STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY EPIGARPHY SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

UNIT CONTENTS PAGE Nr

I INTRODUCTION TO 02

II EVOLUTION OF SCRIPTS 09

III DATING SYSTEM 20

IV EMINENT EPIGRAPHISTS 22

V INSCRIPTIONS AND COPPER PLATES 28

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UNIT - INDIAN EPIGRAPHY

Epigraphy is a sine qua non for constructing the political and cultural history of ancient . Generally, historical information is acknowledged as true when it is substantiated by an epigraphical record. In the study of the history of and , epigraphy has a vital role to play.

What is an inscription? The word epigraphy is derived from two Greek words viz., ‘epi’ which means ‘ upon’ and ‘graphie’ meaning ‘to write’. Epigraphy may be defined as any descriptive and analytical study of the inscriptions. The word ‘Inscription’ is most commonly used as a synonymous with epigraph. This word has been derived from a word Inscribere, which also gives the meaning ‘to write upon.’ According to Dr. D. C. Sircar, “Inscription literally means only engraved on some object.”

The Encyclopedia Britanica states that “Inscriptions are the , incised on some hard permanent material in the form of letters or other conventional , for the purpose of conveying some information or preserving a record. J. F. Fleet has tried to present a summed up description of inscription, like this: “The inscription are notifications, very frequently of an official character and generally more or less of a public nature, which recite facts, simple or complex, with or without dates and were intended to be lasting records of the matters to which they refer.”

In India, rocks as well as lithic, metallic, earthen or wooden pillars, tablets, plates and pots and also bricks, sheets, ivory plaques and other objects were generally used for incising inscriptions. Often writing in such as the legends on coins and seals, which are usually produced out of moulds or dies and also records pointed on cave walls or written in on wooden tablets are also regarded as inscriptions, although these are not actually engraved.

Nature: An epigraphical study is primarily a study related with the letters and words. The nature of the subject is more literary and speaks about the rights and conditions of the days when it was written. Epigraphy embraces three distinctive stages of study. The first stage is taking the copy of the inscription and this is generally called as taking estampages. The second stage is identifying the letters in the inscription one by one meticulously and reading the literary text. This stage is technically called as deciphering. The third stage is applying the literary data for writing of history and this stage is called as analysis and interpretation.

Scope: In India, there is a lot of scope for epigraphy or study of inscriptions strewn over the whole of the country and extended over the centuries. We know that the earliest writing in India belongs to the greatest civilization that existed in this part of the continent, the Sindhu valley civilization. But yet, it has not been successfully deciphered; and final conclusions about this are yet to be arrived at. Leaving aside this, we begin to get a completely developed and decipherable (Brahmi) from the period of the great Mauryan Devanampriya Priyadarsi alias Asoka.

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The scope of epigraphical study is limited to the so called ancient and medieval period in history. It starts from the third century B.C. When the inscriptions first appeared in India and chronologically at the most it can be extended up to the end of seventeenth century A.D. In the context of India, the fortunes in history have changed after the European intervention

Importance: Apart from being vital political documents, inscriptions are endowed with great cultural significance. Perhaps, there is no aspect of life, which has not touched upon in inscriptions. The edicts of Asoka Maurya, have played a very important role in the construction of Indian history. dhamma which refers to a code of morals which he believed to be the teachings of Buddha. Asoka’s teachings relate to practical code of morals but not to metaphysical or theological in nature. In his edicts, he referred the virtuous qualities like compassion, liberality, truthfulness, politeness, self control, purity in thoughts, and deeds, respect for parents and elders, moderation regarding accumulation and expenditure of wealth, absence of vanity, violence, ruthlessness and anger, abstention from slaughter or injury to the living beings. These noble values of humanity which are pretty acceptable to all in everywhere in all times, constructed the Asoka’s concept of .

Asoka was impartial in his consideration of all religious faiths. He did many benevolent activities for the benefit of the people. He practiced what he preached and so he claims that his propagation of ‘dharma’ led to the increase of virtual qualities among the people. He was a great conqueror and builder of empire, statesman and administrator, religious and social reformer and above all a philosopher and saint, endeavoring for peace and happiness. The edicts of Asoka give us a detailed picture about the personality of this great exemplary king.

Prayaga Inscription of Samudragupta has thrown light on the political conditions prevailing at that time. This inscription gives us an account of political career of Samudragupta and his conquests. Inscriptions also give us glimpses regarding the social conditions of the ages to which they belong. An inscription of the king Bukka stated that the emperor settled the disputes between a Vaishnava Jeer and a Jain teacher by making them agree to be friends and raise no points of dispute.

Inscriptions also throw light on social customs. For example, the Brahmadeyam inscription refers to the sati committed by the queen of Rajendra Cola I. The Uttramerur inscription of a Cola king Parantaka I give a picture of the structure and systems of a local governing body at Caturvedimangalam. Sohgaura plaque inscription speaks of the measures taken by the king to deal with occasions of distress among the people.

Many inscriptions have some references to education and learning during their respective times. For instance, Salotagi inscription of Rastrakuta III (10th century A.D.) records the construction of a Sala (School) by his minister Narayana. The record states that the Sala attracted students from all over India to pursue their studies. A similar reference to a Pathasala is available in an inscription at Nagai in Gulbarga district belonging to the Kalyana . It gives a detailed description of the school.

There are some inscriptions which inform the prevalence of the tradition of dance and music. Perhaps, the earliest reference to dance is found in an inscription from Jogimara cave (Second century B.C.) It mentions a Sutanuka, a dancer and her lover Devadatta, a sculptor from . Kudumiyanmalai inscription from is one of the earliest

Page 3 of 32 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY EPIGARPHY SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 inscriptions referring to music. In an inscription from Galaganatha in Haveri district belonging the reign of Chalukya (11th century A.D.).

Ancient Indians developed cultural and trades contacts with south-east Asian countries like Java, Sumatra, Cambodia and Borneo. A large number of inscriptions found in these places which are very much akin to Indian epigraphs in respect of their language and script reflect the expansion of Indian culture in these countries.

Inscriptions are also useful in understanding the economic life of the past. Agriculture was the primary occupation as disclosed by many records. The Junagadh inscription of Saka Rudradaman states that the Sudarsana Lake was constructed during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya and its conduits were set up during the time of Asoka. Later on it was repaired, first during the reign of Rudradaman and subsequently in the Gupta period, during the reign of Chandragupta II as known from their inscriptions.

Inscriptions of post-Mauryan period contain terms like Sresthi, Sarthavaha and Vanika denoting traders. Inscriptions also throw light on the weights and measures used in the ancient and medieval periods.

There are many inscriptions which have stood as a testimony for the religious conditions prevailed through the ages. For, instance the Besanagara Garuda Pillar inscription of Heliodoras (113 B.C.) attests to the strong Vaisnavite movement i.. the Bhagavata cult in north India. The inscription states that Heliodoras, who was an Indo-Greek ambassador in the court of Bhagabhadra, installed a Garuda pillar in front of the temple. Such an admiration towards a Hindu deity shown by a foreigner is in fact worthy of approbation and indicates to the tolerance and equanimity among the different religious sects.

Inscriptions are endowed with high literary value. As early as the 1st century A.D. elements of poetry start appearing in the North Indian inscriptions. Junagadh inscription of Rudraman, dated 150 A.D. the development of the ornate style of Sanskrit prose. The Prayaga pillar inscription which has the eulogy of Samudragupta composed by Harisena, clearly proves that the Sanskrit kavya style was fully developed by the middle of the 4th century A. D. and Talagunda inscription of Kadamba Kakusthavarma written by his court poet Kubja and the Prasasti of Pulakesi II composed by Ravikirti.

Besides, inscriptions are very helpful for studying the development of Indian scripts and . Such studies can be undertaken on more detailed basis of different regions and various languages, particularly early inscriptions for like Tamil, Telugu and are available, the history of these languages could be traced for centuries.

For understanding the history and culture of the Indian people from the time of Asoka (3rd Century B.C.) to the late medieval period, we are entirely dependent upon the study of the inscriptions. The study of a large number of connected inscriptions enabled the to reconstruct the political, dynastic, social, religious, administrative, economic, educational and geographic conditions of a particular period or reign or region could be undertaken.

Kinds of Inscriptions Administrative: The first set of inscriptions belonging to this type is found among the Edicts of Asoka.

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They were written with an intention to broadcast the orders issued by the king among the citizen.

Eulogistic: Inscriptions dealing with the eulogy (Prasasti) form the most important type from the political point of view. Broadly, they are distinguished into eulogy and mixed with other types. The first specimen of an utter eulogy is found in the Hathigumba inscription of Kharavela and the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta. The most important specimens of mixed eulogy are found in the Nasik cave inscription of , the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman and Talagunda inscription of Kakuasthavarman.

Donative: The largest number of inscription belongs to this type. This had been a very popular practice in ancient and medieval times to record any grant or donations made by the king or any authority or a person by an inscription in which the details of the grant are also furnished. Some of the donations recorded are the donations of caves, stupas, images, lands, villages, worshiping articles to the deity at a temple and monetary donations etc.

