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National Symposium Proceedings

Volume 3 Article 2

1993

Taxonomy and Biogeography of Quail

R. J. Gutierrez Humboldt State University

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Recommended Citation Gutierrez, R. J. (1993) " and Biogeography of ," National Quail Symposium Proceedings: Vol. 3 , Article 2.

Available at: https://trace.tennessee.edu/nqsp/vol3/iss1/2

This General is brought to you for free and open access by Volunteer, Open Access, Library Journals (VOL Journals), published in partnership with The University of Tennessee (UT) University Libraries. This article has been accepted for inclusion in National Quail Symposium Proceedings by an authorized editor. For more information, please visit https://trace.tennessee.edu/nqsp. Gutierrez: Taxonomy and Biogeography of New World Quail

TAXONOMYAND BIOGEOGRAPHYOFNEW WORLD QUAIL

R. J. GUTIERREZ,Department of Wildlife, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA 95521

Abstract: New World quail are a distinct genetic lineage within the avian . The most recent taxonomic treatment classifies the group as a separate , Odontophoridae, within the order. Approximately 31 and 128-145 are recognized from North and South America. Considerable geographic variation occurs within some species which leads to ambiguity when describing species limits. A thorough analysis of the Galliformes is needed to clarify the phylogenetic relationships of these quail. It is apparent that geologic or climatic isolating events led to speciation within New World quail. Their current distribution suggests that dispersal followed speciation. Because the genetic variation found in this group may reflect local adaption, the effect of translocation and stocking of pen-reared quail on local population genetic structure must be critically examined.

Key words: biogeography, New World quail, Odontophoridae, taxonomy.

Citation: Gutierrez, R. J. 1993. Taxonomy and biogeography of New World quail. Pages 8-15 in K. E. Church and T. V. Dailey, eds. Quail III: national quail symposium. Kansas Dep. Wildl. and Parks, Pratt.

The New World quail are a diverse and inter­ esting group within the avian order Galliforrnes. They are distributed from south to South America (Fig. l; Johnsgard 1988). The more com­ mon North American species have received much attention from ecologists because they are impor­ tant (e.g., Rosene 1969, Johnsgard 1973, Leopold 1977, Scott 1985). Taxonomists also have focused on these quail because they are relatively easy to collect, and probably because of their culinary appeal. That is, early collectors and ornithologists often collected quail not only Number of Species because of their scientific value but also because ~ 1 of their fine taste. These collections provided ex­ tensive comparative material for taxonomists !l1! 2 working in museums (e.g., see Table 1 for a partial r------· mm3 I list of galliforrn taxonomic treatments). ,I Despite widespread interest in New World .4 quail, the systematics of this group are still in debate (e.g., Mayr and Short 1970, AOU 1983, Sibley and Ahlquist 1990). This dynamic state is due, in part, to recent advances in systematic techniques (e.g., Gutierrez et al. 1983, Sibley and Ahlquist 1990) as well as to debate over the species concept (Mayr and Short 1970, McKitrick and Zink 1988). Major advances in molecular genetics are providing many new insights into the phylogenetic relationships of quail and other birds (Cooke and Buckley 1987, Hillis and Moritz 1990, Sibley and Ahlquist 1990). I predict addi­ tional changes will occur in the taxonomy of New Fig. 1. Distribution and species density of New World World quail as a result of the application of these quail (after Leopold et al. 1981, Johnsgard 1988). new molecular techniques. In this paper I will discuss the most recent of these systematic and biogeographic studies to taxonomic and systematic treatments of New North American quail management. World quail (Table 2). Next I will outline some I would like to thank George Barrowclough, proposed hypotheses about quail biogeography Kevin Church, and Robert Zink for critically read­ and . Finally, I will discuss the relevance ing this paper. Thomas Howell provided insight

