Child Labor in Ethiopia with special focus on Child Prostitution
This study was jointly carried with Addis Ababa City Administration Social and NGO Affairs Office- SNGOA, Save the Children Denmark (SCD) and African Network for the Prevention of and Protection Against Child Abuse and Neglect-Ethiopia Chapter (ANPPCAN)
December 2003, Addis Ababa
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface i
Abbreviations and Acronyms ii
Definition of local terms iv
Executive Summary 1
Chapter One: Introduction 3
1.1 Background of the study 3
1.2 Objectives of the study 8
1.3 Limitations of the study 8
Chapter Two: Literature Review 9
2.1 Child labor 9
2.2 Child prostitution 12
Chapter Three: Methodology 15
3.1 Design of the survey 15
3.2 Sample size 15
3.3 The study site 15
3.4 Design of questionnaires 16
Chapter Four: Findings of the study 17
4.1 Child labor 17
4.2 Child prostitution 25
Chapter Five: Discussion and recommendations 38
5.1 Child labor 38
5.2 Recommendations 42
PREFACE
Save the Children Denmark (SCD) is an international non governmental organization committed to working for the realization of children's rights. SCD is involved –among other issues – in fighting the worst forms of child labor globally giving priority to children who because of their age, type of work or other conditions are particularly vulnerable.
SCD’s stand on child labor is informed by the Save the Children Alliance position paper on child work from 1997 and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child Article 32 that declares: "State parties recognize the rights of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child's education, or to be harmful to the child's health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development."
Save the Children Denmark has interest in being involved in combating the worst forms of child labor in collaboration with other concerned organizations working in Ethiopia, but before going to implement programmes it is necessary to have an understanding of the phenomenon. As part of a Knowledge Building Process, SCD and African Network for the Prevention of and Protection Against Child Abuse and Neglect (ANPPCAN) have therefore decided to undertake a study in order to get clearer picture on the prevalence and magnitude of one of the worst forms of child labor -child prostitution- in Addis Ababa. It is our intention that this research will help SCD partners to design strategies to address the problems faced by sexually exploited children. This investigation, therefore, highlights child prostitution, its causes, effects and possible solutions to reduce and prevent it.
The analysis has also identified existing and potential actors in the field and appraise strategies employed. SCD and ANPPCAN invited in the knowledge building process, the Addis Ababa City Administration Social and NGO Affairs Office – SNGOA, which is the government authority with a mandate for this area in order to make the government part of the process from the beginning and gain support during implementation, including law revision.
Save the Children Denmark would like to thank the research team, organizations and individuals who in one way or another contributed to this study. Last but not least our gratitude goes also to those children who took part in the study.
Sergio Daniel Kristensen Country Representative Save the Children Denmark
i
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ANPPCAN - African Network for the Prevention of and Protection Against Child Abuse and Neglect
ARI - Acute Respiratory Infection
APIK - Association for the Promotion of Indigenous Knowledge
BOLSA - Bureau of Labor and Social Affairs
CDW - Community Development Worker
CETU - Confederation of Ethiopian Trade Union
CHA - Community Health Agent
CHADET - Children Aid Ethiopia
CHW - Community Health Worker
CSA - Central Statistics Authority
DA - Development Agent
FC - Female Circumcision
FGC - Female Genital Cutting
FGD - Focus Group Discussion
FSCE - Forum on Street Children
GRIP - Godanaw Rehabilitation Integration Project (GRIP)
HHD - Household
HTP - Harmful Traditional Practice
ILO - International Labor Office
IPEC - International Program on the Elimination of Child Labor
ii
MOH - Ministry of Health
NCTPE - National Committee on Traditional Practices of Ethiopia
NGO - Non Government Organization
NS - Not Stated
OR - Operation Research
PHC - Primary Health Care
PLA - Participatory Learning and Action
SNNPR - Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region
SCD - Save the Children Denmark
TB - Tuberculosis
TBA - Traditional Birth Attendant
TGE - Transitional Government of Ethiopia
TTC - Teachers Training College
TV - Television
UN - United Nations
UNDP - United Nations Development Program
UNICEF - United Nations Children's Fund
WB - World Bank
WHO - World Health Organization
iii
DEFINITION OF LOCAL TERMS
Injera - Local food used as bread
Kollo - Roasted Barely
Tej - Local drink brewed from honey
Tella - Local beer
Araki - Home brewed liquor which is highly alcoholic
Chat - Green leaf used to stimulate the body
Selvage - Used cloths
Kebele - Urban Dwellers Association
iv
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Child labor, as exemplified by the unanimous commitment to ILO Convention 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labor, is an issue of international concern. In developing countries like Ethiopia where the worst forms of child labor such as child prostitution are widely observed this concern is more relevant. However, there is limited information on the situation of children involved in child labor and child prostitution, both in rural or urban areas. The Addis Ababa Administration Social and NGO Affairs Office, Save the Children Denmark and ANPPCAN have therefore decided to undertake a study in order to get a clearer picture on the root causes and effects of child labor and child prostitution in Addis Ababa.
This research has been conducted in four kebeles of Addis Ababa using qualitative and quantitative methods. The investigation highlighted child labor in general and child prostitution in particular. The report has five sections: introduction, review of related literature, methodology, findings and discussions and recommendations for interventions.
The analysis revealed that the major labor activities in which children are engaged in Addis Ababa include shoe shining, selling lottery tickets, selling food/drinks/kollo, assisting taxi drivers (woyala) and prostitution.
The major causes which push children to involve in child labor include poverty, death of one or both parents, the need to become economically independent, and violence within the home environment. Child labor affects the child’s social, physiological, intellectual and emotional developments. In addition, child labor exposes the child in to various health problems. However, most of the study subjects believe that children from poor families should work, but under conditions which do not affect their health conditions.
To reduce and prevent child labor, alleviation measures such as: poverty reduction, awareness creation, family support, fulfilling the basic needs of children, and family planning are considered as essential critical.
Most of the child prostitutes in the study came from regions to look for job, due to conflicts at home, early marriage and divorce. Poverty, death of one or both parents, child trafficking,
Child Labor in Ethiopia 1
high repetition rates and drop out from school and lack of awareness about the consequence of being engaged in prostitution are key factors that push young girls to be involved in commercial sex work.
The major problems that have been faced by children engaged in prostitution include among others: rape, beating, stigmatization, frustration, low self-esteem, unwanted pregnancy and health problems.
As an attempt to prevent and reduce child prostitution, the following is suggested:
• Creating job opportunities
• Provision of vocational skills training
• Emotional support and adequate care for girls by parents and the community
• Income generating project helping poverty reduction at the family level
• Family planning, since a large family size is one of the root causes for the disintegration of the family
• Awareness/education for children, users, parents and advocacy for decision makers
• Sensitization and training of media professionals, school teachers, local authorities, parents and CBOs concerning child rights, effects of child prostitution and child labor.
• Training of law enforcers (judges, police, prosecutors, etc) to handle children’s cases without bias.
• Training of teachers and community members as para-counselors.
• Fighting social stigmatization of children engaged in child prostitution.
• Networking among NGOs, Government organizations and stakeholders.
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Child labor is a major international problem stemming mainly from socio economic roots. There is international consensus that the elimination of child labor is essential for the wellbeing of society. This belief has received universal recognition as revealed by the unanimous approval of the 175 member states of the International Labor Organization (ILO) of Convention 182.
According to the ILO Convention 182 (IPECL, 1994), the worst forms of child labor include: all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage and serfdom, as well as forced or compulsory labor, including forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict; the use or procuring or offering of children for prostitution, for the production of pornography or for pornographic performances; the use, procurement or offering of a child for illicit activities, in particular for the production and trafficking of drugs as defined in relevant international treaties; and work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children.