Commercial: The periods of Indian history subsequent to the Indus valley civilization have not yielded so far specimens of commercial seals or any extensive records of commercial nature. The Nigamas and Srenis has the power of making their coins and seals and use of writing for their commercial purposes through such commercial records on perishable materials could not survive for a long time.

Magical: The Indus Valley furnishes the earliest specimens of these types. Many seals were containing magical formula. The inscriptions very likely contain the names of invocations to the deities’ represented by the animals peculiar to their sects on the seals. Magical formula continued to be written on metals as well as on brick-bark and other perishable materials.

Religious or Didactic: The type includes all those inscriptions, which deal with the statements, the positions and the preaching of religion or morality, So far seals and tables discovered in the Indus Valley, containing religious formula. The inscriptions of Asoka also having the didactic edicts. The Besanagar Garudapillar inscription of Heliodoras, though Votive in character contains a moral precept in its latter part.

Votive or Dedicative: The first deciphered example of this type is found in the short Piprahva Buddisht vase inscription which records the donations of the relic casket of Lord Buddha.

Commemorative: The inscriptions of this type record the events such as birth, any spectacular achievements of martyrdom from the life of a Saint or Hero and death of a king or a protagonist or a warrior.

Literary: There are a few inscriptions having literary in nature. Some inscriptions of ancient

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India record pieces of poetic compositions and dramatic works and their purpose is purely literary. For example, from the Mahanirvana Stupa at Kusinagara was discovered a copper plate containing thirteen lines and recording the Udana Sutta of Buddha.

Conventions: As far as the format of an earliest set of inscriptions i.e the Ashokan edicts is considered, they were most simple and unadorned. They were not elaborate and intricate. The central theme of Asoka’s edicts was to edify the people, so as to ameliorate their disposition and to inculcate them with the elements of what he did call it as Dharama.

The Inscriptions of later period has observed gradually more comprehensive and embellished. The majority of them are donative in character while some are secular in nature regarding the construction of a well, canal etc. These inscriptions are broadly divided into two categories viz., stone inscriptions and copper-plate inscriptions, while stone records are found in thousands in different parts, the copper-plates are naturally limited in number. The copper- plate inscriptions purport to register the gift of land or other privileges mostly to individuals and in a few cases to or institutions. A majority of them are thus title-deeds of land- grants made to Brahmanas individually or collectively. These charters are drawn up according to certain prescribed rules or procedures which are found in the works of Smrtikaras like Yajnavalkya, Brhaspati, Vyasa and Katyayana.

A copper-plate should be drawn up by the royal official, Sandhivigrahin i.e a minister for peace and war, by the king’s order. It should first record the place of issue of the charter, then describe the genealogy of the donor, who is generally the ruling king, for three generations i. e. the father, grandfather and great grand-father (Sometimes from the founder of the dynasty). The royal charter should be addressed to the concerned officials and different communities. Then, the pedigree of the donee should be given including their special attainments and the charter should record the name and boundaries of the gift-land or village and the name of the division and sub-division in which it is located. The details of the date of the grant should be mentioned and the privileges attached to the gift must be specified. The names of the writer as well as the engraver should be cited and the royal seal should be affixed to the grant. These copper plates are called tamra Sasanas. This is the general pattern of copper plate grants found throughout the country, however, some of them vary in some respects occasionally.

The copper-plate grants of the Colas and Pandyas in the south follow a slightly different pattern in the portion dealing with the historical genealogy of the ruling king, the important events and achievements in his career as well as some or all of his predecessors are described. It is this portion of the charter which is of great value in reconstructing the history of the concerned dynasty and in supplying fixed points in establishing contacts with some other dynasties.

Copper plate grants are title-deeds of land grants made to individuals, the stone inscriptions, majority of which are also donative in nature, may be considered as public documents. They record the donation made in favour of the temple, its construction, maintenance and repairs, for various services in the temple etc. Some of the inscriptions in the temple are valuable as much as they supply the information about the builder of the temple, the date on which it was built and other details. The pattern of these donative stone records is more or less the same as that of the copper-plate inscriptions described above. There are several inscription of secular nature also, which record the construction of tanks, wells canals,

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Another class of records known as hero-stones and mahasati-stones are largely found. These are memorials found in large number in Karnataka, Andhra-, and Gujarat. The hero-stones consist of 3 or 4 sculptured panels depicting the fighting scene of the hero who died in defending the village or in some battle against the enemy, other scene in which hero is being carried by the celestial to the heavenly world and the third scene in which the hero is depicted as enjoying the presence of the God. These hero-stones often contain inscriptions which give the information about the hero, the cause of his fight, the name of the ruling king on whose behalf the hero fought, the date of the event, the name of the person who set up the hero-stone in honour of the dead and also the nature of the reward made by the ruler on that occasion.

The mahasati- stones depict the figures of a woman or only a symbol showing her right hand raised upwards, in memory of the woman dying on the funeral pyre of her dead husband, a custom which was in vogue in several parts of the country in ancient days.

Contents/Initiation: It is found for the first time in the Nasik cave inscription of Gautamiputra Satakarni, the Satavahana king and in the Hathingumpha inscription of Kharavela, belonging to the last quarter of the first century A.D. The opening word starts with Siddham. Even the foreign powers like the Kusanas and the western Ksatrapas adopted this which was believed to ensure success and perfection. The other auspicious initiations are , Omsvasti, SriÇmat, Subhamastu, Om Svami mahasena, Namah Sivaya etc.

Invocation: Just after the opening formula in an epigraph, invocation were addressed to the God, deities, Tirthankaras, Buddha, Siddhas, Saints etc, in order to seek their presence as a witness to the deeds executed in the records and to pray for their help and blessings for the successful completion of the undertaking. This was not vogue in the beginning; still there are instances like Sukiti (Buddha) in the Piprahava vase inscription, Devanampriya in Asokan edicts and Devadeva in the Besnagara Garuda pillar inscription. With the development and bifurcation of various cults, the practice of invocation became more and more common and some established invocations are Namo Bhagavata Budhasa, Namo arhato Vardhamanasa etc.

King/Donor: The details of the donor who is granting the donation recorded are of two types. In one case, the entire genealogical detail of the donor who is generally the ruling king is described. Many times the progenitor of the family of the donor is ascribed to any one of the personalities of mythical fame. sometimes, the origin of the family is traced from Brahma, Sun Suryavamsa) (or Moon Candravamsa) etc. In the second case, only the donor with a small note of two or three generations or even without that note is mentioned.

Date: This is optional in the Indian context and the earlier records do not have any date at all. Only the regnal year of the king is mentioned in those inscriptions. But subsequently dates are found both in figures and . The eras like Saka era, Vikrama era, Kali era, Gupta era, Harsa era etc., were made use in detailing the dates. Of these, Saka and Vikrama eras were used on national scale and the rest are regional. The use of Saka era became very popular in

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India in the later times. The earliest inscription has found to use the saka era in India is the Hisse Borala inscription (saka 380) of Vakataka Devasena, while in the earliest inscription to use the Saka era in Karnataka is the inscription (Saka 465) of Pulikesin I.

Donee: The person or the group of people, or community addressed for the donation is recorded. Their details are found at length. Generally, one or two generations of the donee along with the Gotra, Sutra and the Vedic branch to which he belonged are mentioned. Besides, the eligibility of the donee to receive the endowment is also mentioned.

Donation: This portion contains the details of the grant made. The purpose of the grant is specified along with the extent of the land granted, boundaries and other particulars. These details give sometimes the names of hamlets, adjoining areas, river-banks, forts, tree, wells etc. This is very helpful in marking out the ancient geography.

Benediction: These are the verses, indicating auspicious result that would take place by protecting the grants made by oneself or by others. Whatever may be the language of the inscriptions Sanskrit or Kannada, a few customary verses in Sanskrit are commonly found.

Imprecation: The idea of imprecation is to hinder the wrong doing by the successors any other people. It was used a deterrent against doing or committing an understandable act oneself and against abrogating or Violating the good deeds done by other. Some common imprecatory verses are seen in almost all Sanskrit as well as . These imprecations are said to have been adduced by the legends in Dharmasastra such as Vedavyasa, Manu etc.

For all the above contents of the inscriptions that we have gone through, we see that all these did not prevail in the initial stage, but with the passage of time and development we see them followed.

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UNIT - II EVOLUTION OF SCRIPTS Introduction: Scripts have their own distinct function. Several authors have mentioned that the early development of all Indian scripts were either from Brahmi or . The was developed under Semitic influence around 7th C. BC and was originally written from left to right. Whereas the Kharosthi script whose direction of writing is in Aramaic, from right to left, came into being under Persian rule during the 5th C. BC in northwest of India. In the later centuries, Brahmi gave rise to eight varieties of scripts from early Mauryas to Gupta ruling period which were employed for writing during 4th c. BC to the 6th c. AD.

