Growing Your Own Vegetables

Growing Ci Your Own Vegetables United States Department of Agriculture Agriculture Information Bulletin 409 ,'---,0 C3D ;, <¿ ^>—il?* This is a reprint of Part 2 from the 1977 Yearbook of Agriculture, Gardening/or Food and Fun. The Yearbook may be purchased at government bookstores or ordered from the Superinten- dent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Original page numbers from the entire book are used in this reprint.

Part 2 Home Garden Vegetables Planning Your Vegetable Garden— Plots, PyramidSy and Planters 1^02 Groiving Vegetable Transplants: Lights, Containers, Media, Seed Ill The Complex Art of Planting 119 Vegetables in Containers Require Enough Sun, Space, Drainage 126 Play it Cool With Cole Crops (Cabbage, Etc.); They Attain Best Quality If Matured in Fall 133 The Popular, Cultivated Tomato And Kinfolk Peppers, Eggplant 139 Leafy Salad Vegetables: Lettuce, Celery, Cress, Endive, Escarole, Chicory 147 Onions Are Finicky as to Growing, Curing; And Garlic May Not Be a Joy Either 152 Root Crops More or Less Trouble-free, Produce Lots of Food in a Small Space 157 Greens or "Potherbs"—Chard, CoUards, Kale, Mustard, Spinach, New Zealand Spinach 163 Beans and Peas Are Easy to Grow And Produce a Wealth of Food 171 Sweet Corn, That Home Garden Favorite, For Good Nutrition and Eating Pleasure 181 Cucurbit Crops—Cucumbers, Gourds, Melons, Pumpkins, Squash—Have Uniform Needs 187 Asparagus Starts Up Slow But Goes On and On; Rhubarb Also Takes Its Own Sweet Time 196 Asparagus 196 Rhubarb 201 A Few Rows of Home Garden Potatoes Can Put Nutritious Food on Your Table 205 Sweet Potatoes—^Buried Treasure 212 Herbs for Flavor, Fragrances, Fun In Gardens, Pots, in Shade, in Sun 217 Okra Is Produced Primarily in the South As Main Dish Vegetable, and for Gumbos 224 Miscellany, including Celeriac, Horseradish, Artichoke, Peanuts, Vegetable Soybeans 228

Issued in December 1977 PART 2 Home Garden Vegetables

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%. ù'fh Planning Your Vegetable Garden— Plots, Pyramids, and Planters by George and Katy Abraham

If you are fortunate enough to have out corn, squash and pumpkins, al- plenty of space for a garden, you can though a few bush squash do very have a traditional type v^ith enough well in small spaces and even in space between rows to run a garden containers. tractor. Before you plant your garden, do Mini Gardening Is Easy some planning. Most people make As the United States moves into their garden too big and by late sum- its third century, we find the Ameri- mer it may be a weed patch. For the can gardener is no longer limited to conventional garden with ample space conventional straight rows and regu- to use a garden tractor, a plot of 50 lated distances in which to raise vege- feet by 50 feet is enough for a family tables. Indeed, the method of culture of 4. With 5 or more members in is limited only by the imagination. households who plan on doing freez- This makes it possible for the urban ing and canning, a space of 50 feet by gardener—like his country cousin— 100 feet is not unreasonable. to have the satisfaction of raising However, if you plan to use muscle juicy tomatoes, snappy green beans power, a hand cultivator and a hoe, and pungent radishes. plus some plastic mulch to keep What's wrong with a window box weeds down, you can put rows only or a balcony planter with a few half as far apart and make your gar- flowers in front for show, and beans, den half the size. With this much carrots, onions, lettuce or radishes space you not only can grow lettuce, in back for food? Many gardeners are tomatoes, radishes, beets, carrots, on- doing just that. An incredible amount ions, snap beans and chard, but you of vegetables can be grown in small also can raise bush squash (both sum- spaces with a little extra plant food mer and winter) and some corn as and a good supply of ingenuity. well. Tomatoes, eggplants and vine crops Corn needs to be planted so that you add color to foundation plantings. have at least two rows side by si'de Cucumbers and melons can be (varieties must mature at the same trained up railings, trellises and time) for cross pollination. It is ac- fences. One cucumber vine will do tually preferable to plant four rows very well in one cubic foot of soil if together. The rows do not need to be it is fed once every two weeks with a long ones but can be arranged in liquid plant food, or if a slow release blocks to aid cross pollination. Re- plant food is added at the time of member it is the seed which you eat— planting. if there is no pollination you get no Even though the gardener has no corn. patch of ground he should not be de- If space is limited, it is best to cut terred. Container-grown vegetables are just as tasty. Some containers that make good mini-gardens are George and Katy Abraham of Naples, N.Y., do a column^ The Green Thumb, waste paper cans, half barrels, square for 126 newspapers. They also broadcast boxes, cement blocks (set so openings regularly over TV and radio, and have face the sky), and pails. written seven books on horticultural We have tried galvanized water topics. tanks, cut in half, an eave trough,

102 bushel baskets and beverage boxes. fill the beds. The raised beds can be You can make or buy tower gardens any size, but the most convenient are (called vertical gardens] made of 2- those easily reached from all sides. inch by 4-inch mesh wire fencing A 4-foot square is one we find rolled in a circle and lined with sisal handy. craft paper, into which has been Used car tires make dandy small poured one of the soilless mixes. circular beds. In fact, when you have Openings are cut in the paper, and a slope the tires can be pegged in seeds or plants inserted at appropri- place with stakes, filled with soil and ate intervals. You can also buy or used to grow any number of small construct pyramid gardens using crops. metal, wood or plastic. If you have a If the sun touches any of your gar- sloping piece of property, you can den spots for only a short time during build a terrace garden using the same the day, there's a solution. The trick principle. is to resort to aluminum foil or Vegetables grow faster in the chrome reflectors or mirrors. White warmth reflected from walks, drives houses reflect light, as do white gravel and concrete pads. If plants are grow- mulches. An equivalent of six hours of ing in containers, drainage holes pro- sun a day (whether reflected or direct] vide places for evaporation and you is adequate to grow most crops if the will have to water the containers light intensity remains high. Vege- more often when they are setting on table beds should not be shaded by concrete or blacktop. tall trees or high buildings. We've Even though drainage holes aid in had peppers, tomatoes and lettuce evaporation, containers must be well produce with only three hours of sun drained. Heavy rains can cause water and good reflected light the rest of to stand around roots. No vegetables the day. You can also put your con- do well in waterlogged soil. It is better tainers on wheels and move them to have a well drained container that with the sun. must be watered offener than one that holds water and shuts out air to the roots. Left, bags, baskets, and buckets can be- Fresh vegetable lovers who have come minigardens. Right, limited space for a garden poses no real problem. The patches of ground available with hard authors made this "vertical" garden by packed cement-like soil can grow lining a wire mesh tower with sisaJ craft their produce in raised beds framed paper and filling it with soil. Growing with 1-inch by 6-inch boards. They are squash, tomatoes, peppers, onions, then can make their own soil mix to and lettuce, besides some flowers.

103 Vegetable Planting

Spacing Plants or (Inches) Number seed per days ready Vegetables 100 feet Rows Plants for use

