in which 32,89,433 students from 19,214 private and Government schools took participation at School level, Block level, District level and State level. 2. Naari ki Chaupal A social campaign organised by National Mission for Empowerment of Women organises Vatsalya Mela in which they organise Nari ki Chaupal where films and gender sensitization were screened, dance performances by women and girls, street play and legal literacy quizzes were hold along with discussions on various themes such as declining sex ratio and sexual harassment of women. 3. Girl Rising campaign Government launched 'Girl Rising', a global campaign to educate and empower girls, to focus on the issue of female foeticide in India with India Ambassador and actress Freida Pinto. 4. Selfie with daughter Bibipur village of Jind (871) district of Haryana to improve sex ratio used technological advancement and mania of people in positive direction. Now a day’s most of the people are fond of taking selfies and post them on various social media. Thus Sunil Jaglan, Sarpanch of village conducted a contest where selfies are invited from the people which are clicked with their daughters. The aim of social campaign "selfie with daughter" was to promote prominence of daughters in their families. Thus many social campaigns are propagated by Haryana government to improve sex ratio of the state. While understanding the
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significance of birth of girl child and social campaigns the present paper has been taken up. The paper will be exploratory in nature because female foeticide is a sensitive issue which is not directly related to single variable rather is a web of variables. Thus in present paper various gender variables, education and socio economic status of respondents will be taken as variables of the study. The present paper will address impact of conditional cash transfer schemes and social awareness campaigns on female foeticide in Mahendragarh district. As there are many such campaigns run by Haryana government but only two campaigns Ladli conditional cash transfer scheme and Beti Bachao Beti Padhao schemes as both the schemes are for curbing female foeticide will be studied to assess their impact on female foeticide. Effect of social campaigns on female foeticide Mahendragarh is a district having second (778) worst sex ratio after jhajjar (774). The sex ratio of Mahendragarh has been declined from 918 in 2001 to 894 in 2011. The sex ratio in 0-6 age group has been declined drastically from 818 (15.8% of the population) to 778 (11.8% of the population). The data shows that emergency conditions for intervention programme are there as fewer girls are able to take birth. However, literacy rate (69.9 in 2001 to 78.9 in 2011) among male (84.7 in 2001 to 91.3 in 2011) and female (54.1 in 2001 to 65.4 in 2011) has been increased. Thus very pertinent question raised here that why even after increase in literacy of male and female, sex ratio is declining continuously? This shows lacuna in understanding the web of female foeticide. When education and technological advancement are not able to bring desired change in mindset of the people then new strategies must be adopted to curb the devil of female foeticide. Here social security schemes emerge as significant intervention programme to stop female foeticide. These conditional cash transfer schemes propagate girl child as economic asset to parents. Thus the present paper intended to study the impact of conditional cash transfer scheme Ladli on female foeticide. As only economic benefits associated with birth of girl child is not sufficient (as studies shows economic well off families more go for female foeticide, Jha et.al, 2011) so mass awareness campaigns are required to impact the mind set of people involving various stakeholders. Thus the programme like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao and
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conditional cash transfer scheme like Ladli can impact female foeticide as both campaigns are specifically meant to stop female foeticide. Conclusion Female Foeticide is needed to be curbed to provide human right to every girl child to live dignified life. This is pertinent as Haryana is facing acute crisis of daughters thus daughter-in-laws. The present study has raised the pertinent question, whether the decline in sex ratio can be simply blamed to technological advancement or some new intervention strategies must be adopted to curb it. Only technology advancement cannot bring about the crumple of ideologies like patriarchy. Therefore, deep rooted cultural practices must be removed to curtail female foeticide. Economic affluence and technological advancement cannot on their own counter the cultural practices, the core of which happens to be male child preference. (Dagar, 2002). ‘STRONG’ preference for sons over daughters exists in the Indian subcontinent, east Asia, north Africa and west Asia unlike in the western countries (Muthurayappa et al 1997). Thus strong