1 National Quail Symposium Proceedings, Vol. 3 [1993], Art. 2

Taxonomy of Quail-Gutierrez 9 to the AOU's committee on nomenclature Table 1. Major taxonomic treatments of New World taxonomic treatment of the odontophorine quail. quail. TAXONOMY OF NEW WORLD Source Basis for treatment QUAIL Peters (1934) External morphology Taxonomy is the study of classifying organisms. AOU (1957) External morphology Systematics is the study of phylogenetic relation­ Holman (1961) Osteology ships and evolutionary processes that generate Brodkorb (1964) record biodiversity. The distinction is important because Hudson et al. (1966) Myology pure "alpha" level taxonomy may not be sensitive Mayr and Short (1970) External morphology to issues of phylogeny. The most interesting ques­ Sibley and Ahlquist white tions in biology are not what an organism's name (1972) electrophoresis happens to be, but what are its ecological and Stock and Bunch (1982) Cytogenetics evolutionary relationships to other organisms Gutierrez et al. (1983) Protein electrophoresis (Brooks and McLennan 1991). Thus most current treatments of taxonomy are really systematic AOU (1983) Synopsis of literature treatments. Sibley and Ahlquist (1990) DNA-DNA hybridization Classification of Quail (Sibley and Monroe [1990]) There have been several taxonomic and sys­ tematic treatments of New World quail (fable 1). Until recently most treatments have been based cal differentiation exhibited by the New World on general morphology (i.e., pattern, quail. For example, odontophorine quail are uni­ color variation, general size) and species integrity que among Galliformes by having a serrated man­ (Mayr and Short 1970). Some scientists have dible. Gutierrez et. al. (1983) also demonstrated based their inferences ofrelationship on morphol­ that the odontophorine quail were a distinct ogy (osteology [Holman 1961]; myology [Hudson within the Galliformes, but they did not offer a et al. 19GG]); others have based their inferences specific recommendation on the family status of on genetic analyses (protein electrophoresis the group. l\fost classification schemes place the [Gutierrez et al. 1983]; DNA hybridization [Sibley New World quail within the Odon­ and Ahlquist 1990]; see also Table 1). tophorinae without substantive comment on the Higher Taxonomi,e Levels.----All taxonomic basis for the classification (e.g., Peters 1934, Hud­ treatments of quail place them within the order son et al. 19G6, AOU 1983), although Delacour Galliformes. Sibley and Monroe's (1990) organiza­ (1951) placed them within the subfamily tion (fable 2) is somewhat different than classical . Despite the large number of studies approaches because they use a dichotomous clas­ on species or groups within Galliformes, there is sification which requires use of additional not a comprehensive systematic study of the en­ taxonomic levels such as "parvorder." This tire group (see Randi et al. 1991). proposed classification is considered to be a work­ Lower Ta:i:onomi,e Levels.-Many changes in ing hypothesis by the AOU committee on the taxonomy of species and subspecies of quail nomenclature (f. Howell, pers. commun.). Never­ have occurred in the past 50 (fable 2). theless, Sibley and Monroe's approach is different Initially there was a tendency among taxonomists from other treatments because they elevate the to describe a newly collected specimen as a new New World quail to family status (i.e., Odon­ species vvhen it has morphologically differen­ tophoridae). Sibley and Ahlquist (1985, 1990) tiated from other specimens. As the biology and noted that New World quail were very distinct distribution of these species became known in from other -like birds on the basis of DNA greater detail, many of the originally named hybridization experiments. The DNA hybridiza­ species were relegated to subspecific status. This tion technique (Sibley and Ahlquist 1990) upon process continues today as poorly known species which this classification was based has received in the Neotropics become known (e.g., Odon­ widespread criticism among ornithological sys­ tophoru.s). There also has been a general trend in tematists (e.g., see Lanyon 1992). to dissolve monotypic genera. The Holman (1961) suggested that New World quail recent merging of the Lophortyxquail (AOU 1957) should be distinguished as a separate family. He with Callipep/a. is an example of this trend as it based his suggestion on the significant osteologi- affects American quail.

2 Gutierrez: Taxonomy and Biogeography of New World Quail

10 Quail III

Table 2. Taxonomies of New World quail. 8

Peters Howard and Moore Sibley and Monroe (1934) (1991) (1990)