The ancientness of the Indian language is being proved from its soil which says about two types of language form, i.e. spoken and written. The spoken form of language is expressed in two ways. One preserved through folk forms and the other preserved through cave and rock paintings. The songs sung at the time of birth, death and work conditions are preserved; stories were painted through cave paintings which represent the creativity of literature.

There is a need to evaluate the new trend towards assigning a later date of origin for the Indian scripts in the light of broader historical and cultural prospective. After the discovery of extensive urban civilization in Indus Valley, some scholars indicate that the Indian Script is established around 2500 BC. Recent analyses of the signs available in the inscriptions have led several scholars to view that the language is not belong to Indo- European family, nor it is close to the Sumerians, Hurrians, or Elamite, nor it can be related to the structure of the Munda languages of modern India. Most probably it is a developed from Rock Art which found in various part of India.

Paleography: In the study of Indian Epigraphy, Paleography forms an essential and important part and is concerned with the decipherment of the inscriptions without reference to the contents of the records. Epigraphy requires two-fold qualifications of its votary, the ability to interpret the language and contents of the epigraphs.

Paleography is the science of studying ancient or old symbols or signs paleo means ‘old’ or ancient and graphy is the study of symbols. The scripts are very much symbolic and indicate the inner meanings. That is why the scripts can be identified as symbols or signs. Paleography deals with the study of the different scripts that are very much symbolic and were used in epigraphs forming the base for the development of the present day scripts. Paleography is helpful to reveal many ancient scripts which had been shrouded in mystery for centuries.

Development of Scripts in North India: In the north India, the Brahmi script was over a vast area and which first appeared in the edicts of Asoka in 3rd century B.C. Besides Brahmi, Asokas edicts are found in Kharosthi, Aramaic and Greek scripts.

At the advent of Saka Ksatrapas and the Kushanas as political powers in north India, the assumed a definite change owing to the use of new writing tools and techniques. Further a perceivable change in it can be discerned during the Gupta period. The is considered to be the successor of the Kushana script in North India. This is also called as Gupta-Brahmi script.

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From the sixth to about tenth century A. D, the inscriptions are written in a script called Siddhamatrka. This script, from 8th century onwards developed into Sarada script in Kashmir, into pro-Bengali or Gaud in Bengal region and into Nagari in other parts of north India.

In central India i .e in Mahdya Pradesh, the inscriptions of the Vakatakas, Sharabhapuriyas and Kosalas were written in ‘box-headed’ characters and in the inscriptions of Satavahanas were written in ‘nail-headed’ characters.

Development of South- Indian Scripts: The early inscriptions of South India i.e., the Ashokan edicts and Satavahana inscriptions are written in Brahmi script. 7th century A.D onwards, a number of inscriptions found in Tamil Nadu, belonging to the Pallava, the Cholas and the Pandyas, which are written in three different Scripts called Tamil, Vattellttu and Grantha scripts.

The early form of the Kannada- is found in the inscriptions of the early Kadambas, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Salankayanas and the early who ruled the Kannada and Telugu speaking areas during 4th to 7th century A.D. From 13th century onwards, the Kannada and Telugu Scripts bifurcated.

Inscriptions are available not only in India and also in countries like Srilanka, Burma, Thailand, Borneo, Nepal, Java, Sumatra, and Pakistan. It is interesting to note that the scripts used in the inscriptions found in these countries were evolved from the Brahmi Script.

Language and Script: Indus valley, Brahmi, and Kharosthi are three important varieties of scripts that were prevalent in ancient India. The scripts of modern Indian languages have evolved from one of these scripts over the centuries. Many of the Indian scripts such as Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, and were originated from 3 rd Century Brahmi model. The evolution of the script is dependent on many factors such as the , (Stone, Copper, Palm leaf, etc) writing tools, modes of writing and the background of the .

Pictography: The transition from counters to script took place simultaneously in Sumer and Elam, present-day western when, around 3500 BC, Elam was under Sumerian domination. It occurred when tokens, probably representing a debt, were stored in envelopes until payment. These envelopes made of clay in the shape of a hollow ball had the disadvantage of hiding the tokens held inside. Some accountants, therefore, impressed the tokens on the surface of the envelope before enclosing them inside, so that the shape and number of counters held inside could be verified at all times. These markings were the first signs of writing. The metamorphosis from three-dimensional artifacts to two-dimensional markings did not affect the semantic principle of the system. The significance of the markings on the outside of the envelopes was identical to that of the tokens held inside. About 3200 BC, once the system of impressed signs was understood, clay tablets—solid cushion-shaped clay artifacts bearing the impressions of token. It replaced the envelopes filled with tokens. The impression of a cone and a sphere token, representing measure of grain, resulted respectively in a wedge and a circular marking which bore the same meaning as the tokens they signified. They were —signs representing one concept. The impressed

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(Impressed tablet featuring an account of grain, from Godin Tepe, Iran )

Pictographs—signs representing tokens traced with a stylus rather than impressed— appeared about 3100 BC. These pictographs referring to goods mark an important step in the evolution of writing because they were never repeated in one-to-one correspondence to express numerosity. Besides them, numerals—signs representing plurality—indicated the quantity of units recorded. For example, ‘33 jars of oil’ were shown by the incised pictographic ‘jar of oil’, preceded by three impressed circles and three wedges, the numerals standing respectively for ‘10’ and ‘1’. They were the impressions of cones and spheres formerly representing measures of grain, which then had acquired a second, abstract, numerical meaning.

Pictographic tablet featuring an account of 33 measures of oil, from Godin Tepe, Iran

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In first phase, writing remained mostly a mere extension of the former token system. Although the tokens underwent formal transformations from three- to two-dimensional and from impressed markings to signs traced with a stylus, the symbolism remained fundamentally the same. Like the archaic counters, the tablets were used exclusively for accounting. a stylus, made of a reed with a triangular end, gave to the signs the wedge-shaped ‘’ appearance. In all these instances, the medium changed in form but not in content. The only major departure from the token system consisted in the creation of two distinct types of signs: incised pictographs and impressed numerals. This combination of signs initiated the semantic division between the item counted and number.

Logography: Consist of symbols or characters that carry the most meaning among the three writing systems, i.e. they represent entire concepts, but they do not map to single sounds (phonology), e.g. Mandarine Chinese. In a , a or logograph is a character that represents a word or phrase. (including Chinese hanzi, Japanese and Korean ) are ; some hieroglyps and some in cuneiform script are also logograms. The use of logograms in writing is called logography, and a writing system that is based on logograms is called a logographic system. In the and , individual written characters represent sounds only, rather than entire concepts. These characters are called phonograms in . Unlike logograms, phonograms do not have word or phrase meanings singularly until the phonograms are combined with additional phonograms thus creating words and phrases that have meaning. Writing language in this way is called phonemic writing as well as orthographical writing. Logographic systems include the earliest writing systems; the first historical civilizations of the Near East, Africa, , and Central America used some form of logographic writing. A purely logographic script would be impractical for most languages, and none is known, except for one devised for the artificial language Toki pona, which is a purposely limited language with only 120 morphemes. All logographic scripts ever used for natural languages rely on the rebus priniple to extend a relatively limited set of logograms: A subset of characters is used for their phonetic values, either consonantal or syllabic. The term logo is used to emphasize the partially phonetic nature of these scripts when the phonetic domain is the . In both Ancient Egyptian and in Chinese, there has been the additional development of fusing such phonetic elements with determinatives; such "radical and phonetic" characters make up the bulk of the script, and both languages relegated simple rebuses to the of foreign loan words and words from non-standard dialects.

Cuneiforms: Cuneiform is a system of writing first developed by the ancient Sumerians of c. 3500-3000 BCE. Mesopotamia is modern day Iraq and Kuwait. All of the great Mesopotamian civilizations such as the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Elamites, Hatti, , Assyrians, Hurrians and others made use of cuneiform. The word ‘cuneiform’ comes from the Latin word cuneus for ‘wedge’ owing to the wedge-shaped style of writing.

It first began as a system of in the fourth millennium BC. A known as a stylus is pressed into soft clay to produce wedge-like impressions that represent pictographs(disconnected and fragmented of fundamental objects and ideas) and phonograms (syllabic signs and symbols representing primary oral sounds). To understand how cuneiform works – one would pat the wet , then press the stylus to

Page 12 of 32 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY EPIGARPHY SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 it and start writing. After which, the clay tablet is put under the sun to dry and let it last. The pictograms and other symbols were usually used to represent trade goods and livestock. Overtime, people began to develop a to represent multiple instances of the same symbol rather than inscribing them all. Hence, these symbols became stylised and eventually evolved into a complete writing system.

Hieroglyphs: The symbols that are commonly seen on palace walls and ancient Egyptian monuments are called hieroglyphs. Hieroglyphs are characters used in a system of pictorial writing. The word came from the Greek hiero ‘holy’ glypho ‘writing’. In the ancient , hieroglyphs were called medu netjer, ‘the gods’ words’ as it was believed that writing was an invention of the gods. It is said that the hieroglyphs were given by an Egyptian god.