Article 32 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child states that: "State parties recognize the rights of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child's education, or to be harmful to the child's health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development".
Convention No.182 states that tackling the worst form of child labor should be prioritized in every country and immediate action should be taken as a matter of human rights, saving lives and building a nation’s future. There is a three phase plan to address child labor. The first thing in this regard is to conduct a research or survey to detail the extent of and depth of the problem. The second phase entails taking measures to prevent the employment of children in harmful working condition. The third phase is the elimination of child labor.
The problem of child labor is widely observed in Ethiopia especially in the informal sectors. This might be related to several factors like poverty, inequality, socio-economic vulnerability, inadequate and inappropriate education opportunities and cultural norms and values.
Child Labor in Ethiopia 3
Ethiopia has ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, ILO Minimum Age Convention No. 138, and ILO Convention No. 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labor.
International Conventions aimed at protecting children, including child prostitutes:
• ILO Minimum Age Convention (no138) was ratified by Ethiopia in 1999. It places on the ratifying States the obligation to fix a minimum age admission to employment.
• ILO Worst Forms of Child Labor Convention (No182) has also been ratified by Ethiopia. The Convention defines the worst forms of child labor, which includes prostitution.
• UN Convention on the Rights of the Child has been ratified by Ethiopia. It protects the child from economic exploitation, sexual exploitation, sales and traffic, recruitment in armed conflicts, participation in illicit production and trafficking of drugs etc. Ethiopia has ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child by Proclamation No.10/1992.
• UN Convention on Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse.
National Legislation:
• The 1993 Labor Proclamation forbids employment of young persons under the age of 14 years. Employment in hazardous work is also forbidden for those under 18.
• The Penal Code provides means for prosecuting persons sexually or physically abusing children and persons engaging in child trafficking including juveniles into prostitution.
• Federal Proclamation no.42/93 protects children less than 14 years not to engage in any kind of formal employment.
• The Ethiopian Civil Code and the revised Family Law protect children from sexual abuse.
o The Ethiopian Civil Code does not directly prohibit the engagement of female children in prostitution. But there are clauses protecting children from joining prostitution for a living. According to Art. 198 and 199(3) children are classified
Child Labor in Ethiopia 4
under persons who cannot conclude legal contracts on their own. Hence until they are able to do so they are under the protection of legal guardians. Such legal guardians are responsible for the health of the children. They are responsible not only for their medical treatment when they get sick but are also responsible for the protection of their heath at all times. According to Art. 267- 269 of the Civil Code, guardians are made responsible by law for the proper upbringing and protection of the health and well being of children under their care.
o The law does not only state their responsibilities but also prescribes measures to be taken if they fail to fulfill their duties. On this basis as provided in Art.231, if a guardian fails to fulfill the obligations stated in the law, the case can be taken to court and he does not divulge his responsibility to the child within the limits of his ability and if the child is exposed to danger he will be charged for his negligence and required to pay appropriate compensation for the damage incurred.
o The law prescribes that to avoid the exposure of orphaned children to prostitution due to lack of guardians. The Civil Code has sections that provide for the mutual assistance to be rendered by relatives for parents who are poor so that the female children from such families do not resort to prostitution.
o Similarly, it prohibits marriage of girls before they attain the age of 15 years, to protect children who get married at an early age from becoming prostitutes, due to marital problems.
o Arts. 546, 548, 549 and 596 of the Penal Code state that it is illegal to engage in sexual intercourse with a girl aged below 18 years
o Arts. 605 and 613 of the Penal Code state that it is illegal to gain from hiring female children and any employment contract to this effect is null and void. As child prostitution is an illegal activity, the contents of a contract between employers and the female children cannot be accepted as an employment contract.
Child Labor in Ethiopia 5
o Art.79 of the Labor Proclamation stipulates that children should not be employed in any work that is harmful to their health and life.
According to a UNICEF report on Ethiopia (2000), children comprise 50% of the population of the country and 20% of them live in extremely difficult circumstances. They are exposed to a lot of danger, disease and exploitation. These children include orphan victims of armed conflict, abused and neglected child workers, destitute children with or without families, street children, prostitutes and juvenile delinquents.
Though the Ethiopian government has ratified the UN Convention on the Right of the Child, right and services to which children are entitled, such as protection, development and participation in social services are minimal. UNICEF estimates that only six percent of the needy children in Addis Ababa have the chance to obtain essential services.
NGOs Engaged in Rehabilitation and Prevention
There are local and international NGOs engaged in the rehabilitation as well as prevention of child labor and sexual abuse.
African Network for the Prevention of and Protection Against Child Abuse and Neglect (ANPPCAN-Ethiopia Chapter) works with a mission to contribute to the prevention of child maltreatment and protection of children against abuse, neglect and exploitation through increasing public awareness on child abuse and child rights, promoting child participation and providing rehabilitation services for victim children and their families.
Children Aid Ethiopia (CHADET) and Focus on Street children Ethiopia (FSCE) have a pilot program on the rehabilitation issues of child prostitution.
CHADET under the Prevention program for child abuse, neglect and exploitation deals with child prostitution around the Merkato area. The major objective of this program is to prevent and protect children from abuse, neglect and exploitation. The major activities include: counselling services, organising special events for raising the awareness of the community, stage educational/entertaining programs through drama/puppet shows, training of peer educators, developing and disseminate IEC materials (The IEC materials are leaflets,
Child Labor in Ethiopia 6
booklets on STDS, HIV/AIDS and other related issues), providing washing and laundry facilities and library and recreational services.
FSCE is working in Addis Ababa, Dessie, Dire Dawa and Nazareth in generating information about cuses and effects of child prostitution. FSCE supports girls to continue formal education and provides knowledge and information among young schoolgirls to understand reproductive health issues, the risks of engaging in unprotected sex and what to do to protect them as they reach the age of adolescence. Girls clubs have also been set up to create a conducive and supportive environment in school.
Despite these efforts there is a dire shortage of research n child prostitution in Ethiopia. Thus SCD and ANPPCAN-E decided to cooperate in a Child Labor Knowledge Building process focusing on the worst form of child labor -- child prostitution and -- decided to undertake a study in order to get clear picture on the pulling factors, effects and possible interventions to prevent and reduce the problems of child labor and prostitution in Addis Ababa. This will help the partners to design strategies to address the problem.
This study has five chapters:
• Introduction, highlighting the background, objectives and limitations of the study;
• Literature review;
• Methodology;
• Findings focusing on information collected from interviews, focus group discussions and case studies;
• Discussion and recommendations.
Child Labor in Ethiopia 7
1.2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY General Objective
To assess the cause and effects of child labor, especially child prostitution and to suggest appropriate intervention strategies by all concerned.
Specific objectives
1. To assess in general the cause and effect of child prostitution in Addis Ababa including rural links and to determine whether the scope of the problem is such that SCD should develop a program of intervention.
2. To assess and get information on the existence and practice of legal and social frameworks as well as intervention programs in the area of preventing child labor and protecting child laborers especially in the area of child prostitution. This would ensure that future programming builds on activities already underway and fills gaps where intervention is needed.
3. To use the outcome of the study for developing sustainable strategies for addressing one of the worst forms of child labor - child prostitution.
1.3. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY Lack of well-kept records concerning information related to child labor and child prostitution by concerned NGOs and Government organizations, was a major constraint. Some potential resource persons were not forthcoming with pertinent information on the study. Not much study has been done on child labor and child prostitution, which otherwise would have helped to enrich this study. There is limited qualitative data on the situation of working children and child prostitution. There is even less information on interventions and strategies applied in the area of child labor and child prostitution. These are some of the major limitations confronted when carrying out the study.