Asparagus 66 plants or 1 oz. 36-48 18 (2 years) Beans, snap bush V2 lb. 24-36 3-4 45-60 Beans, snap pole V2 lb. 36-48 4-6 60-70 Beans, Lima bush V2 lb. 30-36 3-4 65-80 Beans, Lima pole V4 lb. 36-48 12-18 75-85 Beets 1 oz. 15-24 2 50-60 Broccoli * 40-50 pi. or V4 oz. 24-36 14-24 60-80 Brussels sprouts * 50-60 pi. or 1/4 oz. 24-36 14-24 90-100 Cabbage * 50-60 pi. or V4 oz. 24-36 14-24 60-90 Cabbage, Chinese * 60-70 pi. or 1/4 oz. 18-30 8-12 65-70 Carrots V2 oz. 15-24 2 70-80 Cauliflower * 50-60 pi. or 1/4 oz. 24-36 14-24 70-90 Celeriac 200 pi. 18-24 4-8 120 Celery 200 pi. 30-36 125 Chard, Swiss 2 oz. 18-30 6 45-55 CoUards and kale V4 oz. 18-36 8-16 50-80 Corn, sweet 3-4 oz. 24-36 12-18 70-90 Cucumbers Vz oz. 48-72 24-48 50-70 Eggplant Vs oz. 24-36 18-24 80-90 Garlic (cloves) 1 lb. 15-24 2-4 140-150 Kohlrabi V2 oz. 15-24 4-6 55-75 Lettuce, head VA oz. 18-24 6-10 70-75 Lettuce, leaf 1/4 oz. 15-18 2-3 40-50 Muskmelon (cantaloupe) * 50 pi. or V2 oz. 60-96 24-36 85-100 Mustard V4 oz. 15-24 6-12 30-40 Okra 2 oz. 36-42 12-24 55-65 Onions 400-600 plants or sets 15-24 3-4 80-120 Onions (seed) 1 oz. 15-24 3-4 90-120 Parsley V4 oz. 15-24 6-8 70-90 Parsnips V2 oz. 18-30 3-4 120-170 Peas, English 1 lb. 18-36 1 55-90 Peas, southern V2 lb. 24-36 4-6 60-70 Peppers Vs oz. 24-36 18-24 60-90 Potatoes, Irish 6-10 lb. of seed tubers 30-36 10-15 75-100 Potatoes, sweet 75-100 pi. 36-48 12-16 100-130 Pumpkins V2 oz. 60-96 36-48 75-100 Radishes 1 oz. 14-24 1 25-40 Salsify V2 oz. 15-18 3-4 150 Soybeans 1 lb. 24-30 2 120 Spinach 1 oz. 14-24 3-4 40-60 Squash, summer 1 oz. 36-60 18-36 50-60 Squash, winter V2 oz. 60-96 24-48 85-100 Tomatoes 50 pi. or Vs oz. 24-48 18-36 70-90 Turnip greens V2 oz. 14-24 2-3 30 Turnip, roots V2 oz. 14-24 2-3 30-60 Watermelon 1 oz. 72-96 36-72 80-100

* Transplants

104 Keep Soil Moist square space is desirable to provide Keep in mind that because growing good cross pollination. space is restricted, container-grown Measurements do not have to be vegetables will need more feeding exact and circular containers work and more water than those grown in as well as square or rectangular ones. open ground. Once fruit starts to form on tomatoes, peppers, or vine crops Approximate they will need even more water, as number of plants per will the vegetables growing under- Vegetable square foot ground. Soil should be kept moist

for a good yield. Also keep in mind Beans 3-4 Beets 25 i that vegetables such as onions and Broccoli 3 radishes will get unbearably hot tast- Brussels sprouts 2 ing if they are allowed to grow dry. Cabbage 2 True garden enthusiasts make suc- Carrots 100 2 cessive sowings of salad crops such Cauliflower 2 as radishes, onions and lettuce about Chard, Swiss 9 ten days apart [if they have the space) Corn (dwarf) 4 Cucumber (standard) 1 ^ so that when one containerful has (dwarf) 2 3 been eaten another is already mature Dandelion 6 enough to enjoy. Eggplant 1 Many lettuce varieties will grow all Endive 4 season, providing tender outer leaves Garlic 36 constantly if the small center leaves Kale 4 are left to grow. Buttercrunch is a Kohlrabi 4 Leeks 64 favorite. Lettuce (head) 4 A perennial question is how thick (leaf & semi-head) 6 to plant so that a maximum crop can Muskmelon 13 be harvested in the space available, Mustard greens 9 wihout crowding the plants into in- Onions (cooking) 16 efficiency. The large chart gives an (hamburger) 9 approximate measure for space (green bunching) 100 ^ Parsley 16 needed by various vegetables to help Parsnips 25 the gardener determine how many Peanuts 4 ^ plants a certain size area will accom- Peas 25 3 modate. Plant breeders have devel- Peppers 4 oped many mini-vegetables in dwarf Potatoes 1 forms for small-space gardeners. Look Sweet potatoes 1 for them in seed catalogs and at Radishes 144 ^ garden centers. Rutabaga 5 Spinach 4 Summer squash (bush) 1 Chart for Small Space Gardeners Winter squash (bush) 1 For those who must grow their Tomato (regular) l 3 vegetables in small spaces this chart (dwarf) 2 gives the approximate number of Husk tomato (Physalis) 2 plants a square foot of container Watermelon (dwarf) 1 ^ space will accommodate. Containers 1 Thin at 1-inch diameter for "greens" and let should be at least eight inches deep remainder grow. 2 Thin every other one when "fingerlings" and for medium sized and small vegetables let others grow. but a foot to 18 inches deep for veg- 3 Train on trellis. etables such as tomatoes, eggplants 4 Can thin to eat and let others grow into cooking onions. or corn. In the case of corn a 4-foot- 5 Thin small ones to eat and let others grow.

105 It's not easy to figure exactly how 30 feet of trees in the black walnut profitable your gardening enterprise family since they produce a toxic sub- will be but one thing is certain, it's stance called juglone through the good for your waistline and your roots. Many vegetables such as to- general well-being. Few things around matoes, corn, peppers and others will the home give as much satisfaction— become stunted, wilted or even die, as well as a bit of a boost to the bud- when their roots come in contact with get—as your garden. Studies show walnut roots. that for the time you spend in the Soil Texture: Sometimes a soil is garden, you get a net return of $3 heavy clay, but don't let this discour- to $5 per hour. One State university age you from planting a garden. There cites figures to show that the average are ways of making it more friable home garden in its State will be worth (workable). Here is a simple test for $165. The average gardener will spend soil fitness: Grab a handful of moist around $35 on his garden, which earth and squeeze it tightly for ten means he will be getting around 75 seconds. If the soil breaks in several cents "profit" for every $1 he spends. places when dropped from a 3-foot And he eats better to boot. height, it's workable. Soil that forms Location: The closer to the kitchen a mudball that will not break into you can locate your garden plot, the pieces when the test is applied is apt better. It's mighty handy to be able to be too difficult to work in its to take a few steps outside and snip present state. off a handful of herbs or lettuce. Another way to tell if your soil It makes little difference which way has good "tilth" or working quality is the rows run, although running them to feel it with your fingers. If the soil lengthwise of the garden makes cul- has a nice "loamy" texture, it's great tivation easier. If rows run east and for plants. Loam (called "loom" by west, plant your large crops on the old timers) is simply a well balanced north side of the garden so that they mixture of large, medium and small will not shade the small crops. Keep particles of sand, silt and clay. in mind that crops should get at least six hours of sunlight daily. Try not to Organic Matter locate the garden near trees, build- If you find you have a problem ings, ridges or anything that will soil, the best conditioner you can get block out the sun. is organic matter, such as compost, While certain flowers have been peatmoss, sawdust, leaves, rotted bred to grow in shade, vegetables are dead weeds and plants removed in sun worshipers and do not do well cleaning up the yard (avoid any di- near trees, both because of the shade seased materials). Lawn clippings, and the competition from tree roots. wood chips, kitchen scraps, barnyard A hardwood tree iy2 feet in diameter manures, and green manures—which at shoulder height gives off as much include crops such as winter rye, as 125 tons of water in a single sea- buckwheat and legumes—are turned son, robbing plants not only of sun under to rot in the soil. Humus opens but also of water for nearby soil. the clay and encourages earthworms If you must garden in semi-shade, to be more active helpers. The earth- try increasing the light intensity by worms in a single acre of ground may installing aluminum sheets or other pass more than 10 tons of dry earth reflectors to accent the sun's rays, through their bodies annually. They as small space gardeners often do. mix organic matter with the subsoil. Steer clear of black walnut trees. They also build up topsoil and their Gardens should not be planted within burrows aerate the earth.