Parvclass Galloanserae Superorder Gallomorphae Order Galliformes Galliformes Galliformes Parvorder Odontophorida Superfamily Phasianoidea Family Phasianidae Odontophoridae Subfamily Odontophorinae Odontophorinae Genera (4,8)b Dendrortyx (3,8) Dendrortyx (3) Oreortyx (1,3) Oreortyx (1,4) Oreortyx (1) (1,3) Callipepla (1,4) Callipepla (4) Lophortyx (3,10) Lophortyx (3,16) Philortyx (1,1) Philortyx (1,1) Philortyx (1) (4 ,33) Colinus (3,42) Colinus (3) Odontophorus (16,19) Odontophorus (14,20) Odontophorus (15) Dactylortyx (1,7) Dactylortyx (1,11) Dactylortyx (1) (3,6) Cyrtonyx (3,5) Cyrtonyx (2) Rhynchortyx (1,4) Rhynchortyx (1,4) Rhynchortyx (1)

8 These are a few examples of ])Jew World quail classifications. An extensive chronology of classifications is presented by Sibley and Ahlquist (1990). b(Number of species, number of subspecies); no subspecies given by Sibley and Monroe (1990).

The issue of species and subspecies identity congeneric (e.g., Oreortyx pictus and C. califor­ and classification is a focal point. of debate in nica; Mayr and Short. [1970:42]). Alt.hough C. ornithology (Barrowclough 1982, Gill 1982, gambelii x C. californica occasionally hybridize Johnson 1982, Lanyon 1982, Mayr 1982, Mon­ there is no widespread int.rogression. Further, roe 1982, O'Neil 1982, Parkes 1982, Phillips Gutierrez et. al. (1983) demonstrated that. 1982, Storer 1982, Cracraft. 1983, McKit.rick Oreortyx was distantly related to Callipepla. and Zink 1988). At. issue is the species concept. The propensity to hybridize in zones of habit.at. it.self. Two systematic constructs, among transit.ions would not. necessarily confuse the several, at. debate are the biological species con­ taxonomy of the group under the phylogenetic cept. (Mayr 1969) and the phylogenetic species species concept. (McKit.rick and Zink 1988). concept. (Cracraft. 1983, McKit.rick and Zink There are currently approximately 128-145 1988). In the former the species is recognized on subspecies among the 31 species of ext.. quail the basis of its genetic isolation from other (Johnsgard 1988). In my opinion the validity of species. In the latter a species is recognized on many of the subspecies should be questioned. It. is the basis of its genetic integrity (McKit.rick and clear that. some species exhibit. a high degree of Zink 1988) and its evolutionary history. Mayr morphological differentiation (particularly and Short. (1970) at.tempted t.odemonst..e that. Colinu.s) which facilitates subspecies recognition; few problems in taxonomy occurred when apply­ but.others (e.g., Callipeplacalifornica) have many ing the biological species concept. to North subspecies with relatively little morphological dif­ American birds. However, because quail readily ferentiation (Gutierrez et. al. 1983, Zink et. al. hybridize both in the wild (Henshaw 1885, Peck 1987). Because of these and other problems the 1911, Bailey 1928, Aiken 1930) and in captivity t.rinomial in bird taxonomy has been discussed at. (Johnsgard 1971), Mayr and Short. (1970) in­ length (see 1982:593-615), and proponents of ferred that. American quail were extremely the phylogenetic species concept. have suggested similar and some forms could be conspecific abolishing subspecies entirely (Cracraft. 1983, (e.g., Callipepla californica and C. gambelii) or Mckitrick and Zink 1988).

