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Flare Efficiency & Emissions Flare Efficiency & Emissions: Past & current research Matthew Johnson, Ph.D., P.Eng. Canada Research Chair in Energy & Combustion Generated Air Emissions, Associate Professor Carleton University Ottawa, ON, CANADA The Ubiquitous Gas Flare • What are flare efficiencies? What is emitted? How can we quantify? • Can we model emissions to support GGFR related initiatives & economic opportunities? -2- Emissions from flares • “Flare efficiency” (Carbon conversion efficiency): ofMass CarbonConverted to CO η = 2 ofMass OriginallyCarbon as Fuel • Speciated emissions: – Key greenhouse gases • CH4, CO2 – Priority pollutants • Soot (carbon based PM), SO2, NOx • Soot has recently been implicated as a key climate forcer (e.g. Ramanathan & Carmichael, 2008; IPCC AR4, 2007) – Minor species • Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) -3- Flow Regimes of Flares 2 2 • Two very different regimes (R = ρjVj / ρ∞U∞ ): – High R, “lifted jet flames”; Low R, “wake-stabilized flames” • Primarily have been interested in solution gas flares, low R • Highly variable among installations • Solution gas flares account for 60-70% of flaring in Alberta -4- Early Research on Flaring • Limited scientific understanding of this flow • Brzustowski (1976) – general description but no consideration of emissions • Seigel (1980) – Ph.D. thesis looking at single point sampling from industrial size flares with & without steam • Pohl et al. (1986) – EPA study of emergency scale flares in quiescent conditions • Limited other studies using single point sampling • Most previous attempts were focused solely on large scale, high-momentum flares – Very limited exploration of crosswind effects – No accepted efficiency models -5- Quantifying Flare Efficiency • Accumulate emissions from combusting jets in a closed-loop windtunnel • Test scaled-down flares (1/8 - 1/2 scale) while varying multiple flow parameters 5.5 Detailed methodology: Bourguignon et al., 22.6 Combustion & Flame, 1998. M MAIN 7.3 IXIN F G FAN ANS 2.4 1.2 SAMPLE POINT FLARE -6- Windtunnel Experiments at U of A -7- Larger scale testing at NRC • Full-scale solution gas flares • “Small scale” emergency / production flares -8- Quantifying Flare Efficiency Focus was on solution gas flaring •Low momentum • Flares typically 3-8” diameter • Typical volumes of up to ~106 m3 per year (<2000 SLPM) • Variable composition • ~60-70% of flaring/venting in Alberta, Canada Methodology • Mass balance on combustion products • Closed-loop windtunnel testing as well as multipoint sampling in large open-loop windtunnel • 1” to 4” scale flares -9- Flare efficiency in a crosswind 12.0 Lab-flares burning Natural Gas, 25mm Dia. 11.0 sales-grade natural gas Vj 0.5 m/s 10.0 Vj 1.0 m/s Vj 2.0 m/s 9.0 • (In)efficiency is Vj 4.0 m/s ) (%) 8.0 strongly dependent on η crosswind speed 7.0 • Previous research, 6.0 Pohl et al. (1986), 5.0 Seigel (1980), only 4.0 looked at zero 3.0 Inefficiency, (1- crosswind case 2.0 • Analysis shows 1.0 inefficiencies primarily 0.0 \EffTests\EN0D-Poster1.GRF un-burned fuel + CO 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 Crosswind Speed, U (m/s) -10- Flare efficiency in a crosswind 12 Initial Steps toward Natural Gas 11 efficiency models do=24.7 mm V 0.5 m/s 10 j • Can correlate velocity Vj 1.0 m/s 9 V 2.0 m/s j dependencies with (%) V 4.0 m/s 1/3 η) 8 j parameter U∞ / Vj (1- • Parameter can be 7 related to a 6 Richardson number 5 and non- 4 dimensionalized as 3 1/3 U∞ / (g Vj d) Flare Inefficiency, 2 1 0 IR-J99-EDNXX-UV13.GRF 024681012 Johnson & Kostiuk, Combustion 1/3 2/3 & Flame 123:189-200 (2000) U∞ / Vj (m/s) -11- Energy Density & Efficiency Identification of critical 36 Propane, do=24.7 mm, Vj = 2m/s role of heating value on 0% Diluent, 94.5/87.0 MJ/m3 32 20% Diluent, 75.2/69.3 MJ/m3 flare efficiency ))))) ηηηηη 40% Diluent, 56.2/51.7 MJ/m3 1-1-1-1-1- 28 •Blends of propane 60% Diluent, 37.4/34.4 MJ/m3 and CO maintain 80% Diluent, 18.7/17.2 MJ/m3 2 24 constant mass Nitrogen Diluent Carbon Dioxide Diluent density while varying 20 energy density 16 • Can no longer explain this result in terms of 12 a simple Richardson number 8 Conversion Inefficiency, ( ( ( ( ( Conversion Inefficiency, Conversion Inefficiency, Conversion Inefficiency, Conversion Inefficiency, Conversion Inefficiency, 4 0 EDPXXCXXNXXV02UXXLAM-QORF.GRF Johnson & Kostiuk, Combustion 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 & Flame 123:189-200 (2000) U∞ (m/s) -12- Key Outcomes: Directive 60 36 Natural Gas / Diluent • Natural gas based do=24.7 mm, Vj = 2m/s flames seem more 32 0% Diluent, 37.5/33.8 MJ/m3 ) 3 susceptible to effects η 20% Diluent, 30.7/27.7 MJ/m 1- 28 40% Diluent, 23.2/20.9 MJ/m3 of added CO2 60% Diluent, 15.3/13.8 MJ/m3 24 • Curves are displaced 80% Diluent, 7.7/7.0 MJ/m3 upward as well as to 20 Nitrogen Diluent the left Carbon Dioxide Diluent 16 • Important result for