Some motifs depicted on rock images are also found on pottery vessels of early Pre- dynastic cultures in . Although there are several claims about the origins, one of the more convincing view claims it derived from rock pictures produced by prehistoric hunting communities living in the desert west of the Nile especially during c. 3200 – 3000 BCE.

Cracking hieroglyphs:

There are 3 different languages on the . From top down: hieroglyphs, and

For many years, hieroglyphs were not understood as no one could decipher the meaning behind the hieroglyphic symbols. It was believed that the symbols were just pictures representing objects and held no special phonetic meaning. It was until the Rosetta stone, a decree of Ptolemy V (the fifth ruler of the ) of the same text written in

Page 13 of 32 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY EPIGARPHY SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 ancient Greek, demotic and hieroglyphic writing was found (“Rosetta Stone”). There were a number of attempts made in deciphering the text on the Rosetta stone by scholars.

In the 1820s, Jean-Francois Champollion, who unraveled the mystery when he identified the name of Ptolemy V written on the Rosetta stone by comparing the hieroglyphs with the Greek translation. This revealed that the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing was a syllabic language.

Graffiti: The word has multiple meanings or connotations. The etymology of the word is from the Italian meaning ‘scratched’. Graffito is often also used to differentiate ancient examples such as those found in Egypt, and from modern graffiti. The English Dictionary defines graffiti as: “Writings or drawings that have been scribbled, scratched or sprayed illicitly on a wall or other surface in a public place.” This definition would identify the works of street artist Banksy as graffiti, in addition to the ancient examples found in Pompeii and the Pyramids in Egypt.

Ancient graffiti has proved very useful as documentary evidence for archaeologists and historians who are able to ascertain the level of and social interests of the population. Examples of ancient graffiti have been found throughout the world, from the Mayans in Guatemala to Viking marks left in both Rome and Ireland.

Ancient Egyptian Graffiti Just as cave walls were painted and scratched in prehistoric times, the Great Pyramid of Khufu was built in Giza in 2584 BC, the workers left scribbles believed to explain how it was constructed. In addition to this relatively contemporary graffiti, there are also examples that date from the era of the Pharaohs and hieroglyphics. Identifying the graffiti from the original inscriptions is possible, largely due to the different writing systems used at the time for official and more informal text. When considering the ancient graffiti of Egypt, Rome or Greece, it is worth considering the lack of alternative writing surfaces for many ordinary citizens.

Ancient Roman Graffiti There still exists today a wealth of Latin graffiti in Rome and particularly in the preserved ruins of the city of Pompeii. This writing provides a fascinating insight into the lives of the ancient Romans.

Ancient Greek Graffiti In 1976 in , Mabel Lang from the American School of Classical Studies catalogued more than 800 examples of graffiti from ancient times. They date from the 8th century BC to the late 6th century AD and had various purposes.

Ideograph: An ideograph or virtue word is a word frequently used in political discourse that uses an abstract concept to develop support for political positions. An ideograph in rhetoric often exists as a building block or simply one term or short phrase that summarizes the orientation or attitude of an ideology. The term ideograph was coined by rhetorical scholar and critic Michael Calvin McGee describing the use of particular words and phrases as political language in a way that captures particular ideological positions. McGee sees the ideograph as a way of understanding of how specific, concrete instances of political discourse relate to the more abstract idea of political ideology. Robertson defines ideographs as “political slogans or labels that encapsulate

Page 14 of 32 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY EPIGARPHY SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 ideology in political discourse.” Meanwhile, Celeste condit and John Lucaites, influenced by McGee, explain, “Ideographs represent in condensed form the normative, collective commitments of the members of a public, and they typically appear in public argumentation as the necessary motivations or justifications for action performed in the name of the public.” Ideographs are common in and political discourse.

An ideograph is a culturally biased, abstract word or phrase drawn from ordinary language, which serves a constitutional value for a historically situated collectivity."There exists a culturally-specific understanding in each culture about what an ideograph means. Ideographs in rhetoric are culturally specific but recur inter-culturally; meaning the understanding of one ideograph can be used and interpreted differently across cultures. The idea may be different from culture to culture.

Origin of the Brahmi script: The most common script of Asokan edicts was the Brahmi. Some scholars call it Tamili script. There are different opinions among the scholars regarding the origin of the Brahmi Script Some scholars consider it to foreign origin. Buhler thinks that it derived from Semitic alphabets. Dr. D.C. Sircar says, “The Brahmi seems to have derived from prehistoric Indus Valley script of a semi-pictorial nature and was popular in the major part of Bharatavarsha”. Others believe that it has Indigenous origin. Cunningham had suggested that Brahmi script evolved from pictographs. Some scholars are of the view that it was derived from the Harappan script S.R. Goyal is of the opinion that Brahmi script of the Mauryan period was invented on Asoka’s initiative.

There is no doubt that Brahmi script is at the root of all the scripts of northern India. It evolved gradually, changing its form from the Mauryan (third to second century BC) to Sunga (second to first Century BC), from the Sunga to Kushana (first to second century A.D.) from the Kushana to Gupta (A.D. 300 to 550) period and so on. Tibetan, Sinhalese, Burmese, Siamese and Javadwipan scripts derived from the Brahmi. Except the , all Indian scripts - the script, in which Sanskrit, , Hindi and Marathi are written, has evolved from Brahmi as also many modern regional scripts such as Gujarati, Bangla and Oriya.

There is a basic difference between scripts of Asoka’s period and scripts of post Asoka period. In Asokan scripts, there was no horizontal straight line put over the alphabets. On the other hand, all the north Indian letters bear horizontal straight line over the alphabets.

The earliest Brahmi script was discovered at Morva in the state of Bihar during the Mauryan times around 300 BC. These edicts are found all over India in Ashoka’s kingdom which extended even into Afghanistan.

The Brahmi script was used in the entire Mauryan Empire which began in 4th century BC and it extended over vast areas as shown in it, Brahmi, continued to be used until the end of the Gupta Empire the end of which took place in the 7th century. This Gupta Empire was smaller than the Mauryan Empire yet it extended over vast areas of India (Central and North). Gupta Period was followed by Pala Period in the East India between 7th to 12th centuries AD.

The knowledge of Brahmi by Panini and Kautilya was within a limited group of people, the intellectuals who were educated. On the larger scale, it was adopted by the Nandas who expanded their empire very rapidly between the periods 345 to 322 BC. Then Chandragupta

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Maurya took over the empire and he also expanded it rapidly until 298 BC when Bindusara became the king. There was little expansion during Bindusara’s time but when Ashoka took over in 269 BC – he attacked Kalinga. After seeing the bloodshed, he converted into and spread his messages of peace through his edicts and cave inscriptions. In other words, it was Ashoka who utilized the state machinery or the state resources to spread the use of Brahmi. When state machinery is used then things expand at a very rapid rate.

Tamil Brahmi Inscription: The Tamil Brahmi script inscriptions are predominantly found with ancient Tamil Jaina and Buddhist sites. All the Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions found in rock caves of Tamil Nadu are related to . The Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions are found in secular context such as coins, potsherds and others. According to Zvelebil, its origins likely were with the Jains and the Buddhists, but it was soon understood and used by kings, chiefs, potters and other common people from a variety of backgrounds.

. Cave and rock bed Tamil Brahmi inscriptions, as well as those found near Madurai, are typically donator and dedicated resting places and resources for monks. Other major usages of Tamil Brahmi inscriptions are similar to those found in , such as in coins and those that mention merchants and traders of , sugar, iron, salt and textiles. Some Tamil Brahmi inscriptions mention the names of ancient kings, heroes, and places.

A significant archaeological source of Tamil Brahmi inscriptions has been the region between Palaghat gap and Coimbatore along the Kaveri River and to its delta. The excavations revealed nearly two hundred inscribed potsherds along with items relating to iron-smelting and jewelry manufacturing. These inscribed potsherds contain a mix of ancient Indian languages- mostly in early Tamil in Tamil Brahmi, and some in Prakrit languages in Brahmi. These are dated to about 300 to 200 BCE by archaeo-magnetic analysis. They suggest an economic vibrancy, trade and cultural exchange between ancient Tamil region and other parts of India. A similar mix of Tamil Brahmi and Brahmi script is found in shards, potsherds and rock inscriptions all along the coast of the Bay of Bengal, from Salihundam in northeast Andhra Pradesh to ancient near-coast settlements of Tamil Nadu such as those near Vaddamanu, Amaravati, Arikamedu, , Vallam, Alagankulam and Korkai. Discoveries at Kodumanal near Coimbatore have unearthed potsherds with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions dated 300 to 200 BCE. These include names mostly in (Kannan Atan, Pannan), as well as some in Sanskrit (Varuni, Visaki). According to Mahadevan, this admixture of a few loan words of north Indian languages written in northern Brahmi with those in Tamil Brahmi is neither abnormal nor exception in the epigraphical evidence discovered in Tamil Nadu. Arittapatti Tamil Brahmi Inscription The (or Vattezhuttu): Script was a syllabic alphabet used in the southern part India, especially in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It was employed to write Tamil and Malayalam languages. One historical development is that the signs inherited from Brahmi unnecessary to represent the Tamil language were eliminated from the Vatteluttu script, a feature also found in the and most likely was an influence from Vatteluttu.