3 National Quail Symposium Proceedings, Vol. 3 [1993], Art. 2

Taxonomy of Quail-Gutierrez 11

Like higher levels of organization in quail The studies of Zink et al. (1987) and Ellsworth taxonomy, much work remains to be done at the et al. (1989) are of particular interest because lower levels to resolve species limits and sub­ they attempted to partition genetic variation species differentiation. In fact, a thorough review among their study populations. In both studies of the original literature of quail taxonomy would there was not a strong population structure; how­ prove fruitful. For example, Browning (1977) ever, populations also were not completely pan­ noted that subspecific taxonomy of the 2 northern mictic. In Zink et al.'s (1987) study the popula­ forms of Oreortyx has been perpetuated incorrect­ tions examined occurred over 2,000 km of range, ly over the years. Unfortunately, these errors whereas Ellsworth et al. (1989) examined local have not been purged in recent discussions of populations. The failure to detect strong popula­ quail taxonomy (e.g., Johnsgard 1988). The extent tion structure could be related to the technique to which additional taxonomic and phylogenetic (i.e., electrophoresis) or the moderate levels of problems exist is unknown. flow among populations detected in both studies (see also Zink 1991). Nevertheless, Genetic Variation in Quail heterogeneity detected among the populations' Genetic variation in and among wild genetic structures (see also Appendix 2 in populations has been the subject of much research Gutierrez et al. 1983) suggests that this issue using modern biochemical techniques in the past should be reassessed using more sensitive genetic 15 years (e.g., Nevu 1978, Avise and Aquadro techniques (e.g., DNA sequencing). 1982, Smith et al. 1982, Barrowclough et al. 1985, The large number of subspecies described Barrowclough and Johnson 1986) because of its among the odontophorine quail is a reflection of fundamental evolutionary importance (Lewontin geographic variation in plumage patterns. 197 4). Many techniques are now available that Plumage coloration and patterns can be genetical­ allow not only direct assessment of genie variation ly or environmentally controlled (James 1983). In but also levels of gene flow and rates of evolution the case of Coli.nus virginia.nus the degree of and divergence (Hillis and Moritz 1990). These plumage variation is great across its geographic techniques have allowed systematics and evolu­ range. If the plumage variation in this species is tionary biologists to draw inferences about the the result of isolation or adaptation to local en­ phylogenetic relationships and biogeography of vironments (i.e., it is found in temperate, arid, birds (e.g., Gutierrez et al. 1983, Zink et al. 1987). subtropical, and tropical habitats), genie differen­ Thus far, genetic variation in some odontophorine tiation is likely to be detected using more sensitive quail has been assessed using allozyme genetic tools. electrophoresis in only 4 studies (Gutierrez et al. 1983, Zink et al. 1987, Ellsworth et al. 1988, 1989). BIOGEOGRAPHYOF QUAIL Gutierrez et al. (1983) observed that Gallifor­ Based on Holman's (1961, 1964) extensive os­ mes representing , Old teological study, the Odontophoridae is a World quail and , , and New monophyletic group consisting of an Ooon­ World quail had relatively low levels of genetic t.ophoms subgroup (containing Ooonwphorus, variation compared to birds (Bar­ Dactylortyx, Cyrtonyx, and Rhynclwrtyx) and a rowclough 1983). However, they were similar to Dendrortyx subgroup (containing Dendrortyx, other nonpasserine birds (Barrowclough et al. Phil.ortyx, Oreortyx, Colinus, and Callipepla). 1981). Low levels of electrophoretic variation do Johnsgard (1988) speculated (but did not test) not imply necessarily a general lack of genetic that the genera Od.onwphorus and Dendrortyx variation (see Barrowclough and Gutierrez 1990). represented generalized quail and, thus, most In general, nonpasserine birds also may differ in closely approximated the ancestral odon­ genetic structure from passerine birds because of tophorine quail. With these generalized quail ex­ differences in their demography and life history tant in Central America and with this region patterns (see Zink et al. 1987). The odontophorine having the most taxonomically diverse odon­ quail, which included all of the extant species tophorine quail fauna (Fig. 1), Johnsgard (1988) found in the United States, examined by suggested that odontophorine quail evolved in Gutierrez et al. (1983) had levels of genetic varia­ Central America. tion similar to other populations of Gutierrez et al. (1983) proposed a biogeographic quail (Zink et al. 1987) and hn)othesis for the evolution of the U.S. members (Colinus virgin,'.anus; Ellsworth et al. 1988, 1989). of the Dendrortyx subgroup of the Odon-

