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OLED Microdisplays W575-Templier.qxp_Layout 1 01/07/2014 09:02 Page 1 ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING SERIES We have now embraced the ‘Digital Age’, in which both our François Templier Edited by professional and leisure activities involve more and more communication devices, requiring displays of many types to play an increasing role. Within this context, a growing number of display types and sizes have emerged, currently generating a market in excess of $100 billion, which is in the same order of OLED Microdisplays magnitude as that of the semiconductor industry. Microdisplays, namely displays so small that they require an optical magnification to be seen, have a significant share of this Technology and Applications market. Over the last decade, OLED microdisplays have reached a wide industrial and commercial market and promise to expand further in the digital age, in which they provide unique and unrivalled features for portable and wearable devices in particular. OLED Microdisplays The authors of this book provide a review of the state of the art on OLED microdisplays. All aspects, from theory to application, are addressed in a comprehensive way: basic principles; display design, fabrication, operation and performance; present and future applications. This is of interest to a wide range of readers, from industry professionals (engineers, project managers etc.) engaged in the field of display development/fabrication, through display end-users (integration in display systems) to academic researchers, university lecturers and students. Overall, the book aims to offer easy access to OLED microdisplay details for all readers seeking to further their understanding of the subject. François Templier works at CEA-LETI in Grenoble, France. Edited by François Templier Z(7ib8e8-CBFHFH( www.iste.co.uk OLED Microdisplays Series Editor Robert Baptist OLED Microdisplays Technology and Applications Edited by François Templier First published 2014 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address: ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030 UK USA www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com © ISTE Ltd 2014 The rights of François Templier to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Library of Congress Control Number: 2014941990 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-84821-575-7 Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Ltd., Croydon, Surrey CR0 4YY Contents INTRODUCTION .................................... xi François TEMPLIER CHAPTER 1. OLED: THEORY AND PRINCIPLES .................. 1 Tony MAINDRON 1.1. Organic light-emitting device: a brief history ............... 2 1.2.PrinciplesofOLEDoperation........................ 3 1.3. Organic semiconductor material categories ................ 4 1.3.1.Smallmolecules............................. 4 1.3.2.Polymers................................. 5 1.3.3.Depositiontechniquedescription................... 5 1.4. Organic semiconductors: theory ...................... 7 1.4.1.Bandtheoryinorganicchemistry................... 7 1.4.2. Differences from classical semiconductors .............. 8 1.4.3. Electronic transport model in amorphous organic solids....... 10 1.5.OLEDselectricalcharacteristics...................... 12 1.6.OLED:differentstructuretypes...................... 15 1.6.1.Directandinverteddiodes....................... 15 1.6.2. Through substrate emitting diode and top surface emitting diode.................................. 15 1.6.3.Heterojunctiondiodeandbandengineering.............. 16 1.6.4. Electrical doping ............................ 16 1.6.5.Lightextraction............................. 18 1.6.6.OLEDefficiency............................ 21 1.7.OLEDstabilityandlifetime:encapsulationissue............. 22 1.8.SpecificitiesofOLEDformicrodisplays.................. 28 1.9.Bibliography................................. 30 vi OLED Microdisplays CHAPTER 2. OVERVIEW OF OLED DISPLAYS.................... 35 François TEMPLIER 2.1. Passive-matrix OLED displays ....................... 35 2.1.1.Maincharacteristics........................... 35 2.1.2.Applications............................... 36 2.1.3.Marketandactors............................ 37 2.1.4.Limitations/futureofPMOLED.................... 40 2.2.Active-matrixAMOLEDdisplays..................... 40 2.2.1.Maincharacteristics........................... 40 2.2.2.Applications:smallandmedium-sizeAMOLED........... 