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The following is the list of basic signs in the Vatteluttu script.

From the 8th century CE onwards, the Tamil language was written with both the Vatteluttu script as well as the Tamil script, a situation facilitated by political fragmented nature of southern India in which different kingdoms employed different scripts. However, by the 15th century CE the Vatteluttu script has been supplanted by the Tamil script in Tamil-speaking areas. Similarly, in 12th-century CE Kerala the developed from the older and therefore phonetically suited the Malayalam language better. This also led to the disuse of Vatteluttu in favor of the Malayalam script.

Grantha script: The Grantha alphabet is a descendent of the Brahmi alphabet and started to emerge during the 5th century AD. Most of the alphabets of southern India evolved from Grantha, and it also influenced the Sinhala and Thai alphabets. The Grantha alphabet has traditional been used by Tamil speakers to write Sanskrit and is still used in traditional vedic schools (patasalas)

Notable features  Each letters represents a with an inherent (a). Other were indicated using a or separate letters.  Letters are grouped according to the way they are pronounced.

Grantha vowels

Grantha vowel diacritics (with )

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Grantha

Writing materials: Bhurjapattra In Sanskrit literally means ‘the birch leaf’ and this in reality a sheet of the required size cut out of the inner bark of the Bhurja or birch tree grown in the Himalayas. Al- Beruni said - “In central and northern India, people used to write on tuz tree”. In the Kumarasambhava of Kalidasa and Buddhist work Samyuktagamasutra, Bhurja-pattra is mentioned as a writing material.

Tadapatra: The Buddhist Jatakas refer to leave (panna) as a writing material. The Tadapatra (Palmyra leaves) were originally indigenous of southern India and then gradually in spread to other parts of India.

Cloth and Hide Pieces of cotton cloth called as Pataor Karpasapata in Sanskrit. According to the required size and shape were used for writing after applying on it a paste of rice or wheat powder and making its face smooth by rubbing them with conch or cowrie-shell etc. Buhler noticed a list of Jain-sutras written in ink on a piece of silk in a Jain Library at Jaisalmer.

Paper It is generally believed that the Chinese first made paper in 105 A. D. Indians must have come to know about the paper through the Chinese travelers. The earliest paper discovered in Gujarat was copied in 1223-24 A.D.

Wood The phalaka mentioned in the Buddhist Jataka stories as writing boards, which were used by beginners for learning alphabets. A large number of wooden sheets materials.

Stone: Stone was used from the earliest times for engraving writing for the purpose of making it everlasting, (Cira-Sthitika). Inscriptions were often engraved on rocks, stone pillars or slabs, stone images or their pedestals and stone articles such as jar or their covers etc. The earliest stone belong to the days of the Mouryan emperor Asoka (C 272-232 B. C). Certain memorial stones like hero- stones, mahasati stones and nishidi stones etc, also contain engraving along with the sculptures.

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Earthen Objects: The inscriptions of a number of Buddhist sutras are found to have written on bricks. Sometimes votive records were engraved on lumps of clay which were later baked and burnt. Clay seals and sealing, both burnt and unburnt, have been discovered in various sites of north India. Earthen pots were used to inscribe generally before being burnt.

Shells and other Non-Metallic Objects: Some Conch-shells were bearing with inscription and votive in character. Seals made of ivory plaques are bearing with legends and mantras are engraved on tortoise shells.

Metallic Objects: Among the metals, copper is largely used for writing in ancient and medieval India. Official charters especially grants made by kings and subordinate rulers were generally engraved on copper-plates. Many bronze images bear inscription, in most cases of the pedestal. An early inscription from Sohgoura, in Gorkhpur district of Uttar Pradesh is written on a small bronze plaque. Cannons of the late medieval period often possess inscriptions. For instance the Mehrauli iron pillar bears an inscription. The bells in temples bear inscriptions recording their gift in favour of the temple.

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UNIT – III DATING SYSTEM The Saka Era: The Saka era is a historical (year numbering), the epoch (its year zero) of which corresponds to Julian year 78. It is commonly known in Indian languages as Shalivahana Śaka or Mahasakkarat ("Greater Era") and continues to be used in traditional calendars. The beginning of the Saka era is widely equated to the accession of king chastana in 78 CE. His inscriptions, dated to the years 11 and 52, have been found at Andhau in Kutch region. These years are interpreted as Saka years 11 (89 CE) and 52 (130 CE). A common view was that the beginning of the Saka era corresponds to the accession of Kanishka I in 78 CE. The earliest known users of the era are the Western Satrapas, the Saka( Indo Skythians) rulers of . From the reign of Rudrasimha I (178–197), they recorded the date of minting of their coins in the , usually written on the obverse behind the king's head in . The use of the calendar era survived into the Gupta period and became part of Hindu tradition following the decline of Buddhism in India. It was in widespread use by the 6th to 7th centuries, e.g. in the works of Varahamihira and , and by the 7th century also appears in epigraphy in Hindu South . It was adopted as the era of the (also known as "Saka calendar") in 1957. The Saka era is the vernal equinox of the year AD 78. The year of the official Saka Calendar is tied to the Gregorian date of 22 March every year, except in Gregorian leap years when it starts on 21 March. The Shalivaahana Saka continues to be used widely in southern India for many religious and some secular purposes such as sowing and agriculture.

Kali Yuga: In Hinduism, (kaliyuga, lit. 'age of Kali) is the last of the four stages (or ages or yugas) the world goes through as part of a 'cycle of yugas' (i.e. Mahayuga) described in the Sanskrit scriptures. The other ages are called Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga, and Dvapara Yuga. The "Kali" of Kali Yuga means "strife", "discord", "quarrel" or "contention" and Kali Yuga is associated with the demon Kali. According to Puranic sources, Krishna’s departure marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to 3102 BCE. Based on a start year of 3102 BCE and a duration of 432,000 years (1200 divine years), Kali Yuga started roughly 5,121 years ago with 426,879 years remaining as of 2020 CE. According to the Surya Siddhantha, Kali Yuga began on 18 February 3102 BCE. This is also considered the date on which Krishna left the earth to return to Vaikuntha. This information is placed at the temple of Bhalka, the place of this incident. According to the astronomer and mathematician Aryabhatta the Kali Yuga started in 3102 BCE. He finished his Aryabhattiyam in 499 CE, in which he gives the exact year of the beginning of Kali Yuga.

Vikrama Era: A number of ancient and medieval inscriptions used the . Although it was reportedly named after the legendary king Vikramaditya, the term "Vikrama Samvat" does not appear in the historical record before the 9th century; the same calendar system is found with other names, such as Krita and Malava. The era was believed to be based on the

Page 20 of 32 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY EPIGARPHY SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 commemoration of King Vikramaditya expelling the Sakas from Ujjain. During the 9th century, epigraphical artwork began using Vikram Samvat

Historical origin: The association of the era beginning in 57 BCE with Vikramaditya is not found in any source before the 9th century CE; earlier sources call the era "Kṛṭa" (343 and 371 CE), "the era of the Malavas tribe " (424). The earliest known inscription which calls the era "Vikrama" is from 842. This inscription, from the Chauhana ruler Chandamahasena, was found at Dholpur and is dated "Vikrama Samvat 898. The earliest known inscription which associates the era with a king called Vikramaditya is dated 971, and the earliest literary work connecting the era to Vikramaditya is Subhashita-Ratna-Sandoha (993-994) by the Jain author Amitagati. V. A. Smith and D. R. Bhandarkar believed that Chandra Gupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya, and changed the era's name to "Vikrama Samvat".

The Vikram Samvat has been used by Hindus and Sikhs. it is based on twelve synodic lunar months and 365 solar days. The lunar year begins with the new moon of the month of Chaitra. This day, known as Chaitra Sukhladi, is a restricted holiday in India.

Kollam Era: Kollam Tontri theory is that the Kollam era originated in commemoration of Kurakkenni Kollam in the South and Pantalayani Kollam in the North. Kollam Tontri is interpreted to mean that the Kollam town came into existence. It can also be explained as the beginning of the Kollam era. Kollam town existed before the starting of the Kollam era. Therefore, it is not correct to believe that the Kollam era was started in 825 A.D. to commemorate the founding of the Kollam town in that year. Moreover, Mahodayapuram was the capital city in 825 A.D and Quilon was the headquarters of the feudatory of the Chera emperor. Therefore, the importance of the place may not be taken into consideration when all Kerala era was started. Kollam Azhinta Andu Prof. Venkataramayya has suggested that a new era appears to have been started in 1096 A.D by Kulothunga Chola to commemorate the important event of the destruction of the city of Kollam in that year by his Commander Naralokavira.

He further says if the Kollam Azhinata Andu dates from the Azhivu or destruction of Kollam, the Kollam Tonri or Tudangi Andu should date from the beginning of the town of Kollam. He also suggests that they Ay King migrated from Vizhinjam to Quilon when he was successively defeated by the Pandya King, Sri Mara Sri Vallabha (815-862 A.D). In course of time, this era was accepted throughout Kerala, Tirunelveli, Madurai, Ceylin, etc. This story has been accepted as the correct explanation of the origin of the Kollam era.