industry which lead 12 directly to a 8 regulatory change in ( Inefficiency, Conversion Alberta via ERCB 4 Directive 60 EDNXXCXXNXXV02UXXLAM-QORF.GRF 0 0 2 4 6 8 10121416 U∞ (m/s) -13- “Fuel Stripping Mechanism” Zone 2: Non-reacting Junction Region Mixing Layer Unburned Fuel Region Zone 3: Axisymmetric Main Tail of Flame Zone 1: Recirculation • Interaction of wake and Zone shear layer vortices pulls unburned fuel through zone 2 of wake-stabilized flame Johnson et al., Comb. Sci. Tech 169:155-174 (2002) -14- Laser Sheet Imaging • Fuel jet is seeded with fine oil mist (~5 µm mass mean dia.) • Mie scattering of laser sheet illuminates unburned fuel (green) • Unburned fuel is drawn through “Zone 2” and ejected from the flame -15- Modelling Efficiency • Model seems to hold for 25000 Johnson/UofA data data at over factor of 8 Y=146.5e(0.175 X) Natural Gas, 1 in (26.9 mm) scaling 3 diameter Stack 20000 Natural Gas, 2 in (52.6 mm) • Natural gas correlates diameter Stack Natural Gas, 4 in (102.3mm) 1/2 better with do , but (MJ/kg) diameter Stack 15000 Y=59.8e(0.222X) strange units 3 ) 1/3 •C3H8 varies with do mass 10000 • Major result for simple LHV fuels and efficiency η)( 5000 • Key questions remain (1- for extending results to 0 GHG emissions factors 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1/3 1/2 -1/6 U∞/((gVj) do ) (m) Johnson & Kostiuk, P. Comb. Inst. 29:1943-1950 (2002) -16- “Yearly Averaged Efficiency” • Useful to convert instantaneous efficiency at one wind- speed to meaningful “average” value • Concept of “Yearly Averaged Efficiency” and “Yearly Averaged GHG Equivalent Emission” – Statistically weighted average of efficiency taking into account widely varying wind conditions – Calculate using parametric data set and models ∞ P Uη =()(,,,) Uη V D HV dU ∫ ∞ ∞ j ∞ 0 where P(U∞) = probability dist. function of wind speed, U∞ η(U∞,D, Vj, HV,) = efficiency of flare as function of wind speed and operating parameters -17- Concept for GHG Quantification • Required data inputs: Flare Volumes / flow Flare exit velocities rates & diameters Statistical wind Flare efficiency speed distributions model (Met. stations) GHG Emission Emissions sub- in tonnes model Gas Composition CO2 Eq. Details (Site data) GWP / CO2 Equiv. Coefficients (IPCC) -18- Integration of Data & Model • Relational database • 9767 Battery sites that reported flaring and/or venting during Jan. 2002- Dec.2005 • Composition data from 2908 distinct locations • Detailed statistical wind speed data from 107 Environment Canada meteorological stations -19- Quantification of GHG Emissions • Major Results: # Yearly- GHG GHG Total # of flaring Gas. Gas Tot. averaged from from GHG Active or Flared Vented F+V efficiency flaring venting (tonnes 3 3 3 Year Btys venting (1000m ) (1000m ) (1000m ) (%) (tonnes) (tonnes) CO2 eq.) 2002 9427 6025 508349500990 500990 1009339 95.1 1091382 7877467 8968849 2003 9699 6255 412937378157 378157 791094 95.1 821682166666 5933247 6754913 2004 9864 6079 372903 355969.3 728877288722 94.9 766745 5553294 6320039 2005 9716 5531 375518291137 291137 666655 95.1 627962797878 4548395 5176373 • Total GHG emissions of 5.2 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent from flaring and venting at Alberta conventional oil batteries in 2005 (does not include well testing, gas plants etc.) -20- Summary of Flare Efficiency Research Key Outcomes to Date • Implementation of regulatory limits in ERCB Directive 60 (Alberta, Canada) – Adoption/adaptation of ERCB Directive results into World Bank Voluntary Standard for GGFR partnership • Identification of fuel stripping mechanism as primary cause for flare inefficiency • Development of semi-empirical model to predict efficiency in low heating value flares • Preliminary development of models to predict gas-phase GHG equivalent emissions -21- Summary of Flare Efficiency Research Some Challenges Ahead • Desire quantitative models based on realistic (e.g. multi- component) flare gas composition data – If national and international entities (World Bank & Methane to Markets) are to put a price on carbon / enable cap and trade, we need sufficiently accurate GHG models for flares • Soot (PM) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) have not been quantified • High momentum flares (relevant to well test flaring, offshore flaring, etc.) largely unexplored -22- Brief Notes on Soot / PM Emissions • Accurately quantifying PM emissions from combustion is a significant engineering challenge • Formation exceedingly complex; entails: – Chemical composition of fuel – Turbulent mixing & diffusion of air and fuel species – Rate of heat transfer from flame – Residence time / temperature history through flame • No existing practical approaches for quantifying PM in plumes of flares -23- Current Research Initiatives Four interrelated projects: 1. Fundamental study of sooting propensity of binary fuel mixtures 2.
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