In Nepal Rodney M. Jackson Ph.D. Thesis, University of London 1996
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Home Range, Movements and Habitat Use of Snow Leopard (Uncia Uncia) In Nepal Rodney M. Jackson Ph.D. Thesis, University of London 1996 1984 - Female snow leopard photographed using a remotely-triggered camera © National Geographic Society Note: The original thesis contained no photographs. I have added a few photos illustrating the study area and focal species for the reader’s convenience. The suggested citation is: Jackson, R.M. 1996. Home range, movements and habitat use of snow leopard (Uncia Uncia) in Nepal. Ph.D. Thesis, University of London (External Programme), London, United Kingdom. 233 pages. HOME RANGE, MOVEMENTS AND HABITAT USE OF SNOW LEOPARD (Uncia uncia) IN NEPAL by Rodney Malcolm Jackson A thesis submitted to the University of London for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The External Programme April 1996 ABSTRACT Home ranges for five radio-tagged snow leopards (Uncia uncia) inhabiting prime habitat in the Nepal Himalaya varied in size from 11-37 km2. These solitary felids were crepuscular in activity, and although highly mobile, nearly 90% percent of all consecutive day movements involved a straight-line distance of 2 km or less. No seasonal difference in daily movement or home range boundary was detected. While home ranges overlapped substantially, use of common core spaces was temporally separated, with tagged animals being located 1.9 km or more apart during the same day. Spatial analysis indicated that 47- 55% of use occurred within only 6-15% of the total home area. These snow leopards shared a common core-use area, which was located at a major stream confluence in an area where topography, habitat and prey abundance appeared to be more favorable. A young female used her core area least, a female with two cubs to the greatest extent. The core area was marked significantly more with scrapes, faeces and other sign than non-core sites, suggesting that social marking plays an important role in spacing individuals. Snow leopards showed a strong preference for bedding in steep, rocky or broken terrain, on or close to a natural vegetation or landform edge. Linear landform features, such as a cliff or major ridgeline, were preferred for travelling and day-time resting. This behaviour would tend to place a snow leopard close to its preferred prey, blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), which use the same habitat at night. Marking was concentrated along commonly travelled routes, particularly river bluffs, cliff ledges and well defined ridgelines bordering stream confluences -- features that were most abundant within the core area. Such marking may facilitate mutual avoidance, help maintain the species' solitary social structure, and also enable a relatively high density of snow leopard, especially within high-quality habitat. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The 1981 Rolex Award for Enterprise enabled this study in the first place, and I extend my deep appreciation to Mr. Andre J. Heiniger, Chairman of the Rolex Watch Company, Geneva. Grants were also provided by the National Geographic Society, International Snow Leopard Trust, Wildlife Conservation International (a division of the New York Zoological Society), the World Wildlife Fund - US, and the International Trust for Nature Conservation. The California Institute of Environmental Studies, The Mountain Institute, International Snow Leopard Trust, National Wildlife Federation, Mill Pond Press, Robert Bateman, and Yvon Chouinard helped cover the cost of data analysis and write-up. His Majesty's Government of Nepal authorized the project through the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) and the King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation (KMTNC). I am particularly indebted to His Majesty's Government to work in a remote part of the Shey- Phoksundo National Park. Special thanks are due Mr. Biswa N. Upreti, former Director General DNPWC and Dr. Hemanta R. Mishra, former Member Secretary, KMTNC. Administrative support was offered by Mr. Lhapka Sherpa, then Warden of Lake Rara National Park. Gary Ahlborn assisted in all phases of field work from 1984, and I am especially appreciative of his hard work and diligence, as well as the chance to exchange ideas and refine field methodologies. It was impossible for me to track the tagged leopards alone, and Gary's input and support contributed significantly to the project. Special thanks are due to Karan B. Shah who conducted simultaneous studies of blue sheep, while also facilitating field logistics. The residents of Dolphu and Wangri villages portered vital food and equipment over exceptionally difficult trails, and Lopsang Sherpa, Nema Nurbu and Kirken Sherpa ensured that our camps were adequate supplied. John Edwards and