Child Labor in Ethiopia 8
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. CHILD LABOR
The International Labor Organization (ILO) defines child labor as:
“Not teenagers working for a few hours to earn additional pocket money; not children helping on family farms, not youngsters doing household chores; but children prematurely leading adult lives, working long hours for low wages under conditions damaging to their health, physical and mental development, sometimes separated from families frequently deprived of meani gful educational and playing opportunities that would open for them a better future”.
The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child defines a working child as one who is engaged in any work that is likely to be “hazardous” or to interfere with the child’s education or to be harmful for the child’s health, physical, mental, spiritual or moral or social development.
According to the ILO Minimum Age Convention, the minimum age for admission for employment should not be less than 15 years.
In the framework of the International Programme on the Elimination of child Labor (IPEC) a national child labor survey has been carried out with the financial and technical support of ILO. IPEC) s aimed at promoting conditions which would enable the participating countries to progressively regulate, restrict and prohibit child labor with the view to bringing about full observance of International Labor Standards on the Worst Forms of Child Labor (Convention 182) and on minimum age (Convention 138) for admission to employment and work. The attainment of the objective, interalia, calls for increased availability of statistical information on child labor.
The result of the National Child Labor Survey shows that the total children population of the country in the age group of 5-17 was 18,197,783. Out of this, 9,483,611 children are engaged in productive activities, consisting 52.1% of the child population in the given age
Child Labor in Ethiopia 9
group. Desegregated data by education status of children aged 5-17 years indicate that 43.9% have attended formal education while 56.1% have never gone to school. Of those children currently attending school, 87.8% have attended formal education while 12.2% have attended informal education. The majority of the children attending formal education have completed elementary education only. The current school status of children aged 5-17 years indicated that the majority, about 61.7%, are not at school or have dropped out of school for various reasons
According to a UNICEF report on Ethiopia (2000), children up to age of 18 years comprise 50% of the population of the country and 20% of them live in extremely difficult circumstances. They are exposed to a lot of danger, disease and exploitation. These children include orphan victims of armed conflict, abused and neglected child workers, destitute children with or without families, street children, prostitutes and juvenile delinquents.
Though the Ethiopian government has ratified the UN Convention on the Right of the Child, right and services to which children are entitled, such as protection, development and participation in social services are minimal. UNICEF estimates that only six percent of the needy children in Addis Ababa have the chance to obtain essential services.
CAUSES OF CHILD LABOR
Various reasons are provided for child labor. J.C. Bossio as cited in Focus on Children at Risk and Radda Barnen (2000) states, “Generally, children are paid a salary that is lower than that paid to adults, there is no job security, they are not paid the established wages, particularly for informal activities. Children are a source of work that is almost always flexible for the technically simple activities found in industry and services”. A.K.Abdul Momer as cited on Focus on Children at Risk and Radda Barnen (2000) indicates that factories employ child labor, because, children are docile, cheaper, highly motivated and efficient.
Another reason why children are preferred to adults is that they are uniquely suited for work (Fife, 1993). Fife contends that in reality cheap and malleable labor is the reason that operates behind the recruitment of children into this industry.
Child Labor in Ethiopia 10
According to the Bureau of International Labor Affairs (1994) the following are the major push factors of child labor:
• Poverty is the most usually cited reason for the persistence of child labor. When the family income is inadequate, children go to work either to increase the income or even to be sole bread winners
• Lack of educational opportunities
• Parents' choice- Bonnet (1993) reports that in Africa child labor is understood to be a form of education which initiates the child into a communal life and is valued by many societies.
The report of a National Workshop on Child Labor in Ethiopia held in November in 1995 states: “Many societies, especially poor rural ones, do not necessarily view child work as “bad” rather, it may be part of the socialization process, or it can be termed as a gradual socialization into adult life”.
In one of the studies of Blanc (1994), children themselves indicated a number of reasons for working. They work because:
• They derive satisfaction from work,
• They enjoy helping others,
• They want extra money,
• They have to contribute to the basic household income,
• They are compelled to work by adults,
• They have to support themselves after the death of parents, the collapse of their family or after having been rejected by the family.
TYPES OF CHILD LABOR
According to Fife’s (1989) classification, there are five types of child labor:
Child Labor in Ethiopia 11
• Domestic work: these tasks include cleaning, cooking, and looking after younger brothers and sisters at home;
• Non-domestic and non-paid work: this type of work is mostly found in agricultural sector;
• Tied or bonded labor: this is a form of child labor in which children work to pay the debts of their parents and grandparents. It is also a form of forced labor in which children enter into servitude as a result of some initial financial transactions.
• Wage labor: this includes work in construction, manufacturing, mining, service enterprises, etc.
• Marginal activities; these consist of work activities which are more informal and difficult to identify and measure.
2.2 CHILD PROSTITUTION
The Oxford Dictionary defines prostitution as an "act or practice of engaging in sexual intercourse for money." But there are also other legal, social, traditional and other definitions. William, Evanthe and Chaaramine, cited in Focus and Radda Barnen (2000) state that the meaning of prostitution varies among and within societies and takes a variety of forms based on the activities of the participants and it is extremely difficult to reach at a precise definition of prostitution or a prostitute. Others say that a prostitute is someone who gains his/her livelihood partly or wholly, indiscriminately, without affection, exchanging in sexual and/or non-sexual activities for money or accommodation. There is also a definition which says that child prostitution refers to the sexual exploitation of a child for remuneration in cash or in kind usually but not always organized by an intermediary (parent, family member, procurer, teacher, etc.)
In general prostitution is seen as a social ill that is unaccepted, prohibited and fought in most parts of our continent. Prostitution is not only a question of morality but a human
Child Labor in Ethiopia 12
problem -- a problem of human exploitation, a problem of societal failure in providing equal opportunities. Travelers to Ethiopia have in the past written that it was common practice for traders to keep mistresses along the various caravan routes and that the chen'gerede or denge'tour that follow the noblemen from one camp to another were paid in cash or in kind on special occasions. Apart from the occasional payments they were given land by some of the rich nobility; so they deserved to be called prostitutes.
One of the characteristic features of Ethiopian life in the Middle Ages was the Emperor's camp, a vast establishment that moved around the country at the ruler's wish. In the 16th century Alvarez, a Portuguese priest, wrote that, at the camp of Emperor Lebna Dengil, (1508- 1540) he saw the tents of the prostitutes whom they called 'comarit' which was defined by an Italian linguist at the beginning of the 20th century as meaning a female minstrel or a dancing girl. When Gonder was chosen as the capital of the Ethiopian realm in 1636, the moving camp tended to give way to a more permanent settlement.
The Chronicle of Emperor Iyasu I (1662-1706) contains an interesting reference to a fire which is said to have broken out in 1696 in the house of a galemota, a term defined by the Italian linguist as a prostitute or women of easy virtue. Another development of the period was the adoption of the Arabic term shermuta which was also used in parts of the coastal regions, and was also employed in Harari and Gurage languages.
With the growth of urban centers, especially Addis Abeba, historians say, came the commercialization of tej (local brew) and the expansion of prostitution, during the reign of Menelik II. When some ladies began to sell tej, such places gradually also became places of prostitution.
Prostitution in Addis Ababa appears to have increased substantially in the decade or so prior to the Italian invasion of 1935. The Italian invasion of 1935-36 gave a great push to prostitution in the Italian occupied Ethiopia. The number of prostitutes in the city soon reached considerable proportion. The coming of the Italians who included hundreds of thousands of soldiers and workers thus initiated an extensive and highly developed prostitution, which continues in Ethiopia today.