40 2.2.3.Applications:large-sizeOLEDdisplays................ 43 2.3.TrendsinOLEDdisplays:flexibleandtransparent............ 46 2.3.1.FlexibleandtransparentPMOLEDdisplays............. 46 2.3.2.FlexibleAMOLEDdisplays...................... 48 2.4.OLEDlighting................................ 49 2.5.Microdisplays................................. 50 2.6.Bibliography................................. 51 CHAPTER 3. OLED CHARACTERIZATION ...................... 53 David VAUFREY 3.1. Electronic properties of organic semiconductors ............. 53 3.1.1.HOMOandLUMOleveldetermination................ 54 3.1.2.Mobilitymeasurement......................... 56 3.2. Optical properties of organic semiconductors ............... 62 3.2.1.Spectrometry............................... 62 3.2.2.Photoluminescence........................... 65 3.3.Devicecharacterization........................... 67 3.3.1.Electricalcharacterization....................... 67 3.3.2. Radiometry versus photometry and colorimetry ........... 72 3.3.3.Electro-opticalcharacterization.................... 76 3.3.4.Ageing.................................. 80 3.4.OLEDmicrodisplaycharacterization.................... 83 3.4.1.OLEDmicrodisplayspecificmeasurements............. 83 3.5.Bibliography................................. 90 CHAPTER 4. 5-TOOLS AND METHODS FOR ELECTRO-OPTIC SIMULATION ...................................... 95 Karim BOUZID 4.1. Electro-optic simulation presentation.................... 95 4.1.1.Objectives................................ 95 Contents vii 4.1.2. Potential gains .............................. 96 4.1.3.Availablesoftwaresolutions...................... 96 4.2.Opticalsimulation.............................. 96 4.2.1.Bottom-emissionOLEDs........................ 97 4.2.2.Top-emissionOLEDs.......................... 98 4.3.Electricalsimulation............................. 107 4.3.1. Potential gain .............................. 107 4.3.2. Simulation types............................. 107 4.3.3. Full OLED stack simulation: example and analysis ......... 112 4.3.4. Analysis example ............................ 113 4.4. Microdisplay simulation limitations .................... 114 4.4.1. Electrical/optical crosstalk simulation ................. 114 4.4.2. Combined electro-optical outputs ................... 116 4.4.3. Limitations of accuracy for microdisplays .............. 116 4.5. Bibliography ................................. 117 CHAPTER 5. ADDRESSING OLED MICRODISPLAYS ................ 119 Philippe LEROY 5.1. Passive matrix OLED display........................ 120 5.2. Active matrix OLED displays........................ 124 5.2.1. General considerations for active matrix addressing ......... 124 5.2.2. Two-TFT (2-TFT) pixel circuit .................... 128 5.2.3. Threshold compensation method.................... 132 5.2.4. AMOLED pixel circuit and image writing .............. 138 5.3. Addressing OLED microdisplays...................... 144 5.3.2. Pixel electrode circuits and driving operation............. 146 5.3.3. Innovative pixel circuit on silicon backplane ............. 153 5.4. Bibliography ................................. 156 CHAPTER 6. OLED MICRODISPLAY FABRICATION ................ 159 Christophe PRAT, Tony MAINDRON, Rigo HEROLD and François TEMPLIER 6.1. Fabrication of CMOS active matrix .................... 159 6.1.1. General considerations ......................... 159 6.1.2. Specificities of the circuit........................ 160 6.1.3. Choice of metal electrodes ....................... 161 6.1.4. Pixel pitch and fill factor ........................ 162 6.1.5. Choice of baseline CMOS circuit ................... 163 6.2. OLED process on CMOS circuit ...................... 163 6.2.1. Cluster tool and process......................... 163 6.2.2. Evaporation sources........................... 165 6.2.3. Load-lock chamber ........................... 169 viii OLED Microdisplays 6.2.4. Plasma treatment............................. 170 6.2.5. Deposition process ........................... 170 6.2.6. Thickness, uniformity control and spitting .............. 174 6.2.7. Shadow mask .............................. 180 6.2.8. Buffer chamber ............................. 180 6.3. Encapsulation process ............................ 180 6.3.1. Encapsulation tools for production................... 180 6.3.2. Encapsulation tools for pilot line/ R&D ................ 181 6.4. Color: different approaches and associated processes..........
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