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UNIT - IV EMINENT EPIGRAPHISTS James Prinsep: James Prinsep has arrived in India in 1819, he was appointed assistant assay-master at the Kolkata mint and was soon promoted as assay-master of the Benares Mint.

In 1830, Prinsep returned to Kolkata mint as deputy assay-master to work again under Dr H. H. Wilson, who was secretary to the Asiatic Society of Bengal and had authored the first Sanskrit-English Dictionary. In 1832, Dr Wilson joined Oxford University as the first professor of the newly founded chair of Sanskrit. Prinsep succeeded him as an assay-master. He was also nominated to succeed him as secretary to the Asiatic Society. By merging Gleanings in Science with the society, he altered its name to that of Journal of the Asiatic Society. he was flooded with reports of archaeological finds, collections of coins and facsimiles of inscriptions for study and publication. He even got cooperation from unexpected quarters. Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s French General Jean Baptiste Ventura, for instance, who excavated Buddhist stupa at Manikyala, near Rawalpindi, sent his findings to James Prinsep. Similarly, Claude Auguste Court, another French officer in the Maharaja’s army, sent coins and inscriptions from Punjab to the Asiatic Society.

James Prinsep now devoted himself to the study of antiquities of India, particularly to deciphering of ancient inscriptions and cultivated this branch of with a passion that carried his discoveries beyond those of his predecessors. His greatest achievements were in epigraphy and . By unlocking the mystery of both Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts and the decipherment of numerous inscriptions, including those related to Ashoka. With these discoveries, he was brought into communication with distinguished orientalists, which produced many evidences of reciprocal esteem. Many literary societies of the West paid him the compliment of electing him a corresponding member. Institute de France also named him for this distinction.

John Faithfull Fleet: Fleet was born to John George Fleet, a London wholesale sugar dealer and Esther Faithfull of Headley and Surley England, in 1847. He was educated at the Merchant Taylor School in London. He was an English civil servant and became known as a , epigraphist and linguist.

Early career Fleet was appointed to the Indian Civil Service (ICS) in the year 1865, and to prepare himself for this he studied Sanskrit at University College London. In 1867, he moved to the Bombay Presidency (then a British province in western India) and soon held the posts of Assistant Collector and then Magistrate, Educational Inspector, in the Southern Division (1872), Assistant Political Agent in Kolhapur and the Southern Maratha Country (1875), and Collector and Magistrate (1882).

Fleet was soon establishing a reputation through his on the epigraphy and history of Southern India in for such as the Bombay Asiatic Society and The Indian Antiquary, founded in 1872. He also published his works on the Pali, Sanskrit and old Kanarese Inscriptions in 1878. Fleet became the first epigraphist of the Government of India when such a post was created in 1883.

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The Inscriptions of The Early Gupta Kings and their Successors (1889), forming third volume of the Corpus Inscriptionarum Indicum, was a well-regarded example of his scholarship. He was appointed the Senior Collector in 1889, Commissioner of the Southern divisions in 1891, and also Central Divisions in 1892. He was made the Commissioner of Customs in 1893. In 1895, the best of his works, The Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts of The Bombay Presidency from the earliest historical times to the Musalman Conquest, was published in the Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. It was a synthesis of all the data that he had collected over years through epigraphic and historical sources in his areas of interest.

Retirement and Death: Fleet retired from the ICS in 1897 and returned to England to settle in Ealing. He was able to devote his full-time to his epigraphical studies and continued with his valuable contributions to the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland and Epigraphia Indica. In 1906, he became the Honorary Secretary of the Society and was awarded its "gold medal" in 1912.Before his death in 1917 at age 69, he published the Ballads of the Peasantry with its music in the Indian Antiquary.

Johann Georg Buhler: He was a great scholar of ancient Indian languages and law. Buhler was born to Rev. Johann G. Buhler in Borstel, , attended grammar school in Hanover, where he mastered Greek and Latin, then university as a student of theology and philosophy at Gottingen, where he studied classical , Sanskrit, Persian, Armenian, and . In 1858, he received his doctorate in eastern languages and archaeology. He went for Paris to study in Sanskrit , and in 1859 onwards to London, where he remained until October 1862. This time was used mainly for the study of the Vedic manuscripts at the India Office and the Bodleian Library at Oxford University. He was in England, Buhler was first a private teacher and later assistant to the Queen's librarian in Winstor Castle.

In 1862 Buhler was appointed assistant at the Gottingen library; While settling in, he received an invitation via Prof. Max Muller to join the Benares Sanskrit College in India. Before this could be settled, he also received an offer of Professor of Oriental Languages at the Elphinstone College, Bombay. Buhler responded immediately and arrived on February 10, 1863 in Bombay. Buhler became a Fellow of Bombay University and member of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. He was to remain in India until 1880. During this time he collected a remarkable number of texts for the Indian government and the libraries of Berlin, Cambridge University and Oxford University.

In the year 1878 he published his translations of the Paiyalachchhi, the oldest Prakrit dictionary, with glossary and translation. He also took responsibility for the translation of the Apastamba, Dharmasutra etc. On 8 April 1898 Bühler was died.

Hultzsch (1857-1927): Euger Julius Theodor Hultzsch was a German Indologist. He joined the Archaeological Survey of India as an Epigraphist in 1886. he became Government Epigraphist which post he held till 1903. He copied a large number of inscriptions from the temples and other places in south India and published them in the Annual Reports on South Indian Epigraphy. He began the series of South Indian Inscriptions volumes. He has edited Epigraphia Indica volumes III to VIII and part of Vol. IX. His important contribution is the revision of the Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol. I contain the inscriptions of Asoka which was edited by Cunningham.

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Hosakote Krishna Sastri (16 September 1870 – 8 February 1928) He was an Indian epigraphist with the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). He is known for his work in deciphering Brahmi inscriptions of Asoka at Maski and inscriptions of the Pallavas. Sastri edited volumes XVII, XVIII and XIX of ‘’Epigraphia Indica’’ and authored a book titled "South Indian images of Gods and ". Krishna Sastri was also known for his pioneering work in deciphering Tamil - Brahmi inscriptions. In a 1919 paper co-authored with K.V. Subramaniya Aiyer, Sastri identified Tamil words in the Brahmi inscription found at Mangulam.

Valaiyattur Venkayya (1 July 1864 – 21 November 1912) He was an Indian epigraphist and Historian. He served as the Chief Epigraphist to the Government of India from 1908 to 1912. Venkayya was born on 1 July 1864 in the town of Valaiyattur near Arani in the then Tiruvannamalai district. His father Appa Sitarama Ayyar, a Tamil scholar, was a direct descendant of Advaita savant Appaya Dikshitar. Venkayya graduated in Physics from the University of Madras.

Venkayya's mastery of South Indian languages and scripts was recognised by E. Hultzsch who inducted him to the epigraphical department of the Madras government. Venkayya served as Chief Epigraphist to the Government of Madras till 1908, and then succeeded Hultzsch on his retirement, as the Chief Epigraphist to the Government of India.

Venkayya made a pioneering effort in studying inscriptions in Peruvudaiyar Temple in Thanjavur and temples in the Pallava and Pandya countries. He also made significant contributions to Epigraphia Indica.

Venkayya was also one of the champions of the Parthian origin theory of the Pallavas. He also tried to decipher the inscriptions on Mankulam Hill. Venkayya died on 21 November 1912

Benjamin Lewis Rice (17 July 1837 – 10 July 1927) He is familiarly known as B. L. Rice. He was a British historian, archaeologist and educationist. He is known for his pioneering work in deciphering inscriptions, especially in Kannada, and in Sanskrit, Telugu and in the Kingdom of Mysore. Rice's researches were published as the voluminous , which contains translations of about 9000 inscriptions. Rice also compiled the Mysore Gazetteer which still remains the primary source of information for most places in Mysore and neighbouring Coorg. Rice served with distinction in the Mysore civil service and as first Director of the Archaeology Department.

Benjamin Lewis Rice was born in Banglore on 17 July 1837 to Rev. Benjamin Holt Rice who was associated with the London Missionary service (LMS). Rev. Rice was a Kannada scholar and wrote in Kannada on arithmetic, geography and history. Rice had his early education in Mysore State and graduated in the United Kingdom in 1860. Rice returned to India where he was appointed Principal of the High School. Five years later, he joined the Mysore Civil Service as Inspector of Schools for Mysore and Coorg. In 1868, he acted as Director of Public Instruction. From 1881 to 1883, Rice served as Chief Census Officer for Mysore State and was in 1883, appointed Secretary of the Education Department of Mysore.

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In 1884, Rice was appointed head of the Mysore State Archaeology Department, the first to occupy the post. Rice toured the whole of the state from 1886 till his retirement in 1906, documenting his findings in the Epigraphia Carnatica.