Charles C. McDougal of Tiger-Tops, Nepal, also offered logistic support. For their assistance with logistics and travel arrangements in Kathmandu, I am most grateful to Karna Sakya, Kaji Nepali, and John and Jim Edwards of Tiger Tops. I enjoyed discussing exploration in the Langu Valley with John Tyson and his wife Phoebe, as well as other Nepalese adventurers who offered invaluable information and suggestions. Our late friend, Hugh Swift is foremost in my mind in this regard. Franklin Gress, Helen Freeman, Peg, John and Jeff Frankel, Renee Lagloire and John Garcia kept my affairs in order while I was in Nepal, and helped organize fund-raising events on our behalf. ii Barry Bishop, Mary Smith, Bill Garrett and Edwin Snider of the National Geographic Society were especially helpful by offering financial support and loaning camera equipment. Don Hunter of the U.S. National Biological Service's research laboratory in Fort Collins, Colorado helped prepare the GIS coverages, and Jim O'Brien conducted the analysis of scats for the food-habits study. Karen Povey assisted in entering and tabulating raw activity data. I am also grateful to Dr. George B. Schaller for freely offering his advice and support for the project. Drs. Ulysses S. Seal and David L. Mech provided advice regarding immobilization and capture techniques. The IRAM Research Group at Syntex Research, Palo Alto, California advised on procedures for analyzing the activity data-set and made their program available for running selected statistical analyses. Special thanks are due to group members Chuck Villarrubia, Mark Bradshaw, Linda Archer, Jill Fujisaki, Seth Michelson, Ann Olmstead and Dori Emmerich. Mel Sunquist, Daniel Pletscher, Tom McCarthy and Chuck Villarrubia also offered helpful comments on an earlier draft. Finally, but by no means least, I am grateful to my advisor, Dr. P.A. Morris, Royal Holloway College, University of London for the invaluable advice he provided to me throughout my study. I am indebted to my parents for enabling me to realize my dream to become a wildlife biologist. My deepest love and appreciation lies with Darla, my partner, who was part of the project from its inception. Darla wrote a well-received popular account of our adventures; with a minimum of prior camping experience, she quickly adapted to the remote Langu Valley and its spartan diet, with mail from the real world that came only once every three months. Her faith and never-ending support enabled me to persevere in the face of severe roadblocks and obstacles from bureaucrats. The lowest point came when high government officials refused permission for Gary to travel to Nepal to join the project so that the movements of the widely-roaming snow leopards could be effectively monitored; they seemed intent on terminating the research program just as I proved it was possible to radio-tag such an elusive creature. These, and porter strikes on high passes were no obstacle to Darla's ever-present smile, her ability to win over friends and her constant words of encouragement. Finally, I am grateful to the many individuals and corporations who donated equipment, fed us meals after a particularly arduous field session or otherwise made sure that we were properly taken care. Rather than repeating their names, I refer the reader to Darla's book on the project titled, Vanishing Tracks: four years among the snow leopards of Nepal, published by William Morrow in 1989. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT.................................................................. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................... ii PART 1 - INTRODUCTION AND METHODS CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction ............................................................ 1 1.2 Study Objectives......................................................... 3 CHAPTER 2. THE STUDY AREA 2.1 Location and Topography ................................................. 6 2.2 Geology and Soils ....................................................... 8 2.3 Climate............................................................... 10 2.4 Vegetation ............................................................ 12 2.5 Fauna ................................................................ 18 2.6 Human Activities ....................................................... 20 CHAPTER 3. STUDY METHODS 3.1 Introduction ........................................................... 22 3.2 Live-trapping, Capture and Immobilization ................................... 23 3.3 Telemetry Equipment and Radio-tracking Procedures .......................... 25 3.4 Daily Movement and Activity Patterns ...................................... 27 3.5 Home Range Size and Spatial Utilization .................................... 30 3.6 Habitat Mapping, Characterization and Utilization ............................. 33 3.7