106 Don't add sand to a claylike soil to time, and because of the rosin cover loosen it. The result may be a con- over each particle they will be re- crete-like mixture harder than the leased at intervals during the growing original clay. Limestone has a loosen- season. ing effect on a heavy clay soil, coag- Pesticides: Don't douse your vege- ulating the fine particles into larger tables with sprays or dusts so thickly ones, allowing air and water to pass that it takes many washings to get freely. Ground limestone or dolomi- them clean enough to eat. Most small tic limestone can be used. Ground gardens are easily de-bugged by hand- limestone is less expensive and is picking each day. Vigilance is the easy to apply. Dolomitic lime has 20 watchword. A few minutes each day to 30 percent magnesium, plus 30 to checking your vegetables will usually 50 percent calcium, and is available in be all that's needed to keep out bad both hydrated and ground stone bugs. types. Since magnesium is another Remember that only 10 percent of element needed for plant growth, all bugs are bad. Our natural preda- many prefer dolomitic limestone. tors, including beneficial insects, Any form of lime can be used, but birds, frogs and toads will eliminate remember the more concentrated most pests if we don't kill them off forms such as the hydrated or burned with sprays. However, should an in- lime forms should be used in lesser festation get the best of you, check amounts. The big problem most gar- it with the latest control methods rec- deners run into is using the 3 forms in ommended by your county Extension equivalent amounts. Roughly speak- agent, State university, or the U.S. ing, 100 pounds of ground limestone Department of Agriculture. is equal in action to about 74 pounds Crop Rotation: Farmers for centur- of hydrated lime or 56 pounds of ies have found it good business to burned lime. shift their crops around each year. Fertilizer: A good well rotted com- Home gardeners cannot rotate their post pile is a valuable adjunct for any crops that easily because of limited gardener. We have already mentioned space. But with careful planning, you how it breaks up a heavy soil. It also can maintain a certain amount of ro- adds nutrients to some degree but it tation. Some diseases—such as root cannot be counted on to feed vege- knot, clubroot, fusarium wilt, and cab- tables all the necessary nutrients. Any bage yellows—will build up in the balanced fertilizer with the big three soil if one crop is planted in the same (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash) spot year after year. Another advan- can be added to the garden in fall or tage of shifting crops around into dif- spring before you plow. Many gar- ferent spaces is that vegetables such deners use a liquid plant food, usually as peas or beans are legumes and can applied at planting time and again take nitrogen out of the air and put two or three times during the growing it into the soil. season. If a regular dry fertilizer is Corn is a gross feeder and takes a applied for a mid-summer snack, take large quantity of nutrients from the care that it doesn't touch the plants. soil. However, you might have to com- It can be applied as a side dressing a pensate for this deficiency by extra few inches away so that it can be feeding, since corn plantings may need washed into the soil near the roots, to occupy the same area year after but if it touches the plant in the dry year since they might shade shorter state it will burn plant tissues. vegetables if moved to a different Many slow release fertilizers on the location. market can be applied at planting Radishes, cabbage, tomatoes or let-

107 practice succession planting. This means getting two crops from each garden row—one which can be harvested in early summer, the other in fall. Often the fall garden is more productive, and fall-grown vegetables are usually of higher canning quality than those which mature during the hot dry periods of midsummer. Take beans, for example. They mature early and are finished by early summer. The vines can be dug and that same space planted with broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, string beans or turnips. Summer drought and early killing frost are two factors you have to keep in mind in planting the late garden. Midsummer heat can be offset by William E Carnahan watering and mulching. To beat Jack Frost, concentrate on hardy vegetables like spinach, chard, turnips, beets, and tuce can easily be rotated with beans any of the cabbage family, plus fall and peas, alternating their locations crops of lettuce. each year. Most of these vegetables can be Many disease problems can be pre- planted as late as early July in most vented by practicing good sanitation. areas and still produce a fair crop. Plant parasites often overwinter in Long season crops such as tomatoes, refuse from last year's crops. Pulling peppers, or eggplants will continue to vines, stalks and overripe fruits is an bear until frost if well cared for. Lima effective way to control plant diseases beans and okra will produce a partial and bacteria. If these parts of plants crop when planted as late as the first show any disease they should not be of July. Garden peas such as Wando put on the compost pile but sealed are a dependable fall crop. in plastic bags and sent to the Onion sets may be planted any time disposal. during the summer for green bunching Use Good Seed: Another way to onions. Seed can be sown in spring or prevent disease problems is to use early summer for a fall crop. Top sets treated seed or certified seed and from winter onions can be planted for raise your own plants. If you buy fall use. Those not used may be left in plants be sure they are from a trust- the row and will usually over-winter worthy grower. Avoid any plants with for spring use. root swellings or lumps. In many areas beets and carrots can Gardeners are fortunate to have be left in the garden all winter if a plant breeders who are constantly de- light mulch is added. Parsnips are a veloping disease-resistant varieties. welcome spring delicacy but take a Study the seed catalog. It lists resist- long growing season so should be ant varieties and although they are sometimes a bit more expensive, they are worth it. Succession Planting' To get the Planting calendar helps in working out most from your garden it's smart to succession planting sclieduie for garden.

108 Vegetable Yields

Approximate planting per person Average Storage, crop expected canning or Vegetables per 100 feet Fresh freezing

Asparagus 30 lb. 10-15 plants 10-15 plants Beans, snap bush 120 1b. 15-16 feet 15-20 feet Beans, snap pole 150 1b. 5-6 feet 8-10 feet Beans, Lima bush 25 lb. shelled 10-15 feet 15-20 feet Beans, Lima pole 50 lb. shelled 5-6 feet 8-10 feet Beets 150 1b. 5-10 feet 10-20 feet Broccoli 100 lb. 3-5 plants 5-6 plants Brussels sprouts 75 1b. 2-5 plants 5-8 plants Cabbage 150 1b. 3-4 plants 5-10 plants Cabbage, Chinese 80 heads 3-10 feet Carrots 100 lb. 5-10 feet 10-15 feet Cauliflower 100 lb. 3-5 plants 8-12 plants Celeriac 60 1b. 5 feet 5 feet Celery 180 stalks 10 stalks Chard, Swiss 75 1b. 3-5 plants 8-12 plants Collards and kale 100 lb. 5-10 feet 5-10 feet Corn, sweet 10 dozen 10-15 feet 30-50 feet Cucumbers 120 lb. 1-2 hills 3-5 hills Eggplant 100 lb. 2-3 plants 2-3 plants Garlic 40 lb. 1-5 feet Kohlrabi 75 1b. 3-5 feet 5-10 feet Lettuce, head 100 heads 10 feet Lettuce, leaf 50 1b. 10 feet Muskmelon (cantaloupe) 100 fruits 3-5 hills Mustard 100 lb. 5-10 feet 10-15 feet Okra 100 lb. 4-6 feet 6-10 feet Onions (plants or sets) 100 lb. 3-5 feet 30-50 feet Onions (seed) 100 lb. 3-5 feet 30-50 feet Parsley 30 1b. 1-3 feet 1-3 feet Parsnips 100 lb. 10 feet 10 feet Peas, English 20 1b. 15-20 feet 40-60 feet Peas, southern 40 lb. 10-15 feet 20-50 feet Peppers 60 lb. 3-5 plants 3-5 plants Potatoes, Irish 100 lb. 50-100 feet Potatoes, sweet 100 lb. 5-10 plants 10-20 plants Pumpkins 100 lb. 1-2 hills 1-2 hills Radishes 100 bunches 3-5 feet Salsify 100 lb. 5 feet 5 feet Soybeans 201b. 50 feet 50 feet Spinach 40-50 lb. 5-10 feet 10-15 feet Squash, summer 150 lb. 2-3 hills 2-3 hills Squash, winter 100 lb. 1-3 hills 1-3 hills Tomatoes 100 lb. 3-5 plants 5-10 plants Turnip greens 50-100 lb. 5-10 feet Turnip, roots 50-100 lb. 5-10 feet 5-10 feet Watermelon 40 fruits 2-4 hills

109 sown in May in most areas, then left up a garden and keeping it maintained in the garden over winter. during the growing season. If you like good exercise, a small Mixing Crops plot is easily maintained through In our garden we prefer to mix hoeing, hand weeding, and using a crops rather than planting vegetables push cultivator. in blocks. The only exception is corn, A black plastic mulch can save you which must be planted in blocks in lots of cultivating and weeding. Don't order to get proper pollination. We use clear plastic because light enters scatter our four rows of beans be- it and enables weeds to grow. Place tween rows of lettuce, radishes, beets the plastic sheet flat on the ground, and onions, instead of planting all the and fasten the edges down with soil rows side by side. Recent experiments or stones. Then make slits in the plas- show this cuts down on insect ac- tic. If you sow seed you can make a tivity. That is the reason many people long sHt and sow the seed directly intersperse flowers in their vegetable into the row under it. You also can gardens. We feel it is rather attrac- sow seed before laying the plastic. tive to have a few plants of marigolds, After plants are up a few inches, lay nasturtiums, calendulas, or zinnias the plastic down lightly and cut slits scattered among the vegetables. or holes where the plants are so they Tools: Everyone needs a trowel or will grow up through them. two, a spade fork and a hoe. You If soil is moist when mulch is laid, don't need a garage full of tools to plants will need little if any extra produce a good garden. Small plots water because the moisture is trapped can be spaded by hand. Larger plots underneath. Sufficient water will seep can be plowed and disked or dragged in around the holes but even in very by your nearby farmer neighbor dry weather black plastic (and other or large-scale gardener in the mulches] hold water around roots. neighborhood. The plastic hastens ripening by in- A garden hoe is one of the best creasing the soil temperature, and you weedkillers you can get. Make sure it don't have to worry about weeds, is sharp enough to clip off weed seed- slugs or having to cultivate the plants. lings. Don't be in a hurry to buy Green Thumbers can turn to many power tractors or tillers until you're sources to answer their queries about sure you want to do enough garden- vegetable gardening: fl) Their county ing to justify power equipment. Extension office, (2] Current books on If you consistently plant a very vegetable gardening, (3) Bulletins from large garden, a riding tractor with at- the U.S. Department of Agriculture, tachments could serve you well. When (4) Farm and garden programs over your plot is average or small a gaso- radio and television, (5) State colleges line-driven, hand-operated rototiller of agriculture, and (6) Long-time gar- type machine may be useful for fitting deners in the area.