In 1873 Rice was appointed to compile gazetteers for Mysore and the neighboring Coorg Province. In 1879, Rice published about 9,000 inscriptions in Sanskrit, Kannada and Tamil in the book Mysore Inscriptions. In 1882, he published a catalog of all inscriptions found in the princely state.

During his tenure, Rice discovered Roman coins in parts of Karnataka, and also some Ashokan edicts. Rice established that an important dynasty which founded the kingdom of Nepal owed its origin to Nanyadeva, who came from the Ganga dynasty of Mysore. Just before his retirement in 1906, Rice published six volumes of the Biblotheca Carnatica, a collection of major Kannada literary texts.

Robert Sewell(1845–1925) He has worked in the civil service of the Madras Presidency during the period of colonial rule in India. He was Keeper of the Madras Record Office and was tasked with responsibility for documenting ancient inscriptions and remains in the region, He was specialized in the subject of the . He wrote the monumental work entitled, A Forgotten Empire Vijayanagar in 1900. Sewell undertook archaeological work, including at the Buddhist stupa at Amaravati, which had already been largely destroyed prior to his arrival. The site had previously been surveyed by Colin Mackenzie and Walter Elliot. Sewell was guided by various native speakers of the Kannada, Malayalam, Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu languages spoken there.

K.V. Raman He was born in 1934. He is a well known archaeologist and Historian in Tamilnadu. He authored a number of published works, edited many volumes in art, architecture, archaeology and History. He wrote many articles also in the reputed journals. He was formerly Professor and Head of Ancient History and Archaeology in the University of Madras. His Magnum Opus is, Sri Varadarajaswami Temple at Kanchi – A Study of its History, Art and Architecture. His other important works includes Temple Art, Icons and and South East Asia, Aspects of Indian History and Culture, Archaeology, History and Numismatics of South India, Early History of Madras Region, Some Aspects of Pandya History in the light of recent discoveries, Principles and Methods of Archaeology, Excavations at . He made an extensive research in the field of epigraphy.

R.Nagasamy Nagaswamy was born on 10 August 1930 to Sanskrit scholar Ramachandran Sastrigal. He graduated in Sanskrit from the University of Madras and pursued a master's degree in Sanskrit. Nagaswamy obtained his PhD in arts and archaeology from the University of Poona. Nagaswamy underwent archaeological training under the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and in 1959, joined the Government Museum, Chennai as curator for art and archaeology.

Nagaswamy served as curator for art and archaeology in the Government Museum in Chennai from 1959 to 1963. In 1963, he was appointed assistant special officer for archaeology

Page 25 of 32 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY EPIGARPHY SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 of Tamil Nadu state and from 1966 to 1988; he headed the newly formed Tamil Nadu Archaeology department.

Nagaswamy made archaeology a very popular subject in Tamil Nadu, especially among children through publication of pocket book guides. He was also responsible for involving several thousand school and college students in cleaning and preserving nearby historical laces and monuments. He was responsible for protecting several historic monuments like the first century Chera inscriptions at Pugalur the palace site of the Imperial Cholas at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thirumalai Nayak palace at Madurai, the 17th Century Danish Fort at Tranquebar, and the birthplace of poet Subramania Bharati at Ettayapuram, besides excavating the palace site of Virapandya Kattabomman at Panchalankurichi.

Nagaswamy was awarded the "Kalaimamani award by the Government of Tamil Nadu for his pathbreaking work on Sekkilar s Periyapuranam. Nagaswamy has been awarded the Padma Bhushan award in the year 2018. His important works includes, Art and culture of Tamil Nadu. The sensuous and the sacred: Chola from South India, Facets of South and Architecture. International, Art and religion of the Bhairavas, Monumental Legacy Series: Mahabalipuram, Thirukkural an Abridgement of Sastras.

Iravatham Mahadevan (2 October 1930- 26 November 2018) He was an Indian epigraphist and civil servant, known for his decipherment of Tamil- Brahmi inscriptions and for his expertise on the epigraphy of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Iravatham Mahadevan was born on 2 October 1930 in a Tamil family of Thanjavur district. Mahadevan had his schooling in the town of Tiruchirapalli and graduated in Chemistry from the Vivekananda College, Chennai and law from the Madras Law College. Mahadevan successfully passed the Indian Administrative Service examinations held in 1953.

Tamil Brahmi Inscriptions: There are several caves in Tamil Nadu with inscriptions in the Brahmi script. K.V.Subrahmaniya Iyer says they are in Tamil. Mahadevan had become acquainted with the noted epigraphist and art historian Sivaramamurti who initiated him into the basics of South Indian epigraphy.

Mahadevan first published his study of Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions at Pugalur in Kerala in 1965 following those of Mangulam. Mahadevan presented his paper on Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions in Madras which was later published as the book Corpus of the Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. After a brief period of research with the Indus script, Mahadevan resumed his work on Tamil-Brahmi in 1992 with active support from the Tamil Nadu Archaeological Department.

Indus script: Mahadevan started his research on the Indus script following a brush with W.W. Hunter book on the Indus Script at India's Central Secretariat Library in Delhi. In 1970, Mahadevan was offered the Jawaharlal Nehru Fellowship to do his doctoral research on the Indus Script. Mahadevan continued his research even after his fellowship ended and published his first book Indus Script: Concordance and Tables in 1977. Following a break from 1991 to 2003 to complete his research on Tamil epigraphy, Mahadevan resumed his studies again in 2003.

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The Indus Script: Texts, Concordance and Tables (1977) are the only openly available corpus of the Indus Script. He wrote over 40 papers to further the Dravidian hypothesis of the Indus Script and argues for continuity between the written records of Indus and the oral transmissions from the Rig Veda. He was instrumental in firmly establishing the view of K.V. Subrahmanya Aiyer that the writings found in the caves of Tamil Nadu in a script similar to Brahmi are a variant of Brahmi, which Mahadevan calls Tamil Brahmi, and in ascertaining that the language of the script is indeed Tamil. Mahadevan went on to read the names and titles of several generations of Pandiya and Chera kings in Tamil Brahmi writings, all corroborated in early Tamil literature.

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UNIT- V INSCRIPTIONS AND COPPER PLATES Uttramerur Inscriptions: Uttramerur originally existed as a Brahmin settlement. The Pallava king Nandivarman II (720–796 CE) formally established it as a brahmadeya village around 750 CE. He donated the village to Vedic Brahmins from Srivaishanva community. A tenth century inscription states the name of the village as "Uttramerur Chaturvedi Mangalam".

Village administration: The temple inscriptions of Uttramerur are notable for their historical descriptions of the local self governance. They indicate that Uttramerur had two village assemblies: Sabha and Ur. The Sabha an exclusively Brahmin (priestly class) assembly, while the Ur was made up of people belonging to all the classes.

Two inscriptions of the Chola king Parantaka I (907–955) indicate the evolution of the administrative system. Instead of variyars, the executive powers were given to committees called variyams. Each variyam constituted 6 to 12 members, depending on the importance of its functions. The first inscription, dated to 919 CE, describes the rules for electing the committee members. The second inscription, dated to 921 CE, describes some amendments to these rules to make them more practical.

According to the 921 CE inscriptions, the village had 30 kudumbus or wards, from which the members of following committees were selected annually: Name Number of Meaning members Samvatsara- 12 Annual Committee (or Garden and Tank Committee, Variyam since its membership was restricted to the elders who had served on these two committees) Totta-Variyam 12 Garden Committee Eri-Variyam 6 Tank Committee Panchavara- Unknown Standing Committee Variyam Pon-Variyam Unknown Gold Committee

The inscription lays down the following qualifications for a nominee: a. Ownership of tax-paying land sized at least one-fourth of a veli (about an acre and a half). The land-owning requirement was reduced to one-eighth veli for people who had learned at least one Veda and one Bhashya. b. Residence in a house built on self-owned land c. Age between 35 and 70 years d. Knowledge of mantras and the Brahmanas (Vedic literature)

Not one of the following: a. An existing committee member (any committee) for the past 3 years b. An existing committee member who (or whose relatives) had failed to submit accounts c. One who (or whose relatives) had committed incest or first of the 5 great sins (the 5 great sins being killing a Brahmin, drinking alcohol, theft, adultery and associating with criminals).

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d. One who has been an outcaste for association with low caste (unless he performs expiatory ceremonies) e. One who is foolhardy f. One who has stolen the property of others g. One who has taken forbidden dishes

The candidates were selected via Kudavoloi (literally, pot [of] palm leaf [tickets]) system. a. Names of qualified candidates were written on palm leaf tickets b. The tickets were put into a pot and shuffled c. A young boy was asked to take out as many tickets as the number of positions available d. The name on the ticket was read out by all the e. The candidate, whose name was read out, was selected

The tenure of a committee member was 360 days. Anyone found guilty of an offence was immediately removed from the office. The Uttramerur inscriptions indicate that parading on donkey was a punishment for offences such as incest, adultery, theft and forgery.