4 Gutierrez: Taxonomy and Biogeography of New World Quail

12 Quail III tophoridae using estimates of genetic divergence, the basis for more informed management of these inferred from electrophoretic patterns, among quail as I suggest below. Colinus, Oreortyx, Callipepl,a, and Cyrtonyx (which represented the second monophyletic sub­ Release of Pen-reared Birds group within the family), calibration of an The release of pen -reared quail has occurred for electrophoretic clock using fossil specimens, and many years as a technique to "augment" natural geologic events coincident with divergence times. populations or to increase potential quail harvest Under their scenario, Oreortyx separated ap­ (Buechner 1950, Sexson and Norman 1972, proximately 12.6 million years ago (MYBP), Leopold 1977, Roseberry et al. 1987). The artifi­ Colinus next diverged about 7 MYBP, Callipep/,a cial propagation and release of quail has been squamaw separated at approximately 2.8 MYBP, controversial for many years because of its effects and finally C. californica and C. gambelii diverged on wild populations (Landers et al. 1991) and the about 190,000 years ago. These divergence times low survivorship of pen-reared birds. correspond generally with reconstructed geologic Although deleterious genetic effects of cultured and climatic events (Gutierrez et al. 1983). Hub­ salmon on native fish stocks is well known in the bard (1973) proposed another vicariant explana­ fisheries literature (e.g., Waples 1991, Hindar et tion for the evolution of Callipep/,a. He proposed al. 1991), little is known of genetic effects on a trichotomous split in which C. squamaw, C. native populations of releasing large or small douglasii, and "pre-C. californica-gambelii' di­ numbers of pen-reared quail despite a long his­ verged first in the Illinoian glacial epoch followed tory of such introductions. In fact, few studies by differentiation of californica from gambelii have been conducted on any aspect of genetic during the Wisconsinian glacial period. It is pos­ relationships between pen-reared and wild quail sible that climatic influence of Illinoian epoch on (Ellsworth et al. 1988, Wooten 1991). vegetation (Axelrod 1979) may have influenced Leopold (1977: 15) argued that natural selection speciation of C. californica and gambelii but would soon remove maladapted hybrid California probably not squamaw. Nevertheless, it is clear quail produced by interbreeding of native and that isolation events probably led to the specia­ exotic stock from the population, and thus, any tion of New World quail. The current distribution deleterious genetic effects would not be felt in a (i.e., sympatry) of these species also suggests dis­ population. Although this may be true of small persal subsequent to speciation (Nelson and Plat­ local introductions, it is unclear if the effect of nick 1981). Nevertheless, these are biogeographic continuous large-scale introductions in areas of hypotheses which cannot be precisely reconciled low native quail population density would be with paleobotanical and geologic events. In addi­ equally benign. The experience of our fisheries tion, the remaining taxa within the Odon­ colleagues should have stimulated our investiga­ tophoridae should be examined to derive ap­ tion of the genetic effect of introductions on native proximations of their evolutionary histories and populations long ago. as a test of the above hypothesis (Gutierrez et al. I suggested above that the differentiation ob­ 1983). served in quail was probably the result of past isolation. This differentiation appears to be RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT greatest in the northern bobwhite. If this diver­ IMPLICATIONS gence during isolation also resulted in local adap­ Systematic and Taxonomic tations to environmental conditions, then Investigations widespread, intensive releasing of captive or non­ native stock could have potential deleterious It is evident that thorough analysis of the quail genetic effects. Brennan (1991) documented the would greatly clarify relationships within Odon­ decline of quail nationally. For example, the tophoridae. Genetic assessment techniques now northern bobwhite is declining in all areas of its available could be used to clarify not only range including those where quail management phylogenetic relationships but also levels of varia­ is a featured land management activity. A com­ tion within and among species and populations of prehensive search for causative factors of this these fine game birds. A review of the type I decline must include the effect of genetic mixing envision should include all extant forms of quail of populations. Genetic markers may be identified in addition to a thorough review of the literature in wild and introduced birds (Wooten 1991) to to trace the appropriate nomenclature (sensu trace the introgression of into the wild Browning 1977). This information could provide population. Genetic studies should complement