110 Growing Vegetable Transplants: Lights, Containers, Media, Seed by Franklin D. Schales

Most experts on vegetable plants wired lamps and ballasts in various agree that the ideal vegetable trans- sizes and types. Best illumination is plant should be stocky, have good obtained if the lamps are spaced 2 color, be disease-free, and be at the inches apart, center to center. Since proper stage of development for best fluorescent tubes are relatively cool grov\^th when set in the garden. they may be placed close to plants How can you grow such a trans- without danger of burning them. An plant? Ideally, the best place to grow adjustable support for the lamps vegetable plants is in a greenhouse makes it possible to adjust lamps to equipped with automatic controls for differing plant heights. heating and ventilating. There are sev- If you construct a chamber for eral kinds of hobby-size greenhouses growing plants, all inside surfaces available from commercial sources. If should be painted white or made of you prefer to build your own, plans reflective materials to increase the are available from several State Agri- light available. cultural Experiment Stations. Length of lighting each day should Hot beds and cold frames also are be controlled manually or by using a suitable for plant growing, but re- time clock. Usually 12 to 16 hours quire more attention than green- light each day is sufficient for grow- houses since they are not constructed ing plants. to allow for automatic ventilation. Also it is more difficult to work in Vegetables for Transplanting these structures than in a greenhouse. Many kinds of vegetables can be It is possible—though more diffi- satisfactorily transplanted. Usually cult—to grow vegetable transplants these are classified as being either indoors if you do not have a green- warm season or cool season veg- house, hot bed, or cold frame. The etables, depending on tolerance to best place to grow plants indoors, if cold weather. you are depending on sunshine as the All the cucurbits—which include only source of light, would be in a cucumber, squash, watermelon, and large window facing south or south- muskmelon—are warm season veg- west. This should be in a room where etables. For satisfactory results with it is possible to have the night tem- them, plant the seed in containers perature no higher than 60° F. The that will be set in the garden without window should not be shaded by trees disturbing the plant's root system. or otherwise since the plants will Other warm season vegetables such require all the light that reaches as pepper, eggplant, and tomato may them. High night temperatures will be transplanted bare-root. However, result in tall, soft, and spindling it is also best if these are grown in a plants. type of container that will allow Cool white fluorescent lamps pro- transplanting with the root ball essen- vide good supplementary light for tially intact. plants. These are available in pre- Cool season vegetables include cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, Franklin D. Schales is an Associate broccoH, lettuce, and onion. These Professor of Horticulture at the Univer- may be transplanted in containers or sity of Maryland, Salisbury. bare-root.

Ill Containers multi-plant containers. As a general Those wishing to grow vegetable rule, allow 6 to 9 square inches per transplants have a wide choice of plant for most vegetable transplants. containers to choose from. Com- Compressed peat pellets will not al- pressed peat pellets, peat pots, plastic low this much space if placed against pots and fiber blocks are some of the each other in the flat. However, they types available for growing single can be spaced further apart, and are plants in. Multi-plant containers in- satisfactory if the plants are set in the clude various size cell packs and open garden before they become too large. containers of various sizes in which The space between the peat pellets more than one plant can be grown. should be filled with peat moss or a With most of the containers avail- soilless growing medium. able, choose the larger sizes in the If peat pots are used, when the single-plant growing containers and plant is set in the garden be sure that don't crowd plants too close in the the entire pot is buried. If the top of the pot is exposed to air and sunlight,

Terence O Onscoll it will act as a wick, removing moisture from around the plant roots. Sometimes it's a good idea to break the bottom out of peat pots when setting plants in the garden. Remove plants from plastic pots or trays before putting them in the gar-

Top, containers for starting plants. Left, tomato sprout emerging from a starter container.

112 Terence o Dnscolt den. If the plant has a very extensive • Be free of harmful substances root development, with almost a solid such as herbicide residue mass of roots, you should slightly • Be reasonable in cost and readily break the root ball apart, or make available several shallow cuts with a knife • Be free of weed seeds, insects, along the edge of the root ball. This and diseases will stimulate new root development Not too long ago practically all into the soil after the plants are set. plants were grown in soil that had Other plant-growing containers are been improved by adding sand and available such as milk cartons and peat moss. These were added to im- clay pots, but the types previously prove aeration, drainage, and water- discussed are either more readily holding capacity, since most top soil available or have proven more satis- is not suitable for growing plants sat- factory for most growers. isfactorily without being modified Regardless of the container used, somewhat. The main reason for this it is important that it drain excess is because plants are normally grown water freely. Waterlogged vegetable in small containers, making it neces- plants will not grow properly. sary for the media to be in nearly perfect condition to support satisfac- Growing Media tory plant growth and development. The materials—such as soil, sand, Many problems are associated with peat moss—that plants grow in are making a satisfactory soil mixture. known as growing media. One is simply finding good topsoil to Basic requirements of satisfactory use. Even if good topsoil is avail- plant growing media are that they: • Have good water drainage • Have adequate waterholding ca- Vegetable seedlings growing in peat pacity pots.

113 able, it must be heated or chemically avoid problems with weeds and dis- treated to kill weed seeds, insects, eases is to keep all materials used and disease-causing organisms. Also, from becoming contaminated. if the top soil comes from a cultivated In most plant-growing media the field there is the possibility of herbi- nutrients added at the time of mixing cide residue which might be harmful may not be adequate to grow the to certain plants. For example a her- plant to proper transplanting size. If bicide that is registered for and safe the plant foliage color becomes yel- to use on corn might leave a residue lowish green, more nutrients are prob- harmful to tomato plants. ably needed. This situation may be For the average home gardener corrected by dissolving 1 ounce (2 wishing to start vegetable plants, the level tablespoons) of a water soluble best growing medium is one of the fertilizer such as 20-20-20 in a gallon soilless mixes available commercially; of water and applying this as a reg- or you may purchase ingredients to ular watering at 7 to 10 day intervals. make a soilless mix. Ingredients for Wash off with plain water any fer- one mix are listed below. Quantities tilizer solution that remains on the shown will make up 2 bushels of plant foliage. growing medium. Sphagnum peat moss 1 bu Sowing Seed Horticultural vermiculite 1 bu Before purchasing seed, determine Ground dolomitic limestone 1 lb the best varieties for the area, as well Superphosphate 4 oz as the quantity you need. Usually the Calcium nitrate 2 oz small packet size will provide ample Calcium sulfate 7 oz seed for home gardener needs. Fritted trace elements (FTE 503) 1 oz Chelated iron (Sequestrene 330 Fe) 2 g Most vegetable seed, except warm season cucurbits, should be sown in If you live where bark from South- rows pressed into the growing me- ern yellow pine is available, the small dium with a board which makes a particle sizes (half inch or smaller in flat bottom trench about a half inch diameter) may be substituted for peat wide. Enough seed should be evenly moss. distributed in the trench to obtain Unless you have ready access to about 8 to 10 plants per inch of row. the ingredients shown, it is simpler Depth of covering will vary, depend- to purchase a ready mixed medium ing on seed size. Most vegetable seed for plant growing. In calculating your will germinate properly if planted a needs for a ready mixed medium, bear quarter inch deep, provided proper in mind that 1 cubic foot of medium temperature and moisture levels are will fill approximately 275 peat pots maintained. 2V4 inches square, 60 four-inch round Before planting seed, water the pots, and 20 packs measuring approxi- medium thoroughly and allow it to mately 5 by 8 inches by ZVA inches drain overnight. Check the medium deep. daily after planting and water lightly Media for seed germination should if it appears to be drying out. Take be somewhat fine textured, drain care to avoid overwatering, since well, and be free of weed seeds and seeds germinate poorly or not at all diseases. Most commercially available in water logged media. Water very mixes are suitable for germinating gently all seedling containers and seed. However, it is important not to small plants. contaminate the plant-growing me- As soon as seedlings emerge they dium with dirty tools, containers, and should be grown at a somewhat lower so on when using it. The best way to temperature than that required for