Child Labor in Ethiopia 13
Therefore, prostitution has been a late comer in Ethiopia as isolated as the country has been for a substantial portion of its history. This illicit trade got a strong push with Italian invasion of the country. At the time, many young men left their wives and children for the war front. This absence of a "bread winner" deprived the women and the children left behind a source of income. The easiest option for the women was to migrate to towns in hopes of getting an employment. Unfortunately, most did not have employable skills save selling local drinks and food. While in this business, they were pushed into sex, as vending their wares did not fully meet their needs.
As the women began to age, the demand for them declined forcing them to recruit younger women. This became normal practice in the trade as thousands of young women from the countryside fleeing hunger and other difficult circumstances got trapped in the business to survive. Then, in time the enrollment of younger sex workers crossed the boundary from young women to children amidst the interface of HIV/AIDS, which has been known to press patrons to look for younger children in hopes of facing less risk of contracting the deadly disease.
The girl child has been moving in the direction of a whole series of unacceptable life choices since recently with as young as eleven years olds being observed in prostitution according to studies in Addis Ababa. These choices have on the whole been involuntary often imposed by adults and the hardships of survival at home. Unheard of occurrences such as child rape and pornography are emerging. Child trafficking to certain countries under the guise of employment has been a lucrative business. Child labor has also become a case in point.
Child prostitution has been a big business involving a whole series of actors from abductors at bus stations, to blue taxis and bar/hotel owners who tend to see children as the spices of their trade. The business actors, oblivious to pervasive taboos, have long abandoned recruiting adult prostitutes. The emergence of AIDS has not impeded the traffic largely due to lack of awareness about it among the children being recruited.
While the crisis is ugly and lethal, just as sad is that it continues to mushroom unabated. Ethiopian law regarding child prostitution is clear and on the whole ahead of its time. But, with the law not being enforced, child prostitution has been an open secret shunned by the law, culture and religion but not exposed and stopped by the same.
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This section deals with the design of the study, sample size, the study sites and design of questionnaires for data collection. In fact, this research has employed both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis.
3.1. DESIGN OF THE SURVEY
Several considerations were made in formulating the sample design. The major ones include determination of the research population, geographical coverage and methods of information seeking due to the fact that they have direct influence on the specification of the overall sample design and wealth of the data. The first step of the study was to conduct a literature review. Past reports on child labor and other secondary data available in the form of policy, child right and research reports were collected. The literature review assisted in the design of the second phase of primary data collection.
3.2. SAMPLE SIZE
Based on careful consideration of the level of survey reporting required and even more so the resources allotted for planning and implementing the survey, a sample size of close to 241 persons were selected for inclusion in the study. These include 116 children, 56 employers, 32 community members, 32 parents, 5 key government and NGO representatives.
3.3. THE STUDY SITE
Criteria were set for selection of the required number of the population. These were magnitude of the problem, rural link and existence of slum neighborhoods. Accordingly four kebeles were selected from:
• Merkato • Kazanchis • Cherkos and Piasa areas.
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Based on the above three criteria Merkato and Cherkos areas fulfil the magnitude and the rural link criteria, where as Piasa and Kazanchis fulfil the magnitude and slum area criteria.
3.4. DESIGN OF QUESTIONNAIRES
The study team designed structured and semi-structured questionnaires based on the target group to be interviewed. The questionnaires were pre-tested and the necessary modifications were incorporated before the final administration. Semi-structured interviews were held with 32 employers about child labor, with100 commercial sex workers about child prostitution, and with 5 NGO and Government office representatives about child prostitution. A focus group discussion was conducted with commercial sex workers (one focus group discussion with 12 girls, 3 girls from each site), with employers (4 focus group discussions with 24 employers about child labor), with parents (4 focus group discussions with 32 parents about child labor), and with community members (4 focus group discussions with 32 community members about child labor and child prostitution). Finally, case studies of 4 commercial sex workers were conducted.
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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
The data collection was done in four selected areas in Addis Ababa. A total of 241 persons from the target groups, namely, child prostitutes, community members, employers, government and NGO staff were randomly selected in the sample areas (residing or working in the area). Accordingly the results are summarized in the following tables.
Table 1: General information about the respondents
No. of respondents Categories of Respondents Male % Female % Total
Working children (Interview) - - 100 100 100
Employers (Interview) 14 43.8 18 56.2 32
Government & NGO representatives (interview) 5 100 - - 5
Working children (FGD) - - 12 100 12
Community members (FGD) 16 50.0 16 50.0 32
Parents (FGD) 8 25.0 24 75.0 32
Employers (FGD) 16 66.7 8 33.3 24
Case Study - - 4 100 4
Total 59 24.5 182 75.5 241
The main concern of the study, children, form about 50 percent of the sample population, while fairly representative samples have been taken into account for the other pertinent groups (table1).
Child Labor in Ethiopia 17
4.1. CHILD LABOR
4.1.1 Findings of the interview on Child Labor 32 (14M, 18F) adults (employers and community leaders) were interviewed to get their views concerning child labor. The responses indicate that (see table 2) shoe shining (18.07%) and lottery ticket selling (13.25%) are the common types of child labor.
Table 2: Types of child labor as identified by employers and community leaders
Types of child labor Frequency of % responses*
Shoe shining 15 18.07
Lottery ticket selling 11 13.25
kollo /injera/bread selling 10 12.05
Taxi assistant/woyala 10 12.05
Peddling 9 10.84
Begging 9 10.84
Prostitution 9 10.84
Weaving 7 8.43
Baking 3 3.61
Total 83 100
* The frequencies are from multiple responses.
It seems that a considerable number of children are involved in these activities. The third highest type of labor activity in which children are involved is serving as taxi drivers’ assistants (commonly known as woyalas) and kollo/injera/bread selling. In terms of the number of children involved in the activity, child prostitution comes seventh.
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Table 3: Causes of child labor
Opinion of respondents No. of % respondents
The need to become economically independent 4 12.5
Poverty 15 46.9
Family problem 8 25.00
No comment 5 15.60
Total 32 100
Table 3 indicates that 46.9% of the respondents identified poverty as the main cause for child labor, whereas 25% of the respondents mentioned problems within the family as the second highest cause of child labor.
Table 4: Effects of child labor on children
Effects of child labor Frequency of % responses
Health problems 27 48.21
Malnutrition 15 26.79
Exposure to various drug addictions 14 25.00
Total 56 100
The above table illustrates that health problem (48.21%) is the main effect of child labor. Health problems identified by the respondents include STD, bronchitis, etc. In addition malnutrition (26.79%) and drug addictions (25.0%) were identified as adverse effects of child labor.
Child Labor in Ethiopia 19
Table 5: Perception regarding child labor
Perception No. Of % respondents
Children with no supporter should be engaged in 19 59.90 minor works
Children should not be involved in child labor at all 8 25.00
Ns 5 15.10
Total 32 100
Most of the respondents (59.9%) believe that children who have no supporters should engage in minor child labor that does not affect their psychosocial and physiological developments. On the other hand, 25% of the respondents think that children shouldn’t be involved in child labor at all.
Table 6: Age children start work
Age of starting work No. of respondents %
12-13 9 28.13
14-15 12 37.50
16-18 7 21.88
Ns 4 12.50
Total 32 100
Most of the respondents (37.50%) indicate that children start work when they are in the ages of 14-15 (see table 6). A large number of children (28.13%) start work when they are 12-13 years old. Thus 65% of the children start work when they are below 15 years old.