5 National Quail Symposium Proceedings, Vol. 3 [1993], Art. 2

Taxonomy of Quail-Gutierrez 13 studies of reproductive performance and survival and R. J. Gutierrez. 1990. Genetic variation to establish a causal link between changes in and differentiation in the spotted ( demography and changes in genetic structure occidentalis). Auk 107:737-744. resulting from introduction of nonnative birds. and N. K. Johnson. 1986. Genetic structure of North American birds. Pages 1630-1638 in H. Translocating Quail Ouelllet, ed., Acta XIX Congr. Int. Ornithol, Vol. Brennan (1991) noted the importance of trans­ 2. Univ. Ottawa Press, Ontario. ferring wild-trapped birds as sources of stock for _, K. W. Corbin and R. M. Zink. 1981. Genetic quail populations extirpated by loss of habitat, differentiation in the Procellariformes. Comp. stochastic demographic events, or severe Biochem. Physiol. 69B:629-632. weather. If suitable habitat returns or remains _, N. K. Johnson and R. M. Zink. 1985. On the following 1 of these events, translocation of quail nature of genie variation in birds. Pages 135- may be a relatively inexpensive technique for 154 in R. F. Johnson, ed., Current ornithology, reestablishing a population. However, because of Vol. 2. Plenum Press, New York. the genetic and behavioral differences between Brennan, L. A 1991. How can we reverse the pen-reared and wild birds (Roseberry et al. 1987), northern bobwhite population decline? Wildl. Soc. Bull. 19:544-555. only wild caught birds should be used in these Brodkorb, P. 1964. Catalog of fossil birds: part 2 endeavors. In addition, populations of the same ( through Galliformes). Bull. Fla. genetic structure from as close as possible to State Mus. Biol. Sci. 8: 195-335. original populations should be the source of the Brooks, D. R. and D. A McLennan. 1991. translocations. Widespread genetic screening of Phylogeny, ecology and behavior: a research populations is possible with relatively little cost if program in comparative biology. Univ. Chicago the objective is to document genetic structure of Press, Chicago, IL. 434pp. populations within general geographic areas. Browning, M. R. 1977. The types and type­ localities of Oreortyx pictus (Douglas) and Ortyx plumiferus Gould. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 90:808-812. LITERATURE CITED Buechner, H.K. 1950. An evaluation ofrestocking Aiken, C. E. H. 1930. A bobwhite x California with pen-reared bobwhite. J. Wildl. Manage. quail hybrid. Auk 47:80-81. 14:363-:377. American Ornithologists' Union. 1957. Check-list Cooke, F. and P. A Buckley. 1987. Avian genetics: of North American birds. Fifth ed. Am. Or­ a population and ecological approach. Academic nithol. Union, Baltimore, MD. G91pp. Press, New York. 488pp . . 1983. Check-list of North American birds. 6th Cracraft, J. 1983. Species concepts and speciation ed. Am. Ornithol. Union. Washington, DC. analysis. Pages 159-187 in R. F. Johnston, ed., 877pp. Current ornithology, Vol. 1. Plenum Press, New · Avise, J. C. and C. F. Aquadro. 1982. A compara­ York. tive summary of genetic distances in the ver­ Delacour, F. 1951. The pheasants of the world. tebrates: patterns and correlations. Pages 151- Country Life, London, UK 347pp. 185 in M. K. Hecht, B. Wallace and G. T. Prance, Ellsworth, D. L., J. L. Roseberry and W. D. eds., Evolutionary biology, Vol. 15. Plenum Klimstra. 1988. Biochemical genetics of wild, Press, New York. semi-wild, and game-farm northern bobwhites. Axelrod, D. I. 1979. Age and origin of Sonoran J. Wilcll. Manage. 52: 138-144. vegetation. 0cc. Pap., Calif. Acad. Sci. _,_and_. 1989. Genetic structure and gene 134: 1-74. flow in the northern bobwhite. Auk 106:492- Bailey, V. 1928. A hybrid scaled x Gambel's quail 49-5. from New . Auk 45:210. Gill, F. B. 1982. Might there be a resurrection of Barrowclough, G. F. 1982. Geographic variation, the subspecies? Auk 99:598-599. preclictiveness, and subspecies. Auk 99:601- Gutierrez, R. J., R. M. Zink and S. Y. Yang. 1983. 603. Genie variation, systematic, and biogeographic _. 1983. Biochemical studies of microevolution­ relationships of some galliform birds. Auk ary processes. Pages 223-261. in A. H. Brush 100:3:3-47. and G. A Clark Jr., eels., Perspectives in or· Henshaw, H. W. 1885. Hybrid quail (Lophortyx nithology, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York. gambelh'. x L. colifornicus). Auk 2:247-249.