114 germination. Most warm season vine "Spotting" out seedlings into individual crops, eggplant, and peppers should containers. be germinated at a temperature of 80° to 90° F, whereas most other pressed peat pellets in warm water vegetable seed will germinate prop- if these are to be used. The media erly at 60° to 80°. Plant growing tem- should be moist but not waterlogged. peratures should be 60° night and 70° With a round pointed object press a to 75° day for warm season crops. hole into the center of the pot as deep Cool season crops and tomato plants as the root system on the seedlings. may be grown with night temperature Then carefully remove the seedlings, as low as 45° to 50°. lifting them out with a flat wood label All vegetables discussed in this sec- and gently separating them. Most of tion except the cucurbits may be, the medium they were growing in and usually are, sown too thick to may fall off the roots. However, this make a satisfactory transplant unless should cause no problem so long as "spotted" out into another plant- the seedling is immediately placed growing container. Do this when the into the prepunched hole and the seedlings are about 1 inch tall and medium in the growing container while still in the cotyledon stage— pressed around the roots. Take care that is, before the first true leaves to avoid injuring the seedling's stem have developed appreciably. and roots. Immediately after spotting To spot out, first fill with moist out, water the seedlings carefully. media whatever container is being With some transplants it is advis- used to grow plants in, or soak com- able to keep the plants in a shaded

115 area for a day before exposing them and stop. Do not water again until to full sun. However, no later than the plants show a need for water. one day after transplanting, place the Water of suitable quality for house- plants where they will receive maxi- hold use is satisfactory for watering mum sunlight. plants. Larger seeded crops such as cucum- When a soilless growing medium ber and muskmelon may be direct is used, do not be misled into think- seeded into the container they will ing the plants need water if the sur- be grown in. Expanded peat pellets face of the medium looks dry. This or peat moss pots filled with a will normally occur before the mois- growing medium are suitable for ture level in the root zone is low this. Press 2 or 3 seeds V4 inch deep enough to result in moisture stress in the medium and cover with the for the plant. A better method to de- same medium the plants are to grow termine when water is needed is to in. Water, lightly with warm water squeeze a sample from the top half and keep in a location where the day- inch of medium between the thumb time temperature is at least 75° F and and finger. If water squeezes out night temperature does not go below easily there is adequate water. If the 65°. After the seedlings emerge they medium feels slightly moist but water may be thinned to 1 or two per pot is very difficult to squeeze out, addi- by pinching off or very carefully tional watering is needed. pulling out excess plants. Seeds of If the plants are where one can these frost sensitive crops should not observe them several times daily, a be planted more than 3 weeks before good method is to water only when the average last frost-free date for slight wilting occurs. When watering, your area. apply enough to completely soak Some general precautions to ob- the medium to the bottom of the serve in planting seed include: container. • Buy good seed of recommended Do not water plants with very cold varieties water. Water temperature should be • Plant at the proper rate and depth as near room temperature as possible. • Cover seed with the same media Applying very cold water to plants in which seed are planted on a bright day may result in wilting, • Do not use plain sand for germi- stunting of growth, and injury to nating seed leaves. • After an initial soaking and drain, The time needed to grow a plant water sparingly until seedlings to suitable size for transplanting will become established vary with the type of vegetable and • Use room temperature water for the season. all watering Cucurbits should be direct seeded, • Observe safe dates for setting in 2 seeds per pot in the container they the garden to determine seeding will be grown in to transplanting size. dates Usually 3 weeks after seeding these crops will be ready to set in the Water Management garden. Watering properly requires prac- The other vegetables discussed will tice. When the plants are small it is require 5 to 7 weeks, with perhaps as easy to over water. Do not have plant long as 8 weeks from seeding to trans- containers on a tray with water stand- planting for pepper and eggplant. ing in it. If you use a tray, top water The stage of development is more the plants until some water begins to important than size of transplant. run out the bottom of the container Tomato, pepper, and eggplant trans-

116 plants should be set in the garden at late flower bud to early bloom stage. If fruits are present on the transplants, these should be removed. Otherwise development of the fruits will continue, resulting in a marked reduction in plant vigor and fruit production. Cucurbits should be transplanted when the first true leaf is iy2 to 2V2 inches across.

Hardening Transplants Some plant giowers "harden off" vegetable transplants before setting them outdoors. You do this by one or more of the following: reducing growing temperature, withholding water, and increasing light intensity. Fre- quently this is done by placing the plants outside during favorable weather in the last 2 to 3 weeks before setting in the garden. Take the plants indoors if frost is expected. Water within a few hours after the plants start to wilt. In no case should cucurbits be hardened. In most instances it is doubtful that hardening is needed for any properly grown vegetable transplant that is to be set in the home garden which has reasonably good protection from wind and blowing sand. It is much better to produce stocky, healthy, vigorous plants to set in the garden than to have tall, weak plants less able to withstand the use any non-sterilized soil or items rigors of growing in the garden. contaminated with soil. If you use a hose to water the plants, keep the Common Pests end of it off the greenhouse floor. Other bad news for transplants in- One of the most common diseases cludes foliage diseases and soilborne the plant grower faces is damping off. wilt diseases that may have been in- This disease attacks germinating troduced if you use contaminated soil. seeds and small seedlings, and may These are not likely to be a problem result in loss of an entire seed flat. if you give proper attention to sanita- The best way to combat damping off tion and selection of disease-resistant is to prevent the organisms causing it vegetable varieties. from being introduced to the plant- growing area. This may be done by The most common insects likely to using all new materials each year such as growing containers, media, Plants that have been outside "harden- etc. Also, take care in watering to ing" and are ready for transplanting in prevent excessive wetness. Do not garden.

117 245-559 O - '77 - 2 be encountered are aphids, white fly, If an infestation occurs, determine and leaf miner. Often these are pres- what the insect pest is and use the ent on ornamental house plants, so proper insecticide at the correct rate one means of control is to disinfest for control. Observe all safety pre- house plants before starting the veg- cautions with insecticides. Plants etable plants. Also, plants brought in growing in the house should be from other greenhouses may be in- taken outside for treating, weather fested with insects. permitting. Control begins with prevention to Insect control is also important for the greatest extent possible. If other controlling certain diseases, especi- plants in the area are infested with ally virus diseases, which may affect insects, either remove the plants or tomatoes, peppers, and some cucur- kill the insects with an approved ma- bits. Aphids often transmit these dis- terial. Make sure that any plants eases from host plants such as weeds brought in from another source are and some house plants to susceptible free of insects. vegetable crops.