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Table 7: Respondents' Solutions to reduce and prevent child labor
Opinion of the respondents No. of respondents % Vocational training 10 31.3 Counseling support 5 15.7 Awareness education 15 46.9 Ns 2 6.1 Total 32 100
Most of the respondents (46.9%) revealed that awareness education should be given to the community about the adverse effects of child labor to the working child and 31% suggest vocational training (31.3%) to reduce and prevent child labor (table 7).
4.1.2 Findings from the focus group discussions on child labor
Focus group discussions were held with employers, parents1 and community members concerning child labor, and the views of the discussants are as shown below.
Table 8: Types of child labor as identified by different groups
Groups of respondents Type of child labor
Employers Cooking, selling drinks, making beds, laundry, cleaning, errands, shoe shining, weaving, prostitution
Parents Prostitution, selling lottery, selling fruits, injera, bread, kollo, selling araké/tella, selling used clothes, shoe shining, carrying goods
Community members Begging, prostitution, shoe shining, taxi assistants, selling food/drinks, selling cigarettes, renting beds, carrying goods, manual labor
1 Parents, refers to parents of children involved in child labour excluding child prostitutes.
Child Labor in Ethiopia 21
As shown in table 8, selling drinks (areké/ tella), shoe shining and prostitution are mentioned by all the three groups of respondents. Thus, selling drinks, shoe shining and prostitution are the most common types of child labor in Addis Ababa.
Table 9: Causes of child labor identified by focus group discussants
Groups of respondents Causes of child labor
Employers Poverty, separation of parents and death of one or both parents
Parents Separation of parents, poverty, death of parents, being unsuccessful in education
Community members Poverty, death of parents, the need of the child to become independent
The discussants indicate that poverty and death of parents are the main causes of child labor.
Child Labor in Ethiopia 22
Table 10: Effects of Child labor
Groups of Effects of child labor respondents Employers • Affects the physical, social and emotional health of the child • Unwanted pregnancy • Malnutrition Parents • Affects the health of children • Children are forced to involve in duties beyond their age • Low payment for their labor • Physically beaten at work place • Exposure to excessive heat or cold • Retardation of the children’s physiological and intellectual development • Lack of spare time to go to school • Lack of spare time to play with their peer groups Community members • Affects the psychosocial and physical health of the child • Unwanted pregnancy • Sexual and physical abuse • Malnutrition • Exploitation of children especially those children who share their income with the family • Physical exertion due to traveling long distance that drains them (lottery sellers travel many kilometers each day) • Exclusion from societal activities • Emotional problems • Addiction to bad habits (smoking cigarettes, chewing chat, drinking alcohol, etc.) • Early sexual experience which expose them to HIV/AIDS
As is presented in table 10 all three groups believe that child labor has adverse effects on the physical, social and psychological development of child workers. However the parents and community leaders groups raised the issue of exploitation both in terms of length of working hours and the meager amount of payment.
Child Labor in Ethiopia 23
Regarding who should be involved in child labor, the majority from the three groups are of the opinion that children from poor families should work in order to support themselves and their parents. However, all FGD groups agree that children should not be engaged in harmful labor that affects the health and development of the child. They identified the following types of labor as less harmful and thus tolerable:
o Shoe shining,
o Selling lottery tickets,
o Selling food items such as kollo, injera, etc.,
o Assisting taxi driver/woyala.
A minority in the FGD were against all forms of child labor arguing that the Convention on the Rights of the Child strictly prohibits child labor and that children are entitled to be assisted by the family, the community and the society as a whole and should not be involved in child labor. The focus group discussants unanimously rejected the following types of work for children to be engaged in. These are:
o Child prostitution.
o Begging.
o Baking.
o Weaving.
As regards ways and means of reducing and preventing child labor, discussants from the employers and parents FGD forwarded the following similar solutions. Both groups are of the opinion that:
The family should provide the child with the necessary support and care such as educational opportunity, food, shelter, clothing and healthcare.
o The society as a whole should help children by disseminating information about child right.
o The government should formulate legislative instruments that should ban child employment.
Child Labor in Ethiopia 24
Discussants of the community members FGD identified as responsible the same bodies as the parents and employers group. However they identified additional responsibilities that need to be carried out. They suggest the following actions that need to be taken by the responsible bodies – the family, the civil societies, the government – to reduce and prevent child labor at different levels.
Actions to be taken by families:
• Avoid stigmatization and alienation.
• Provide educational opportunities and financial support to children under especially difficult circumstances.
• Give proper care to children.
• Pay due attention to children.
• Adopt proper methods of socialization.
• Avoid corporal punishment and ill-treatment.
• Maintain the integrity of the family which is the most vital institution of society.
• Establish strong ties between/among children and parents.
• Practice family planning because a large family size is considered to be one of the root causes for the disintegration of the family.
• Teach children about the consequences of fleeing home.
• Teach moral education and the advantages of the relevant religious values.
• Parents should be advised to treat their children in a proper manner. No corporal punishment should be applied against children. Depending on the resources at their disposal, parents should try to meet the basic needs of their children.
Actions to be taken by civil society:
• Organize awareness creation discussions with children who are in especially difficult circumstances. This is critical to bring about behavioral change of victims of child labor.
Child Labor in Ethiopia 25
• Provide food and other personal effects (property) to working children.
• Disseminate information to both children and adults on the negative impacts of child labor.
• Stop stigmatization of poor children.
• Encourage and support family re-integration.
Actions to be taken by the Government:
• Adopt legislative measures strictly prohibiting bar owners from employing and assigning children under 18 years of age in child labor particularly in the worst form of child labor.
• Create jobs for parents to reduce household poverty, a major contributory factor to child labor.
• Provide vocational training and alternative and appropriate employment for child laborers.
• Mobilize the community in order to address some of these crucial problems, which will affect the normal life of the society.
• Prepare awareness raising programs for the community.
4.2. CHILD PROSTITUTION
4.2.1 Findings of the interview on Child Prostitution
One hundred child prostitutes (commercial sex workers) were interviewed concerning the prostitution they are involved in. The participants were randomly selected from four areas in Addis Ababa where it is assumed that child prostitution is highly prevalent. Twenty five were selected from each area, i.e., from around the Bus Station (Merkato), Piasa, Cherkos and Kazanchis.
Child Labor in Ethiopia 26
Table 11: Age distribution of the respondents
Age No. of respondents % 13-14 11 11 15-16 33 33 17-18 56 56 Total 100 100
As shown in table 11 all the workers are children. Further breakdown of the group shows that 56 % are 17-18 years old, 33% in the 15-16 age range, and 11% are between the ages of 13 and 14.
Table 12: Place of upbringing of the respondents
Place of up bringing No. of respondents % Addis Ababa 46 46 Out of A.A. 54 54 Total 100 100
Table 12 above shows that most of the respondents (54%) grew up in regions and the remaining 46% are from Addis Ababa.
Table 13: Marital status before joining commercial sex work
Marital status No. of respondents % Married 18 18 Single 74 74 Divorced/widowed 2 2 Ns 6 6 Total 100 100
Seventy four percent of the respondents have never been married and only 20% were married before they joined prostitution (see table 13). Among the respondents who have been
Child Labor in Ethiopia 27
married, 18% have run away from their husbands without formal divorce.
Table 14: Major reasons for coming to Addis Ababa
Reasons for coming to A.A. No. of respondents % Looking for job 23 42.6 Disagreement with mother/father 13 23.9 Disagreement with husband 11 20.4 Death of mother and/or father 3 6.0 To live with a relative (uncle/aunt) 3 6.0 Others 1 1.9 Total 54 100
In table 14 it is indicated that looking for job accounts for 42.6%, disagreement with father/mother (22%) and disagreement with husband (20.4%). Three factors, i.e., dispute with parents, dispute with husband and search for employment together account for close to 88% for turning to prostitution and thus the main reasons for running away from parents or husbands.
