Poverty Tourism: Theoretical Reflections and Empirical Findings Regarding An
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GeoJournal (2010) 75:421–442 DOI 10.1007/s10708-009-9311-8 Poverty tourism: theoretical reflections and empirical findings regarding an extraordinary form of tourism Manfred Rolfes Published online: 26 September 2009 Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009 Abstract During the mid-1990s, a new form of Keywords Poverty tourism Á Slumming Á tourism was established in metropolises of several Township Á Favela Á Slum Á developing countries or emerging nations. This type Observational-theoretical approach of tourism consists in visits to the most disadvantaged parts of the respective city. Poverty tours or slum tours are offered on a relatively large scale in the South African cities of Johannesburg and Cape Town, Introduction Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, as well as in Indian metropolises, to name some important examples. Since the mid-1990s, a new form of tourism has The target group of these tours consists primarily of emerged in the globalizing cities of several so-called international tourists. It is estimated that 40,000 such developing countries or emerging nations. Visits to tourists visit favelas in Rio de Janeiro each year, the most disadvantaged parts of the respective city around 300,000 the townships in Cape Town. This are often essential features of this form of tourism. It contribution refers to and comments on these devel- is mainly composed of guided tours through these opments and insights regarding poverty tourism or disadvantaged areas, which are not always appropri- slumming, based on empirical research and experi- ately referred to as slums. Today many of those tours ences in South Africa, Brazil, and India. It will be are operated and marketed by professional compa- shed light on the phenomenon from an observational- nies. This kind of tour is offered on a relatively large theoretical perspective. It is aimed to open a discus- scale in South African cities like Johannesburg and sion on the ways poverty tours or slumming observes Cape Town, Brazil’s Rio de Janeiro, as well as in the and simultaneously programmatically charges pov- Indian metropolises Calcutta, Mumbai and Delhi, to erty. And, it will be considered in which way poverty name some important examples. Whereas interna- tourism is observed. tional tourists are the primary target group of such tours, domestic tourists rarely participate. The num- ber of tourists to these disadvantaged districts is increasing constantly. It is estimated that 40,000 such tourists visit Rio de Janeiro each year, while in Cape Town the figure is assumed to be even higher, within M. Rolfes (&) a range of about 300,000 visitors. Department of Geography, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24/25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany The terms used to describe this tourism phenom- e-mail: [email protected] enon so far are very disparate. To conceptualize this 123 422 GeoJournal (2010) 75:421–442 form of tourism uniformly poses a serious problem: that today’s slum, favela or township tours can be In some academic articles, authors call those tours ranked in this slumming tradition. The center of their social tours or reality tours because a number of approach is the consideration that especially a towns’ them are explicitly presented or advertised by their poor, other or dark side is set at the center of leisure operators as being authentic or realistic and as or touristic activities. Their assessment is that this possessing strong interactive features. Touristic expe- again expresses the desired experience of reality and riences off the beaten path are also expressed. This authenticity. refers to MacCannell’s term of staged authenticity This conceptual ambiguity may also be due to the (MacCannell 1999, p. 92). Authenticity means to get difficulty to set a specific goal to this form of tourism. in with the natives (Freire-Medeiros 2009, p. 581; What actually poses as the attraction visited during MacCannell 1999, p. 105). Especially within the the tours through slums, favelas or townships? context of these social or reality tours tourists seek Especially the descriptions poverty tourism and authentic or real experiences. According to Goffman, poorism suggest that sordidness and poverty seem to this desired authenticity is characterized by facilitat- be the touristic attraction. The presumption, that ing or staging a glance at the back stage for the provider of these tours primarily show human tourists (MacCannell 1999, p. 99). By providing this wretchedness, illness and infirmity or unworthy living authenticity a distinction is drawn to the common conditions, turns out to be not supportable. The so- touristic front regions (MacCannell 1999, p. 101). called slum, favela or township tours do not focus on Other authors tag the tours as a form of cultural or visiting sordidness and poverty. This is not an explicit ethnic tourism (Ramchander 2004; Jaguaribe and part of the guided tours’ agenda. Nevertheless Hetherington 2004), generally emphasizing their sordidness and destitution