118 The Complex Art of Planting by Charles W. Reynolds

Before you begin to plant the gar- hming to correct soil acidity, fer- den, plan carefully which vegetables tilization, plowing or spading, and to grow, how much of each, when to smoothing the soil by disking or plant, and where to plant them in the raking. garden area. Choose crops your fam- Adding organic matter improves ily likes, those that can be expected the tilth of most soils. It makes them to do well in your area, and those for easier to manage, as well as improv- which you have adequate space. ing drainage of clay soils, water re- Make a sketch on paper showing the tention of sandy soils, and aeration location, the amount (row length], and of the soil. If available, add 20 to 30 time to plant each crop. Group the bushels of barnyard manure per 1,000 crops according to time of planting, square feet (poultry manure at half growth habit, and time to maturity. this rate). Or add well-rotted compost Here are some points to consider prepared at home in a compost pile in planning the garden: from leaves, grass clippings and waste —Plant perennial crops (those plant material from almost any which live for many years) along one source. Compost started during the side of the garden where they will summer months will be ready for use interfere least with preparing the rest the next year. of the garden. —Group early quick-maturing crops Green Manure together, and plant tall-growing ones Green manure or cover crops of to one side where they will not shade rye or ryegrass alone or mixed with shorter crops. a legume will protect the soil from —Allow adequate space between erosion and add organic matter when rows for the type of cultivation you turned under. will use. Rows can be closer togeiuer If garden soils are acid, lime may for hand cultivation than for use of be needed. Soil acidity is expressed small tractors. as pH. A pH of 7.0 is neutral. A pH —Make repeated or succession lower than 7.0 indicates acidity, a plantings of crops like snap beans and higher one alkalinity. Most vegetable sweet corn to provide a supply over crops grow best with a pH of 6.0 to a large part of the season. 6.5, slightly acid. If the pH is 5.0, for —Keep the garden producing for example, lime is needed to make the the whole growing season. Follow soil less acid. early short season crops with others Soils should be tested occasionally planted for midseason or fall use. to determine the need for lime and for —If adequate space is available, fertilizer. Such tests are available to make special plantings of selected gardeners through local Agricultural crops for canning, freezing or other Extension Agents at little or no cost. storage. Amounts of lime and fertilizer to use Good soil preparation is essential are suggested depending on results of for gardening success. Preparation the soil test. may include adding organic matter, If needed, broadcast lime evenly over the garden area at the recommended rate and mix well with the Charles W. Reynolds is Professor of topsoil as you prepare the soil for Vegetable Crops, University of Mary- planting. If the soil test shows a need land, College Park. for magnesium, add dolomitic lime

119 which contains magnesium as well as calcium. Heavy soils—those having considerable clay—may be improved phys- ically if you plow or spade the garden in the fall and leave it rough over the winter. Alternate freezing and thawing improves the tilth, making the soil easier to manage. However, if there is danger of erosion, such as on sloping land, this may not be a good practice. Prepare garden soils by plowing or spading to a depth of at least 6 to 8 The remainder can then be applied inches. This should mix into the top- in bands 2 or 3 inches to the side of soil any organic matter added, crop the row at planting or as one or more residues or cover crops that are pres- sidedressings after the crop emerges. ent, and the hme and fertilizer ap- Starter solutions are high-analysis plied. Do not work soils when they water-soluble fertilizers mixed with are wet, especially those with con- water for use at transplanting. A siderable clay. This causes damage small amount of this dilute solution to the tilth or physical structure of around the roots of newly set plants the soil which may last for a long provides readily available nutrients time. Plow, spade, or cultivate only while the transplant is becoming es- when the soil is dry enough to crum- tablished. ble easily. Use of starter solutions reduces the loss of plants following transplant- Fertilizing ing, promotes rapid early growth, and On most soils the yield and quality improves yields. of vegetables will be improved by There are many excellent varieties adding commercial fertilizer even if or cultivars of most vegetable crops. you make generous applications of Dozens of new ones become available manure or other organic matter. Com- each year, some of which are definite mercial fertilizers for gardens usually improvements over older kinds in contain nitrogen, phosphorus and yielding ability, quality, and disease potash. Kinds such as 5-10-5, 5-10-10, resistance. Try some of the new ones, 10-10-10, and 10-6-4 are widely used. especially those recommended by Ammonium nitrate, ammonium sul- your local Agricultural Extension fate, or urea may be used when only Service. But continue to depend upon nitrogen is needed such as for side- those that have proven suitable for dressed applications. your conditions in the past. In general, leafy vegetables need Get the best seed you can locate. large amounts of nitrogen. Pod or fruit Cheap seed is hardly ever a bargain. crops respond well to phosphorus, Some kinds left over from previous and the root crops require more years may have poor germination and potassium. Many vegetable crops re- low vigor. If you are not sure of old spond to as much as 40 to 50 pounds seed, discard it and obtain new seed per 1,000 square feet of N-P-K fertilizer such as the grades listed above. About half of this should be broad- Banding fertilizer. Place hand 2 or 3 cast and mixed into the topsoil dur- inches to each side of seed and ahout 1 ing soil preparation before planting. or 2 inches deeper.

120 from a dependable source. Never save your own seed from hybrids; resulting plants will not be true to type. •,"

Planting Seeds Straight rows make the vegetable garden more attractive and easier to keep free of weeds. To have straight rows, tie a heavy string tightly between stakes at each end of the row. To band fertilizer beside the row, open furrows 2 or 3 inches on each side of the string, apply the right amount of fertilizer in the furrows, and cover with soil. Then make a shallow trench or furrow along the string with the hoe, hoe handle or other suitable tool. Make furrow at the right depth for the seed being planted. Sow seed uniformly and not too thickly by shaking out of seed packet or dropping with the fingers. Most gardeners tend to plant too thickly. If such plantings are not thinned, plants grow tall and spindly and yield poorly. Cover seed by raking soil into the furrow with the corner of the hoe or with a rake. Avoid pulling clods or lumps of soil into the furrow. Firm William E Carnal the soil over the seed furrow with the hoe or rake. Do not pack. Mark each tances are related to size of plants at row with a small garden stake show- maturity and to the type of cultiva- ing what was planted. tion to be used. Rows may be closer Plant most vegetable seeds mod- together for hand cultivation, wider erately shallow. Small seeded crops if small tractors are to be used. such as lettuce or carrots should be Use of seed tapes gives accurate planted about a quarter inch deep. spacing of seed within the row with Larger seeds like beans or sweet corn no need for thinning. These are water- should be about an inch deep, slightly soluble tapes with seed of a given deeper in dry weather. A good rule crop enclosed within the tape at ap- to follow is: plant seeds at a depth propriate spacings. To use these, open two to four times the width of the a furrow at the right depth, unroll seed. Beets, Swiss chard and New the tape in the bottom of the furrow, Zealand spinach are exceptions; plant these shallow. The "seeds" as purchased are actually dry fruits con- Spacing beon seeds evenly in furrow taining several tiny true seed. Jtept stroight with tie line. Stake on Distances between rows and be- either end of Une can serve as marker tween plants in the row vary widely to indicate what crop was planted and among vegetable crops. Planting dis- when.

121 and cover with soil. The tape disin- tomatoes are started in hot beds or tegrates in the soil, leaving the seed greenhouses and transplanted to the accurately spaced. Seed cost is in- garden in order to provide earlier creased, but the hard work of thin- maturity. If plants are grown in indi- ning is avoided. For use in tapes, seed vidual pots or other containers there must have a very high germinability. is little or no shock or injury from Seed of several small seeded veg- transplanting. If plants are not in in- etables are available in seed tapes. dividual containers, transplanting will cause less injury if plants are re- Planting in Hills moved from the plant bed with a ball Seed of the vine crops—cucumbers, of soil around the roots. cantaloupes, pumpkins, squash and Dig plants from plant bed and plant watermelons—are often planted in in the garden immediately. Stretch "hills". Several seeds are planted at string tightly along row in well pre- each planting site with the sites a pared soil. Open holes at proper dis- few feet apart. After the seedlings tances with a trowel, bulb planter, or are up, they are thinned to two or mattock. Set the transplants a little three in each "hill". Mixing a shovel- deeper than they were in plant bed. ful of stable manure or compost in Fill soil around roots, firming slightly. each hill improves growth and yield Add % to 1 cup of water or starter of these crops substantially. The soil solution around each plant to moisten at each hill may be mounded or raised somewhat or it may be left nearly level with the rest of the area. A child's garden is not always of verses. Some vegetable crops such as broc- Here, two young Jadíes lend hand at coli, cabbage, eggplant, pepper, and transplanting time in fannily garden.