Table 15: Marital status of parents (if alive)
Response No. of respondents % Married 43 65.2 Separated/divorced 20 30.3 Ns 3 4.5 Total 66 100
Among the children whose parents are alive, 65.2% of them said that their parents are living together. Only 30% of the respondents come from divorced parents. The remaining girls whose both parents are not alive, 59% lost al least one parent when they were below 10 years old. Losing a parent is more likely to push children into prostitution.
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Table 16: Educational background of the respondents’ families
Level of education Father’s education Mother’s education No. of resp. % No. of resp. % Illiterate 7 9.2 8 10.5 Read & write 22 28.9 30 39.5 1-6 grade 10 13.2 14 18.4 7-8th 14 18.4 16 21.1 9-12th 18 23.7 8 10.5 12+ 5 6.6 - - Total 76 100 76 100
The table above shows that only 10.5% of the mothers of the respondents reached secondary level of education and only 6.6% of the respondents’ fathers have completed grade 12. It indicates that the educational background of the respondents’ parents is quite low. This implies low level of parental education, which means less family income and more likely to push children towards prostitution.
Table 17: Age of starting commercial sex work
Age of start No. of respondents % <13 years old 13 13 At age 13 15 15 At age 14 15 15 At age 15 15 15 At age 16 23 23 At age 17 10 10 At age 18 9 9 Total 100 100
As shown in table 17, thirteen percent of the girls have taken up prostitution when they were
Child Labor in Ethiopia 29
below 13 years old. About 60% of the children started the activity when they were 15 years and below, while 23% started when they were 16.
Table 18: Time of starting commercial sex work
Year started No. of respondents %
Before 1998 16 16
1999 12 12
2000 27 27
2001 31 31
2002 11 11
Ns 3 3
Total 100 100
The above table shows that 28 % of the respondents started commercial sex work in and before 1999, and 86% in and before 2001. This indicates that 86% of the respondents have been involved in commercial sex work for two and more years.
Table19: Do the girls like prostitution
Response No. of respondents %
Yes 1 1
No 99 99
Ns 0 0
Total 100 100
Almost all respondents do not like prostitution (99%). Table 19 shows that almost all the girls are involved in prostitution not because they like what they are doing but due to other factors (to support themselves or their families).
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Table 20: Reasons for joining prostitution
Reasons No. of respondents %
Poverty 34 34
Dispute in family 35 35
Death of mother and/or father 6 6
Others 22 22
Ns 3 3
Total 100 100
As summarized in the above table, the major reasons identified by the children themselves for engaging in commercial sex work are: poverty (34%), dispute in family (35%), and death of mother and/or father and other causes 22%. Thus 40% joined prostitution either to support themselves or their parents. Quite a large number of girls (35%) have joined prostitution due to violence within the home. Thus violence within the family is the main cause for children fleeing from home.
Table 21: Place where the girls currently stay
Response No. Of % respondents
Rent room alone 15 15
Rent house in group 48 48
With family 7 7
Anywhere in the street 12 12
Daily or weekly paying for bed 4 4
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Others 14 14
Total 100 100
Table 21 shows that about 70% have a place to spend the at night if they are not with clients whereas 12% live on the street and 4% have no permanent place to stay and spend the night in places that are rented on a daily basis. This shows that the majority have more or less reliable income to pay their monthly rent.
Table 22: Addiction to alcohol, cigarette and chat
Response Alcohol Cigarette Chat
No. of % No. of % No. of % resp. resp. resp.
Rarely 15 15.0 1 1.0 10 10.0
Sometimes 12 12.0 10 10.0 18 18.0
Often 51 51.0 20 20.0 14 14.0
Never 21 21.0 66 66.0 56 56.0
Ns 1 1.0 3 3.0 2 2.0
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
As indicated in the above table, 51% drink alcohol, 20% smoke cigarettes and 14% of them chew chat “often”. On the other hand, 21% have never drunk alcohol, 66% never smoked, and 56% never chewed chat. The data shows that the majority of the girls are not addicted to cigarettes and chat. It seems that alcohol is the major problem so far.
Table 23: Instance(s) of sexual violence while in prostitution
Response No. of respondents %
Never 53 53
Once 25 25
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Many times 22 22
Ns 0 0
Total 100 100
Based on the responses (table 23), most of the respondents (53%) said they have never been raped before. On the other hand 47% have been raped. About half of these (22%) have been raped many times. This is a large number considering the fact that rapists do not usually take appropriate protection measures (using condoms) during the intercourse and the likelihood of the victims contracting STDs or even HV/AIDS is high.
Table 24: Other types of bad experiences while in prostitution
Types of bad experience Frequency of % respondents2 Beating 30 37 Being robed 20 24 Hunger 13 15 Others 22 24 Total 119 100
Table 24 shows that 37% have been beaten, 24% robed and 15% have experienced hunger.
Table 25: Whether they currently have health problem
Response No. of respondents % Yes 25 25.0 No 73 73.0 Ns 2 2.0 Total 100 100
2 multiple response
Child Labor in Ethiopia 33
The above table summarizes that 73% of the respondents have no health problem at present whereas 25% of them have health problems. Among the respondents who have health problems, common cold accounts for 48%, fistula 12% and 36% either could not undergo diagnosis or did not want to reveal their illness.
Table 26: Suggestions to reduce and prevent child prostitution
Solutions to reduce or prevent child Frequency of % prostitution responses
Assist the children financially and provide 66 48.53 alternatives to quit the prostitution
Assist and encourage to continue their education 20 14.71
Create job opportunity 50 36.76
Total 136 100
Provision of financial assistance and creating job opportunities are the main solutions to prevent and reduce child prostitution as suggested by child prostitutes (table 26).
4.2.3 Findings of the Case Studies
CASE ONE: Amelework Moges *
Amelework is a 16 year old child who migrated from Gonder, a city some 850 kilometers from Addis Ababa and in the northwestern part of the country. She has not been to school and cannot read and write. Amelework has two sisters and four brothers. She married when she was 12 years old and divorced the same year. Her mother died in 1999, but her father is alive. Her father is a poor farmer who is not able to fulfill the basic needs of the family. He has married another wife after he lost his first wife. Amelework had difficulties to live with her stepmother. Therefore she decided to leave home because she constantly quarreled with her stepmother and she had also financial problems to buy dresses and other essentials, such as soap, etc. She left her home and came to Addis Ababa in 1999. As soon as she arrived in Addis Ababa, she started looking for a job. However, because she didn’t have relatives she
Child Labor in Ethiopia 34
was not able to be employed as maid. For someone to be employed as maid in Addis Ababa, one has to have or produce a permanent resident who is willing to be responsible (guarantor) for whatever damages the maid may cause to her employer’s property. Due to this she had no other means than being a commercial sex worker. She explained the problems she faced after she became a commercial sex worker, as follows:
• She was physically abused by adults.
• Some of her clients took back by force the money they paid for sexual service.
• Suffers from various health problems such as cold.
• Lack of enough money to cover all her expenses.
• Exposure to excessive heat during the day and cold during the night when waiting for some potential client to pick her.
Amelework has not so far made any attempt to change her occupation. She still wants to be employed as maidservant or to work anywhere and anything except commercial sex work. However she does not know anybody who would be willing to be her guarantee. She seems unhappy with her current life and is very much frustrated. Although she wants to go back to Gonder to her families, she has not saved enough money to cover her transportation expenses and seed money to start small business. When asked about the solution to prevent and reduce child prostitution, she suggested the following
• It is good if an agency/organization is formed which is able to serve as guarantee for maid servants coming from regions.