Manur Inscription The inscription of Maran Sadaiyan at Manur in Tirunelveli district describes the autonomous village assembly in the district especially in the Brahmadeya village. The village assembly proclaimed the general body meeting by beat of drum. It records the rules governing the membership of the Sabha of the village. In the case of a Sabha it is learnt from this record that only Brahmins were ‘elected’ to committees. Like the Manur Sabha, village assemblies were functioning in several other villages in the Pandya country during the Eight and Ninth Centuries A.D. An inscription from Tiruchendur Views that the King Varaguna distributed among sixteen villages a large endowment he made to the local temple for meeting the cost of service in the temple throughout the twelve months of the year.

Kuram Copper Plates The original of the subjoined grant was bought for Government from the Dharmakarta of Kuram, a village near Kanchipuram. It is engraved on seven this copper- plates, each of which measures 10 1/8 by 3 ¼ inches. Of the seventh plate about one half is completely lost. Next to it, the first, fifth and sixth plates have suffered most. An elliptic ring, which is about 3/8 inch thick and measures 4 by 4 ¾ inches in diameter is passed through a hole on the left side of each plate. The seal is about 2 ½ inches in diameter and bears a bull, which is seated on pedestal, faces the left and is surmounted by the moon and a linga. The language of the first 4 ½ plates of the inscription is Sanskrit,-verse and prose; the remainder is written in Tamil. The Sanskrit portion opens with three benedictory verses, of which the two first are addressed to Siva and the third mentions the race of the Pallavas.

The historical part of the inscription describes three kings, viz., Paramesvaravarman, his father Mahendravarman and his grandfather Narasimhavarman of Narasimhavarman it says, that he “repeatedly defeated the Cholas, Keralas, Kalabhras and Pandyas,” that he “wrote (three) of (the word) vijaya (i.e., victory), as on a plate, Pulikesin’s back, which was caused to be visible (i.e., whom he caused to turn his back) in the battles of Pariyala, Manimangala, Suramara, etc.,” and that he “destroyed (the city of) Vatapi.” A laudatory description of the virtues and deeds of his son Paramesvaravarman fills two plates of the inscription. The only historical fact contained in this long and difficult passage is that, in a terrible battle, he “made Vikaramaditya,-whose army consisted of several lakshas,-take to

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The three kings who are mentioned in the Kuram grant, viz., Narasimhavarman, Mahendravarman and Paramesvaravarman, are identical with three Pallava kings of Narasimhavarman I, Mahendravarman II and Paramesvaravarman I. Narasimhavarman I destroyed Vatapi” and that he defeated Vallabharaja at Pariyala, Manimangala, Suramara, and other places.

The grant is recorded in Sanskrit and Tamil. Paramesvaravarman I gave away the village of Paramesvara-mangalam,-which was evidently named after the king himself and divided into twenty-five parts. Of these, three were enjoyed by two Brahmanas, Anantasivacharya and Phullasarma, who performed the divine rites and looked after repairs of the Siva temple at Kuram. This temple was called Vidyavinita-Pallava-Paramesvara, built by Vijayavinitha- Pallava. The fourth part was set aside for the cost of providing water and fire for the mandapa at Kuram, and the fifth for reciting the Bharata in this mandapa. The remaining twenty parts were given to twenty Chaturvedins.

At the time of the grant, the village of Kuram belonged to the nadu of Nirvelur, a division of Urrukkattukkottam and the village of Paramesvaramangalam belonged to the Panma-nadu, a division of Manyirkottam.

Velvikudi Copper-Plate The Velvikudi inscription is an 8th-century bilingual copper plate from the Pandya kingdom of southern India. Inscribed in Sanskrit and Tamil languages, it records the renewal of a grant of the Velvikudi village to a brahmana by the Pandya king Nedunjadaiyan Varaguna- varman I alias Jatila Parantaka in c. 769-770 CE.

The grant was made in the third regnal year of the king Nedunjadaiyan, dated in 769- 770 CE.

Physical Features:  The record is in form of ten copper plates, each measuring 27.5 x 8 cm.  The plates are held together by a thin copper ring, without a seal.  's Indian Charters on Copper Plates in the Department of Oriental Manuscripts and Printed Books (1975) states that these copper plates were found at Madakulam.

Language: The inscription features Sanskrit language inscribed in Grantha script (lines 1-30 and 142-150), and Tamil language inscribed in Vatteluttu script (lines 31-141 and 151-155). The Tamil portion also uses the Grantha script for words of Sanskrit origin. The Sanskrit portion was composed by Varodayabhatta, who is described as "a performer of all sacrifices" (Sarvakratuyajin). The Tamil portion was composed by Senapati Enadi alias Chattan Chattan.

The inscription includes prashasti (eulogy) portions written in both Sanskrit and Tamil. In the earlier inscriptions from the Tamil-speaking region, issued by the Pallavas, the prashasti portion is written only in Sanskrit while the use of Tamil is restricted to the transactional portions. The later inscriptions, issued by the Cholas, also follow the Pallava

Page 30 of 32 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY EPIGARPHY SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 model. The Velvikudi inscription is the earliest extant inscription that features prashasti portions written in both Sanskrit and Tamil. H. Krishna Sastri, who first edited and translated the inscription, suggested that the Sanskrit part may have been added later to give the inscription a "dignified appearance".

Sanskrit portion: The inscription begins with a Sanskrit portion that invokes the god , and describes the mythical lineage of the Pandya kings, naming the sage Agastya as their family . It gives the following account of the dynasty's origin: Maravarman's son Ranadhira was an able ruler like his ancestors, and Ranadhira's son Maravarman (II) alias Rajasimha was a powerful, prosperous, truthful and learned ruler. The enemy king Pallavamalla ran away from the battlefield when faced with Rajasimha, wondering if the Pandya king was Shiva, Vishnu, or Indra. Rajasimha generously distributed his wealth among the brahmanas, beggars and temples. He married the daughter of the Malava king, and their son was the next ruler, Jatila. (Sastri identified Malava with modern Mala-nadu. Jatila alias Parantaka was almost equal to Skanda, the son of Shiva.

Tamil portion: Historical context The Tamil portion begins with the description of a past event, and goes on to describe the achievements of the issuer king's ancestors:

Narkorran, a brahmana and a headman of Korkai, completed a Vedic sacrifice at Velvikudi (Vēḷvikkuṭi), with support of the Pandya king Palyaga Mudukudimi Peurvaluti. The inscription defines the boundaries of the Velvikudi village with reference to landmarks such as vegetation, ponds, mounds, and other villages such as Payal and Kulandai. Both Korkai and Velvikudi were located in a subdivision called Paganur-kurram, which had fertile agricultural fields. Based on a petition from the brahmanas of the Paganur-kurram, the king granted the village to Narkorran.

Subsequently, a Kali king named Kalabhran (identified with the Kalabhras) conquered the whole Pandya country, including Velvikudi. After some time, the Pandya king Kadungon recaptured his ancestral territory from the enemies. Kadungon's son was Avani Sulamani Maravarman, whose son was Seliyan Vanavan Sendan.

Tamil portion: Grant The Velvikudi inscription provides the earliest extant reference to the establishment of a Brahmadeya (land grant to a brahmana) in the Tamil-speaking region. It records Nedunjadaiyan's renewal of a grant made by his purported ancestor, the ancient Pandya king Palyaga Mudukudimi Peurvaluti.

The inscription states that during the third year of Nedunjadaiyan's reign, a man arrived at the Pandya capital Kudal (Kūṭal or Madurai), and complained that Velvikudi had not been returned to Narkorran's descendants after the end of the Kalabhra interregnum. The king asked the complainant to prove the antiquity of the grant, which the complainant did. The king then granted the Velvikudi village to Kamakkani Narchingan (Kāmakaṇi Naṟchiṅgaṉ) alias Suvaran Singan, the headman of Korkai. The headman kept the one-third of the village for himself, and distributed the remaining part among fifty other brahmanas.

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Estampage of Inscriptions Estampage or stamping is a term commonly used in epigraphy to obtain the exact replica of an inscription that cannot be transported. According to Jayanti Madhukar it is defined as a process of ‘lifting’ the inscriptions from the stone on to a piece of paper for a clearer read. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines it as an impression of an inscription made on inked paper. According to T.S. Ravishankar, former director of the Epigraphy branch of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Estampage is a purely Indian term used by Epigraphists; however, a more linguistically correct explanation would be that it originated from the French word estampage. Estampage is typically obtained by pressing wet paper on to the rock face, over which any ink material (usually, coal or Indian ink is wiped). The procedure is listed below: a. Soak a brush in water b. Clean the surface of the stone (that holds the inscription) using the brush. c. Carpet the stone surface using a large piece of wet paper d. Pat the wet paper(s) gently, using a dabber made of soft material. e. Use Indian ink (usually black-colored) to smear the paper with the dabber, in order to get the impression of the surface. f. Allow the paper to dry on the stone surface. g. When the paper becomes dry, take it off slowly. h. Observe and verify the ink impression (estampage) emerging as white-colored letters (grooves of the characters) against the dark (black) background.

Epigraphists usually take a long time (days to weeks) to the process of taking estampages, try to decipher, analyze, transliterate and translate the inscribed text.

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