122 Planting Chart for Vegetables Planting distances Depth to plant Between rows In the row Crop (inches) (inches] (inches) Cool Season Crops Asparagus [crowns) 6-8 36-60 12-18 Beets V4-V2 15-24 2-3 Broccoli 1/4-V2 24-36 12-18 Brussels sprouts V4-V2 24-36 18-24 Cabbage VA-V2 24-36 12-18 Cabbage, Chinese V^-Vi 18-30 8-12 Carrots V^-V2 15-30 2-3 Cauliflower V^-V2 24-36 18-24 Celery Vs 18-36 4-6 Chard, Swiss VA-V2 18-36 6-8 Chives V2 15-24 6-8 Collards 1/4-1/2 24-36 18-24 Cress, upland 1/4-1/2 15-30 2-3 Endive 1/4-1/2 18-36 12 Garlic (cloves) 11/2 18-24 3 Kale 1/4-1/2 18-36 8-12 Kohlrabi 1/4-1/2 18-36 4-6 Leeks 1/2 12-30 2-3 Lettuce, heading 1/4 18-30 12 Lettuce, leaf 1/4 12-18 4-6 Mustard 1/4-1/2 18-24 3-4 Onions, plants 15-24 3-4 Onions, seed 1/2 15-24 3-4 Onions, sets 1-2 15-24 3-4 Parsley 1/4 15-24 6-8 Parsnips 1/2 18-30 3-4 Peas 1-2 8-24 1 Potatoes 4 30-36 12 Radishes 1/2 12-24 1 Rhubarb, crowns 36-48 36-48 Rutabagas 1/4-1/2 18-30 3-4 Spinach 1/2 12-24 2-4 Turnips 1/4-1/2 18-30 2-3 Warm Season Crops Beans, lima 1-11/2 24-36 3-4 Beans, snap 1-11/2 24-36 1-2 Cantaloupes 1 48-72 24-30 Cucumbers 1 48-60 12-18 Eggplant 1/4 30-42 18-24 Okra 1 36-48 12-18 Peas, southern 1 24-36 4 Peppers 1/4 30-42 18-24 Pumpkins 1 60-96 36-48 Spinach, New Zealand 1/2-1 30-42 15-18 Squash, summer 1-11/2 48-60 18-24 Squash, winter 1-11/2 60-96 36-48 Sweet corn 1-2 30-36 10-12 Sweet potatoes 30-36 12-15 Tomatoes 1/4 36-60 18-24 Watermelons 1-11/2 60-96 36-60

123 and settle soil around roots. After the Move transplant to garden with soil ball water soaks in, rake dry soil around and roots intact. After planting, cover plants to level and cover wet area. soil hall with light layer of garden soil, forming mound around plant to hold Some gardeners may prefer to form a water. Water thoroughly so moisture slight mound of soil in a ring around penetrates roots and mounded soil. new transplants and add water after transplanting. A paper cylinder wrapped around of transplants in cold weather of early the stem extending from just below spring or in summer heat. Unplowed the soil to about two inches above strips of a small grain like rye give will discourage cutworms. protection from cold winds and blow- Cucumbers, squash, and canta- ing sand in the spring. Short branches loupes will mature earlier if grown of trees or privet hedge stuck into the in peat pots or other individual con- soil near rows of midsummer trans- tainers and transplanted with an in- plants provide shade and protection tact ball of soil around the roots. from hot drying winds. They are easily injured and may not survive transplanting as bare rooted Time of Planting plants, however. Vegetables may be divided into two Set plants in late afternoon or on large groups—warm season and cool a cloudy day. Plants set during the season crops. heat of the day will wilt badly. Shad- Warm season crops require warm ing for a few days during hot weather weather for germination, growth, and helps the plant become established. development. They are injured or To prevent cold injury to transplants killed by freezing temperatures. They in early spring, protect plants with should not be planted outdoors in the hotcaps, plastic row covers, baskets, spring without protection until the or other available material. Covers danger of frost is past. Those planted should be removed or opened for in summer for fall maturity should be ventilation on bright, sunny days. planted early enough to mature be- Windbreaks may improve survival fore killing frosts in the fall.

124 plastic, aluminum foil, and heavy Kraft paper are newer materials. Do not add organic mulches until the soil has warmed up well and has been cultivated to control weeds, and the vegetable seeds have germinated and made several inches of growth. Earlier application keeps soil cooler and delays crop maturity. Spread straw, hay, and leaves 3 to 4 inches deep around plants and between rows. Spread sawdust and wood chips no more than 2 inches deep. For fall crops, organic mulches may Cool season crops grow best in be applied soon after planting be- relatively cool weather and may per- cause the soil is warm. form poorly in summer heat. They Organic mulching materials require tolerate temperatures below freezing nitrogen for decomposition and will if properly hardened. They may be compete with the crop for the avail- injured or killed, of course, by hard able soil nitrogen. To insure sufficient freezes. Cool season crops may be nitrogen for crop growth, add a mod- safely planted outdoors two to four erate amount of a complete fertilizer weeks before the expected date of the or a source of nitrogen only, such as last frost in spring. They continue to ammonium nitrate, when the mulch grow well past the earliest frost in is applied. fall, but should be started early Black plastic mulch is unrolled over enough to mature before hard freezes the prepared and fertilized rows in are expected. early spring. Edges of the material are Good gardeners plan, plant, and fastened down, usually by covering manage the garden to provide fresh with soil, and seed or transplants are vegetables over the whole growing planted through holes cut in the ma- season. When early crops are har- terial. Plastic mulch tends to increase vested, prepare the soil again and the soil temperature and results in plant others to mature in summer or earlier maturity of spring planted fall. Make several plantings of bush crops. It has been very beneficial beans or sweet corn to provide a fresh when used with tomatoes, eggplants, supply over much of the summer. cucumbers, cantaloupjgs, and summer Plant broccoli, radish, turnips, kohl- squash. rabi, spinach, and other cool season Aluminum foil, or black plastic crops not only in early spring but with a thin coating of aluminum foil, also in late summer for fall use. repels some kinds of insects such as aphids. By repelling aphids, it reduces Mulching damage from diseases they spread. Mulches help to control weeds, regulate soil temperature, conserve moisture, and reduce soil and disease Mulches need not be exclusively organic. Here, black plastic is used with injury to fruiting vegetables such as tonnatoes. After plastic sheeting is in tomatoes. Organic mulches include place, holes are made for inserting straw, grass clippings, wood chips transplants. Plastic provides warmth, and shavings, spoiled hay, etc. Black retains moisture, and thwarts weeds.

125 Vegetables in Containers Require Enough Sun, Space, Drainage hy Kothryn L. Arthurs

Growing vegetables in containers directly on a solid surface (a cement can be fun as well as challenging, and or brick patio, for instance] may for those of us with little or no benefit from being elevated slightly. ground space available it provides a If the container stays in contact with good alternative. All you need to a solid surface, water can accumulate, grow container vegetables is enough causing root rot as well as possibly sun and adequate space for a good- staining the patio surface. You can sized container. use short lengths of wood to raise Most types of vegetables lend them- the pots one or two inches off the selves to container gardening. All you patio. have to do is find the varieties that have been hybridized for container Types of Containers growth, or those that can be adapted Large containers are the best for to confined quarters. Some crops like growing vegetables. As long as the corn that produce large root systems plants have ample root space, you will need a very big container. Other can introduce most vegetables that plants with indeterminate growth normally grow in the ground. habits—such as pole beans, cucum- For growing vegetables, a mini- bers, and tomatoes—require a sup- mum-size container is a 6-inch diam- port system. Still other vegetables eter pot with a soil depth of 8 inches. will grow in average-size pots or in This size can sustain lettuce, herbs, hanging baskets. peppers, radishes, and other shallow- Container-grown vegetables make rooted vegetables. Root crops—such few demands when it comes to loca- as beets, carrots, radishes, and turnips tion. Absolute requirements are 5 —need depth and enough surface hours or more of full sun, enough space to fill out to their mature size. space to set the container, and ade- Thinning these crops will be essential. quate air circulation. A nearby water Each vegetable determines the best supply equipped with a hose and a size and style container it needs for soaker/sprayer nozzle attachment is an adequate harvest. Very large con- a real convenience, but not essential. tainers are required for regular-size Once these demands are met, you tomatoes, for squash, pole beans, cu- can place containers anywhere—on a cumbers, and corn. Half barrels, patio or deck, terrace, balcony, win- wooden tubs, or large pressed paper dow box, garage roof, walkway. If containers work well. you have no available ground space, Adequate drainage is another re- consider growing vegetables in hang- quirement for growing vegetables in ing baskets. containers. Most commercial con- Drainage can be a problem in containers come with drainage holes, but tainer gardening. With smaller con- you may find these insufficient. Since tainers, wherever possible use drip most vegetables in containers need saucers to catch excess water. A large daily watering, and fast draining is container without a saucer that sits crucial, consider increasing the size or number of the drainage holes or Kathryn L. Arthurs is a garden writer/ slots. Wooden containers can have editor for a Western publishing com- new drainage holes drilled. Existing pany. She lives in Palo Alto, Calif. holes in clay and ceramic pots can