The government should encourage girl education at their place of origin, especially in the countryside.
• The government has to provide the necessary vocational skills training and work opportunity for girls like her.
CASE TWO: Birtukan Girma *
Birtukan is a 17 year- old girl. She was born at Selale in North Shewa (about 100 kms. from
Child Labor in Ethiopia 35
Addis Ababa). Birtukan has seven brothers and sisters. Her father died 6 years ago. He was a farmer but was also sometimes engaged in petty trades in order to supplement the income of the family. Her mother has been a housewife who became a widow. The family had financial problems to fulfill the needs of all the family members. Birtukan came to Addis Ababa to work as a maidservant in order to provide financial support for her family. She did not attend school and also did not marry. When she arrived in Addis Ababa, she was employed as a maidservant but quit the job because her employers did not pay her salary. Due to lack of alternatives, she was forced to be a commercial sex worker.
After she became a prostitute she has experienced the following problems
• She has been forced into sex without condom many times. • She has been raped by street boys. • She experiences various health problems such as cold, intestinal ailments, etc. • Money and dresses were stolen form her.
She tried to quit prostitution and become a businesswoman but has not been successful because of lack of sufficient capital. She says prostitution is morally wrong and disastrous to the physical and social wellbeing of a person, and that being a prostitute is the worst form of life. Birtukan was asked if she has suggestions for the prevention and reduction of child prostitution and she advises,
• Girls not to engage in prostitution because it is the worst form of work for a living.
• Government and all concerned bodies should provide jobs for prostitute girls.
CASE THREE: Belaynesh Abebe*
Belaynesh is 18 years old. She was born in Addis Ababa. She has never been married. She has attended school up to grade 5. Her childhood wish was to become a medical doctor. Her father died 13 years ago. He was working as a daily laborer. Her mother is alive. Belaynesh has three sisters. Life at home was very difficult for the family especially after her father died. It was very difficult for Belaynesh to continue her education because they had no money to buy exercise books and clothes. The family was unable to feed itself most of the
Child Labor in Ethiopia 36
time. Belaynesh discontinued her education and became a commercial sex worker to fulfill the basic needs of her family. At present she supports her family from the income she gets from the commercial sex work.
Belaynesh had encountered a lot of problems after she became a prostitute. She expressed her problems as follows:
* this is a fictious name • Her properties were stolen.
• She was pregnant and became sick when she tried to abort.
• She was physically beaten by aggressive clients.
Belaynesh tried to change her occupation so many times but failed because of financial constraints. She couldn’t save money because she supports her three sisters and her sick mother. She has no alternative except continue with her current occupation. If she does, her mother and sisters would be in great financial crises. They are not able to survive as Belaynesh said.
Belaynesh was asked to forward her suggestions to reduce and prevent child prostitution. She suggested the following:
• The government should provide support for poor families
• The government should provide skills training for poor girls and also should provide loans to start their own business
Belaynesh at the end said that no girl/woman would like to be a prostitute but the problems force them to be in such a situation.
CASE FOUR: Tigist Abera *
Tigist Abera is an 18 years- old girl. She was born at Wolkite, Gurage zone. She was a fourth grade student and was not married when she left home. Her wish when she was in school was to be a medical doctor. Her father had a health problem for a long time. Both her father and mother were doing small business in Wolkite town. She quarreled with her parents and run away to Addis Ababa. After she arrived in Addis Ababa she was selling
Child Labor in Ethiopia 37
cigarettes. However, one day she met with a drug addicted boy and he forced her to stay the night with him. This boy also beat her. After that night she started to work as commercial sex worker.
Tigist has faced a lot of problems after she became a prostitute. She explained these problems as follows:
* this• is aShe fictious had variousname health problems such as cold and STDs
• She was raped by drug abusers
• She was forced to have sex without condoms
• She sleeps on the street because of shortage of money to rent houses
• She was physically abused by her clients
• Some times her clients do not pay her
Tigist was asked to forward her suggestions to reduce and prevent child prostitution. She forwarded the following suggestions:
• The family (father and mother) should provide the necessary affection for their girl child
• The government should protect girls from drug abusers and create job opportunities
Finally, Tigist expressed that she hates her current occupation and she will reunify with her family in the near future. She says that prostitution has a demoralizing effect on any one. It exposes girls to different types of diseases including HIV| AIDS.
The experience of the above gir under the case study clearly shows that poverty, family conflict and early marriage are the root cause of child prostitution. Their experience also shows that child prostitution affect children p0hysically, physiologically, mentally and emotionally.
Child Labor in Ethiopia 38
Child Labor in Ethiopia 39
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 CHILD LABOR
Ethiopia has ratified all the conventions on Children’s rights including the ILO convention 182. However, child labor is still rampant in the urban and rural settings of the country. Children are engaged in various types of child labor such as shoe shining, selling drinks/food/kollo, selling lottery tickets, assisting on taxis/woyala, commercial sex work (girls) and other manual work. Many children started work even before they reach the age of fourteen, the minimum age for work accordingly the Ethiopian labor law.
The study shows that the main causes for children to involve in child labor are:
• Poverty: To cope up with their economic problems and survival children are forced to involve in child labor.
• The death of one or both parents forced children to involve in child labor as they have no other financial source for their living.
• Violence within the family was found to be one of the major causes for running away from home. This applies to the girls who run away from their husbands in the rural areas.
• To be economically independent: Some children want to be economically independent and start work at an early age.
The effects of child labor on children are multifaceted. Child labor affects the physical, social, emotional and health conditions of the working child. In the focus group discussion, participants expressed that children are exposed to excessive heat or cold, are physically beaten at the working place, exploited with little payment, exposed to alcohol abuse and are exposed to early sexual experience which expose them to other health problems. The discussants further elaborated that girls are at a risk of becoming pregnant and even of being exposed to life threatening infections such as HIV/AIDS.
The study indicated that participants differentiated between very hazardous types of work that children should not take part and less hazardous types in which children could take part due to economic problems. Children who have financial problems should work in shoe
Child Labor in Ethiopia 39
shining, selling lottery tickets, selling food items such as Kollo, Injera, etc, and assisting Taxi drivers/Woyalla. Prostitution, begging, weaving and other work performed by children were identified as hazardous. A minority of the participants strongly argued that all forms of child labor must be prohibited by referring to the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The majority and the family as a whole are not aware of the CRC or want to compromise the rights of the children in order to economic address the problems of children.
To reduce and prevent child labor, actions shall be taken by different actors’ family, civil society, government in and at different levels.
Actions to be taken at family level:
• Parents should be advised to treat their children in a proper manner. No corporal punishment should be applied against children. Depending upon the resources, parents should try to meet the basic needs of their children including education and medication.
• Maintain the Integrity of the family which is the most vital Institution of society
• Establish strong ties between children on one side and parents on the other
• Practice family planning because a large family size is considered to be one of the root causes for the disintegration of the family
Actions to be taken at civil society level:
• Organize awareness raising discussions with children who are in especially difficult circumstances. This is critically important to support victims of child labor.
• Disseminate Information to both children and adults on the negative impacts of child labor.
• Stop stigmatization of poor children
• Encourage and support family re-integration
Child Labor in Ethiopia 40
Actions to be taken at the Government level:
• Adopt legislative measures strictly prohibiting bar owners and other proprietors from employing and assigning children under 18 years of age in child labor particularly in the worst forms of child labor
• Create jobs for parents to reduce household poverty
• Provide vocational training and alternative and appropriate employment opportunities for child laborers.