preferences must be changed for survival of daughters. People realise smaller family sizes with relatively greater number of sons by abuse of medical technologies. Pregnancies are planned by resorting to 'differential contraception' - contraception is used based on the number of surviving sons irrespective of family size. Following conception, foetal sex is determined by prenatal diagnostic techniques after which female foetuses are aborted (George, Dahiya, 1998). So intervention strategies like social campaigns must be generated to abolish female foeticide in Haryana. Conditional cash transfer schemes and social awareness campaigns can play significant role in changing mind set of people. References Banerjee, Rita (2013). Census Reveals 17 Million Girls Killed in India in age group 1- 15 years!. Retrieved from https://g enderb ytes.word press.com/2013/10/02/this- confirms-indias-genocide-of-women-is-no t- driven-by-sex-selective-abortions/ Bose, Ashish. (Feb. 23 - Mar. 1, 2002). Curbing Female Foeticide: Doctors, Governments and Civil Society Ensure Failure, Economic and Political Weekly, 37 (8), 696-697. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4411767
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Census (2011). Gender composition of the population. Chapter 5, Census 2011, provisional data, 86 Census (2011). Size, growth and distribution of child population, Chapter 4, Census 2011, provisional data, 67. Dagar, Rainuka (2007). Rethinking Female Foeticide: Perspective and Issues. in Sex- Selective Abortion in India: Gender, Society and New Reproductive Technologies, in Edited by Tulsi Patel, Sage, 216. ----. (2002). Identifying and controlling female foeticide and infanticide in Punjab. Institute For Development And Communication, Chandigarh sponsored by Department of Women and Child Development, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India and Punjab State Human Rights Commission, Chandigarh. Economic survey, 2014-15, Haryana, retrieved from http://web1.hry.nic.in/budget/Esurvey.pdf George, M., Sabu., & Dahiya, S., Ranbir. (Aug. 8-14, 1998). Female Foeticide in Rural Haryana. Economic and Political Weekly, 33(32), 2191-2198. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4407077 International Union for health promotion and Education. (-). Evidence based Causes of Female Foeticide Among Economically Well Off Communities in Punjab: Strategies to Change the Mindset. Research Report, International Union for health promotion and Education, Punjab Chapter, Ludhiana Jha, Prabhat., Kesler, A., Maya., Kumar, Rajesh., Faujdar., Ram., et.al (2011). Trends in selective abortion of female foetuses in India: analysis of nationally representative birth histories from 1990– 2005 and census data from 1991–2011. Lancet, Jun 4, 377(9781), 1921–1928. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60649-1 Kaur, Ravinder. (Jul. 26 - Aug. 1, 2008). Dispensable Daughters and Bachelor Sons: Sex Discrimination in North India. Economic and Political Weekly, 43 (30), 109-114. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40277776 Li, Shuzhuo. (2007).Imbalanced Sex Ratio at Birth and Comprehensive Intervention in China. 4th Asia Pacific Conference on
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Reproductive and Sexual Health and Rights, 29- 31 October 2007, Hyderabad, India. Mutharayappa, R. , Choe, M.K., Arnold, F., and Roy, T.K. (1997). Son Preference and Its Effect on Fertility in India', National Family Health Survey Subject Reports, IIPS Mumbai and EW Centre, Hawaii, 3, March. Nanda, Priya., Datta, Nition., Das, Priya. (2014). Impact on Marriage: programme Assessment of Conditional Cash Transfer (IMPACCT), Summary. International Centre for Research on Women, 3-4. Nistha Sinha Joanne Yoong (2009) Long-Term Financial Incentives and Investment in Daughters Evidence from Conditional Cash Transfers in North India, Policy Research Working Paper 4860, UNFPA, Government of India, 18. Patel, Rita. (-). The Practice of Sex Selective Abortion in India: May You Be the Mother of a Hundred Sons, 2. Retrieved from http://cgi.unc. edu/upl oads/media_items/the- practice-of-sex-selec tive – abo rti on-in-india-may-you-be-the-mother-of-a-hundred- sons.o iginal.pdf Solapurkar, ML., Sangam, RN. (1992). Has the MTP act in India proven beneficial? Journal of Family Welfare, 38 (2), 46-52. Siwal, B.R. (-) Preventive measures for elimination of female foeticide, 4. Retrieved from http://www.eldis.o rg/fulltext/PRE VENTIVE_ ME ASUR ES_FOR_FEMALE_FOETI CIDE.pdf The Hindu (Oct. 9, 2012). India loses 3 million girls in infanticide. Retrieved from http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india- loses-3-millio n-girls-in infanticide/article3981575.ece Sekher, T.V. (2010). Special financial incentive schemes for the girl child in India: A review of select schemes, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, The Planning Commission Government of India in collaboration with United Nations Population Fund,4.
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