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Hillis, D. M. and C. Moritz, eds. 1990. Molecular Mayr, E. 1969. Principles of systematic zoology. systematics. Sinauer Assoc. Inc., Sunderland, McGraw-Hill, New York. 428pp. MA. 588pp. __ . 1982. Of what use are subspecies? Auk Hindar, K., N. Ryman and F. Utter. 1991. Genetic 99:593-595. effects of cultured fish on natural fish popula­ _ and L. L. Short. 1970. Species taxa of North tions. Canadian J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 48:945-957. American birds. Puhl. Nuttall. Omithol. Club Holman, J. A. 1961. Osteology of living and fossil 9:1-127. New World (Aves, Galliformes). Bull. Monroe, B. L. Jr. 1982. A modern concept of the Fla. State Mus. Biol. Sci. 6: 131-233. subspecies. Auk 99:608-609. _. 1964. Osteology of gallinaceous birds. Quart. McKitrick, M. C. and R. M. Zink. 1988. Species J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 27:230-252. concepts in ornithology. Condor 90:1-14. Howard, R. and A. Moore. 1991. A complete check­ Nelson, G. and N. G. Platnick. 1981. Systematics list of the birds of the world. Second ed. and biogeography: and vicariance. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. 622pp. Columbia Univ. Press, New York. 567pp. Hubbard, J. P. 1973. Avian evolution in the arid Nevo, E. 1978. Genetic variation in natural lands of . Living Bird 12:155- populations: patterns and theory. Theor. Pop. 196. Biol. 13:121-177. Hudson, G. E., R. A. Parker, J. Vanden Berge and O'Neill, J. P. 1982. The subspecies concept. Auk P. J. Lanzillotti. 1966. A numerical analysis of 99:609-612. the modifications of the appendicular muscles Parkes, K. C. 1982. Subspecies taxonomy: un­ in various genera of gallinaceous birds. Am. fashionable does not mean irrelevant. Auk Midi. Nat. 76:1-73. 99:596-598. James, F. C. 1983. Environmental component of Peck, M. E. 1911. A hybrid quail. Condor 13:149- morphological differentiation in birds. Science 151. 221: 184-186. Peters, J. L. 1934. Check- of the world, Johnsgard, P. A. 1971. Experimental hybridiza­ Vol. 2. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA. tion of the new world quail (Odontophorinae). 401pp. Auk 88:264-275. Phillips, A. R. 1982. Subspecies and species: fun­ _. 1973. Grouse and quails of North America. damentals, needs, and obstacles. Auk 99:612- Univ. Nebr. Press, Lincoln. 553pp. 615. _. 1988. The quails, partridges, and Randi, E., G. Fusco, R. Lorenzini and T. M. Crowe. of the world. Oxford Univ. Press, New York. 1991. Phylogenetic relationships and rates of 264pp. allozyme evolution within the Phasianidae. Johnson, N. K. 1982. Retain subspecies-at least Biochem. Syst. and Ecol. 19:213-221. for the time being. Auk 99:605-608. Roseberry, J. L., D. L. Ellsworth and W. D. Landers, J. L., L. P. Simoneaux and D. C. Sisson, Klimstra. 1987. Comparative post-release be­ eds. 1991. The effects of released, pen-reared havior and survival of wild, semi-wild, and bobwhites on wild bird populations. Workshop game farm bobwhites. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 15:449- Proc. Tall Timbers Inc., and The Southeastern 455. Coop. Wildl. Dis. Stud., Tallahassee, FL. 36pp. Rosene, W. 1969. The bobwhite quail: its life and Lanyon, S. M. 1992. Book review: phylogeny and management. Rutgers Univ. Press, New classification of birds, a study in molecular Brunswick, NJ. 418pp. evolution. Condor 94:304-307. Scott, T. G. 1985. Bobwhite thesaurus. Int. Quail Lanyon, W. E. 1982. The subspecies concept: then, Found., Edgefield, SC. 306pp. now, and always. Auk 99:603-604. Sexson, K. Jr. and J. A. Norman. 1972. Impact on Leopold, A. S. 1977. The . Univ. base population density and hunter perfor­ Calif. Press, Berkeley. 281pp. mance of stocking with pen-reared bobwhite. __ , R. J. Gutierrez and M. T. Bronson. 1981. Pages 32-40 in J. A. Morrison and J. C. Lewis, North American game birds and . eds., Proc. First Natl. Bobwhite Quail Syrup., Charles Scribner's and Sons Puhl., New York. Okla. State Univ., Stillwater. 198pp. Sibley C. G. and J. E. Ahlquist. 1972. A compara­ Lewontin, R. C. 1974. The genetic basis of evolu­ tive study of the egg white protein of non-pas­ tionary change. Columbia Univ. Press, New serine birds. Bull. Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist. York. 346pp. 39:1-276

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