• Mobilize the community in order to address some of these crucial problems, which will affect the normal life of the society.
• Prepare awareness raising programs for the community
5.1.1 CHILD PROSTITUTION
The study shows that most of the child prostitutes are below the age of fifteen. The majority of the child prostitutes are from outside Addis Ababa and thus live alone. The girls seem to have come from the different parts of the country and from the different ethnic groups. They migrated to Addis Ababa in order to look for a job. The educational background of the children’s parent for the majority of the girls was low. Most of the parents were either illiterate or have primary level education.
The findings indicate that main reasons which push girls to be involved in prostitution were:
• Poverty
• Early marriage
• Conflict with parents, families and/or husband
• Death of mother and/or father or both
• Increasing number of orphan children due to HIV/Aids epidemic
• Distorted image of life in cities where people in rural areas think it is easy to get a
Child Labor in Ethiopia 41
decent job, save money and improve ones life.
The girls have experienced a lot of problems after they engaged in prostitution. Some of these problems were:
1. Harassment by clients if they refuse sex without condom
2. Rape
3. Unwanted pregnancy
4. Exposure to serious health problems
5. Stigmatization, frustration, low self-esteem, loneliness and alienation
6. Lack of support and care in times of difficulties
7. Addiction to alcohol and in some cases to cigarettes and chat.
8. Theft of their properties
The findings of the study also revealed that prostitution is viewed as a hazardous work both by the child prostitutes and the adult groups. None of the girls enjoy what they are doing. By the same token none are in a position to quit it as they have financial problems as well as lack skills to work in other areas. The adult groups view prostitution as a violation of children’s rights, a major societal problem, which needs to be addressed.
The respondents feel that child prostitution can be avoided by paying special attention to the rights of children. If the basic needs of children are fulfilled, they will not resort to prostitution.
To prevent and reduce child prostitution, the following courses of action are forwarded
• Provision of skills training and financial assistance for children getting out of prostitution to start their own business
• Creating job opportunities
• Elimination of harmful practices such as early marriage particularly in rural areas
• The parent should provide emotional support such as love, affection and the
Child Labor in Ethiopia 42
necessary care for children
• Advocacy about the issue of child prostitution for policy makers
• Awareness creation for children and the community
• Design and implement action-oriented projects
• Poverty reduction at the family level
• Provision of care for orphan children (for children under difficult circumstances and without adult support and care)
• Networking among NGOs and stakeholders
• Conduct detailed study on the issue of child prostitution
• Consider a mechanism/agency that could serve as guarantee for maid servants who came from regions could be organized
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are given on the basis of the findings of this study:
• There are various types of child labor, of which the major types in Addis Ababa are shoe shining, lottery ticket selling, selling of food/drinks/kollo and taxi assistants (woyala). Thus interventions against child labor must be based on the national legislation, international laws to which Ethiopia is signatory (such as CRC). Conducting awareness raising programs for children as well as employers, parents and decision makers regarding the harmful effect of child labor is important for the dual purpose of protecting the rights of children currently involved and for prevention in the future.
• The pushing factors for children to be involved in child labors are poverty, death of one or both parents, the need of the child to be economically independent and
Child Labor in Ethiopia 43
violence within the home. Therefore intervention to combat child labor, especially child prostitution must be based on careful analysis of the particular context and the
• situation of children involved. Programs must be planned and sustainably implemented with the full participation of children, parents, the community and employers through developing standardized operational guidelines.
• Children involved in the worst forms of child labor (e.g. child prostitution) experience a lot of problems. These problems have negative impacts on the social, emotional, physical, intellectual, and the overall development of the child. Thus protection measures to minimize abuses will have to be taken by all responsible bodies in government, CBOs and employers. Emphasis must be on preventive strategies through advocacy, awareness creation and organizing various discussion fora at kebele and woreda levels, in schools and CBOs.
• Since the problems of child labor and child prostitution are enormous it is important to integrate several actors. This coordination can be in the forms of networking, organization of forums, building a strong data base and conducting in-depth studies on child prostitution and child labor.
• Education plays a major role both in prevention and rehabilitation and must be given due emphasis. Cooperation must be forged with schools/teachers to maintain vulnerable children in school while tailor-made education programs must be provided to victims of child prostitution. As a preventive measure, the education policy should be tuned in such a way as to enhance girl enrolment of in the schools, and the curriculum should also be tailored to the needs of the child, by, for instance, injecting the teaching of children’s rights. In the area of rehabilitation, raise the awareness of child victims about hazardous labor and prostitution through non-formal education.
• Awareness of the risks of HIV/AIDS must be spread at all levels, which is very instrumental to discourage child prostitution.
• Sensitize and train media professionals, schoolteachers, local authorities, parents and CBOs concerning child rights, effects of child prostitution and child labor.
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• Poverty, conflict in the family, death of one or both parents, early marriage, and rural-urban migration are the major pulling factors for girls to be engaged in prostitution. Communicate information on the risks involved: through schools, churches, community groups, media. Identify girls at risk of migration to towns, for example at bus stations -- both when leaving (at fleeing/departure sites) and when arriving (at usual destination sites) for information and support.
• Give training about child right to law enforcers: judges, police etc. to protect the victim and punish the perpetrators.
• Involve the education sector in the maintenance of vulnerable girls in schools through extra support, tutorial programs, peer-support programs, etc., Improve CRC- awareness in schools.
• Physical and sexual violence, health problems, emotional and social problems such as stigmatization, frustration, loneliness, etc. are the major problems which child prostitutes face. Thus it is essential to improve access to relevant health service, education, recreation and a supportive environment for vulnerable children.
• Target those who are involved in and benefit from child prostitution with information and education to change attitude and behavior.
• Give training to teachers and community members as para-counselors. Support the capacity of the government in the designing of appropriate policy framework and development structure.
• Assess the legal and administrative framework. Identify gaps in policy and advocate for improvements, which are sensitive to child prostitution.
• Start support programs for children at risk of prostitution (street girls, working girls, HIV/AIDS orphans) through provision of access to life skills, education, and alternative income generation.
• Organize supports to reunify/reintegrate girls arriving at bus station in Addis Ababa with their families or communities they come from.
• More research concerning child labor and child prostitution is needed to be conducted at national level in collaboration with all concerned bodies.
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• Form networks at various operational levels involving NGOs, CBOs, schools, government organizations, etc. to form a protective system for vulnerable children.
• Fight social stigmatization of victims and facilitate the reintegration of child victims into families and communities.
The above recommendations to address child labour problems need to be combined with a comprehensive set of approaches that will be based on three main elements: capacity development, service delivery, advocacy and networking. Those together will make possible to fulfill – in some extent- the needs of protection and support of child workers.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANPPCAN, SCD & DANIDA (2001). Local Perception of Children’s Needs & Rights in North Wollo, Ethiopia.
Blanc. C.S.(1994). Urban Children in Distress: Global Predicaments and Innovative Strategies. Longhorn: Gordon and Breach Publishers.
Children, Youth and Family Welfare Organization (1997). Convention on the Rights of the Child. Reprinted in1997 by Norwegian Save the Children. Addis Ababa.
Fife, A., (1993). Child Labor. A Guide to Project Design. Geneva: International Labor Office.
Focus on Children at Risk and Radda Barnen (2000). A Study on Child Labor in the Informal Sector in Woreda 2, Addis Ababa.
International Labor Office. (1994) Action for the Elimination of Child Labor: Overview of the Problem and the Response. Geneva: IPECL.
Report of the National Workshop on Child Labor in Ethiopia. Nov. 1995.
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