do also play an important educational aspects. Here cultural as well as ethnic part in this tourism phenomenon. The tourists, as well authenticity is placed at the center. In this context for as tour guides and scientific sources associate sordid- example, the opportunity for cultural exchange is ness and poverty, as well as violence and crime with highlighted. the terms, township, favela or slum. This corresponds Then again, terms like poverty tourism and to a very large degree with the mass media treatment poorism are used for this kind of tours. These terms of these living and housing areas. The motion pictures express morally dubious socio-voyeuristic aspects. Cidade de Deus/City of God (2002)2 or Slumdog Especially media reports (mainly the daily press and Millionaire (2008) can be named as representatives touristic trade journals) work with these expressions. for films addressing sordidness and poverty in Bra- They frequently criticize the valorization and mar- zilian favelas and Indian slums. Both motion pictures keting of informal or marginal settlements, slums, initiated an increased demand for favela and slum favelas or townships—and particularly the sordidness tours. If it can be assumed that participants of and poverty there—as tourist attractions (Weiner these tours want to see what they expect to see there, 2008; Gentleman 2006; Danielzik and Khan 2006). which means they anticipate their experiences (Urry Further, the term slumming occurs in the field of 2002), then sordidness, poverty and violence are the critical tourism research. In 1993, Welz already core topic of this tourism form. In this respect the term examined the phenomenon of slumming or negative poverty tourism or poorism is appropriate, as it sightseeing using the example of tourism in Harlem corresponds to the tourists’ anticipations. But tourists (New York City), where she located the culture- can certainly not state an interest in poverty or historical roots of the term.1 Koven (2006), however, curiosity in this aspect as a motive for participating discovers it as early as the nineteenth century, in in a favela, slum or townships tours. Exactly this Victorian England. He describes the practice of triggers moral indignation and criticism of voyeurism. slumming as a leisure activity pursued by the upper These introductive considerations emphasize that and upper-middle classes of London society at the poverty is a significant topic of these tours; poverty end of that century. Pott and Steinbrink (2009) show turns out to be one appealing part of this kind of tour. 1 See the considerations about slumming in New York in Dowling (2007). 2 See the reflections in Freire-Medeiros (2009, p. 582). 123 GeoJournal (2010) 75:421–442 423 This aspect can be considered as one significant, polarization, which is manifest in the form of linking element of township, favela, and slum tours. informal or marginalized settlements as well as, to However, the tours are not explicitly aimed at showing a sizable extent, socially disadvantaged districts. or visiting poor living and housing conditions. They Within all three metropolises these marginalized virtually form the background of this form of tourism. settlements are part of the everyday picture. Also, This article aims at answering the question, to what in respect of their tourism-related attributes the cities extent and in what way poverty is used as scenery. are comparable. While within Cape Town and Rio de So far, only a few empiric studies of this specific Janeiro a widespread mass-touristic offer already phenomenon within the tourism industry have been exists, for Mumbai this only applies in parts. presented (for Brazil: Freire-Medeiros 2007, 2009; In this article the insights out of these research Menezes 2007; Jaguaribe and Hetherington 2004; for trips will be presented in the following sections in the South Africa: Rolfes et al. 2009; Ludvigsen 2002; framework of short case studies. The findings of the Ramchander 2004, 2007; Rogerson 2003, 2004; empirical research in the three investigation areas are Margraf 2006). These analyses focus primarily on drawn upon in extracts in order to emphasize this the tourists’ motivation for visiting such districts. A form of tourism’s parallels and differences. Within an basic interest in a country’s culture and the residents’ extensive research project the focus of research will living conditions is revealed as the tourists’ main be deepened in the next three years. motive. At this point it can be argued, that obviously, There are relatively few empirical studies con- besides poverty, other motivations are also relevant in cerning the phenomenon of township, favela, and the context of favela, slum or township tourism. Thus slum tourism. Likewise theoretical links helping to for example, cultural and political-historical dimen- analyze and systematize this form of tourism still sions present also an interesting part of township rarely exist. Looking for helpful theoretical tourism (Ramchander 2004, 2007). Favela tourism approaches about the tourists’ expectations in dark also attracts by marketing of exotic and samba tourism3 discourses, the results are disappointing.