126 ^m^^'

be enlarged by carefully chipping On the minus side, clay pots are away the edges, or additional ones breakable and expensive. Filled with may be drilled with a masonry bit. damp soil, large pots will be heavy If a container lacks drainage holes, and difficult to move. Their porosity you can provide a drainage layer of lets the potting mix dry out quickly, rocks, pebbles, or pot shards to hold requiring more frequent watering. any excess water until it can be used Tubs, half barrels (originally used or evaporated. Since vegetables need to age wine or whiskey), rectangular daily watering (depending on the in- or square boxes, and hanging slatted dividual plant and your climate), the baskets all come in wood. Redwood drainage layer should fill from a quar- is probably the most commonly used ter to a third of the total container type of wood, with cedar a close sec- volume. Keep in mind that this drain- ond. Both woods resist damage by age layer won't guarantee success; termites and "weather" well. Wood, containers with ample drainage holes like clay, is porous. are best for growing vegetables. Wooden containers are available in There are many types of containers a wide variety of sizes and shapes you can purchase or make yourself and are relatively inexpensive. Some that can be used for growing vege- wooden containers will deteriorate; tables: red clay pots, wooden con- those that are reinforced with metal tainers, pressed paper pots, plastic bands are sturdier than containers pots, and raised beds. Each type has held together with nails or glue. Like advantages and drawbacks. Study clay pots, half barrels and large tubs your individual needs carefully, then will weigh a lot when planted. Check select the containers that best meet plants in wooden containers daily for them. water needs. The container gardener's stand-by, Pressed paper pots, a recent inno- red clay pots, have much to recom- vation in plant containers, come in mend them. They are readily avail- many sizes, are inexpensive and light- able in a wide range of sizes and weight. Their weight can be a disad- shapes; they are porous, allowing ex- vantage if wind is a problem or if the cess moisture to evaporate through their sides; they "weather" well; and their weight keeps them from being top-heavy. They are attractive and Stair-step benches hold containers filled blend into most garden or patio with vegetables. Sunny hrick patio is designs. ideal location.

127 vegetables grown in them are top- sawdust). To be sure your homemade heavy. mix is free from disease and weeds, Plastic is a common material used heat it in a low temperature oven for in smaller containers and hangers. about iy2 to 2 hours. This should Plastic pots are lightweight, inexpen- kill any bacteria, pests, or weed seeds sive and non-porous. Most plastic present. containers come in green or white, Other good soilless potting mixes colors that can be visually jarring in specially formulated for container a garden. They are breakable. gardening are the University of Since plastic pots are non-porous, California mix and the Cornell mix. moisture is retained in the potting Information on each mix can be ob- mix. This will be a problem only if tained by writing the University of drainage holes are inadequate or you California, Division of Agricultural tend to overwater. Plastic hanging Sciences, Berkeley, Calif. 94720, or baskets make good choices because to Cornell University, Department of of their weight and water retention. Floriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. 14853. Hanging plants dry out more quickly Some commercial mixes are ex- than other container plants and need tremely lightweight. These are excel- a firm support to hang from. lent to use in hanging baskets, in very A raised bed lacks one of the basic large containers that you want to qualifications for container garden- move around, or where sheer weight ing: it is stationary. It does, however, could be a problem, such as on a restrict the growing area and provide balcony or in a window box. An for good drainage. ultra-lightweight mix also has some disadvantages. If wind is a problem A Good Potting Mix in your area, top-heavy containers When you garden in containers, may topple over. Top-heavy plants, you want a potting mix that is fast such as corn, tomatoes, and egg- draining, yet provides enough water plants, may not get enough soil sup- retention to keep the soil evenly port for their root systems. moist in the root zone area. A mix If you find your commercial potting that drains too fast won't provide mix isn't absorbing water (the water enough moisture, and one that holds runs through the container rapidly too much moisture may cause the and many particles float on the sur- roots to rot. face without absorbing any moisture), Most home gardeners who grow try using a few drops of liquid deter- vegetables in containers find a "soil- gent in the water. The detergent acts less" commercial potting mix works as a wetting agent. Or you can use a well. These mixes are easy to use, commercial wetting solution. Once lightweight, fast-draining, and free these stubborn mixes begin to soak from soil-borne diseases and weed up water, your problem should be seeds. Since they come in varying- solved. sized bags, you can buy as much as A soilless commercial mix contains you need at the time. The unused few if any nutrients. Vegetables portion can be stored in its bag until grown in these mixes will need reg- you want to use it again. ular fertilizing with a complete fer- If you choose to make your own tilizer formula. mix, a good potting soil for containers Container vegetables have needs consists of equal parts sharp sand that differ from vegetables grown in (be sure to buy washed sand), good the ground. Fertilizing, w^atering, gen- garden soil, and organic material eral maintenance, and harvesting de- (peat moss, leaf mold, fir bark, or mand close daily attention and are

128 crucial to the plant's well-being. level with scissors, a knife, razor Vegetables in containers are at the blade, or pruning shears. Pulling un- gardener's mercy. wanted seedlings out may disturb or destroy surrounding root systems. Planting Techniques To plant vegetable seedlings, pre- Most vegetables grow as well from pare the container as before. Remove seed as from transplanted seedlings. the seedling carefully from its pot. However, if your containers will be (Seedlings grown in peat pots can be conspicuous (on a balcony, patio, or planted directly, pot and all. Break in a window box), planting seedlings off the upper rim so the soil level is will give you an instant display. Some uniform.) vegetables, such as tomatoes, pep- If the roots are tangled or pot- pers, eggplants, and squash, may be bound, loosen them with your fingers. difficult to grow from seed. Using Dig a small hole in the potting mix seedhngs will speed up their growing and plant the seedling. Try not to process. bury the plant stem or change the soil If you plant seeds in larger con- level. Tomato seedlings are an excep- tainers, you can still have attractive tion; you can bury tomato plants up pots while the seeds are sprouting. to half the stem length as long as Plant annual or herb seedlings as a there are at least 2 sets of mature border. leaves above the soil. Limiting the number of plants to To help transplanted seedlings es- each container is very important. tablish themselves, use a transplant Estimate the number of plants a con- starter solution. Follow label direc- tainer can sustain. Measure root crops tions. by the space they'll occupy when fully Vining plants and vegetables, such matured. Bush squash and vine crops as tomatoes, may need to be staked such as melons and cucumbers should or trelHsed. Any support structure each have a good-sized space. Corn must be sturdy. Stakes, poles, and needs cross-pollination, so plant sev- trellises should be set in place when eral stalks to each container. the seedlings are little to avoid dis- Beans and tomatoes with indeter- turbing their root systems (wire cages minate growth habits will need sup- used for tomatoes should be set up at ports. Beans can climb up poles or a this time too). Some vining plants, trellis. Tomatoes can be staked or en- like pole beans, will attach themselves closed in a wire cage. to the support. Others, Hke tomatoes Other vegetables can be grown sin- or cucumbers, need to be tied. Use gly or in groups, depending on the twine or plastic tape for tying; be container size and eventual size of the sure not to tie stems too tightly or plant at maturity. cut the stem. The most stable support To plant vegetables by seed, fill the systems are those attached to the container to within 1 inch of the rim container itself. with damp potting mix, then sow seeds according to their package Watering directions. Be sure to plant more than Watering is probably the most you want, since it's unlikely you'll critical task a container gardener per- get 100 per cent germination. When forms. More plants grown in con- the seeds have sprouted and each tainers fail from improper watering seedling has mature leaves, thin than from any other single cause. the plants to the desired number. Plants given too much water may To thin seedlings in a container, develop root rot. Vegetables that re- cut off the seedling's stem at the soil ceive too little water may wilt and die.

129 Improper watering can also cause specially formulated for use on vege- blossoms to drop. tables. Common N-P-K breakdowns Ideally, potting mix in a container are 18-20-16, 18-12-10, or 10-10-10. should be evenly moist throughout— Fish emulsion is also commonly used. not waterlogged. Plants need ample These fertilizers can be applied in moisture to prevent "water stress." a liquid solution in conjunction with Many gardeners water containers watering, scratched or dug in dry in the morning, adding water until it form into the soil surface, or, in the comes out the drainage holes. This case of timed-release fertilizers, sprin- method is recommended only if your kled on the soil surface. Whichever potting mix is fast-draining and the type you choose, follow the label di- container has adequate drainage rections carefully. holes. Since containers with vegetables With watering in the morning, should be watered daily, nutrients foliage should be dry by evening, can leach out of the soil rapidly. helping prevent diseases. If you live Consider applying fertilizer at half in a hot, dry climate, check your con- strength twice as often; this should tainers again in the early afternoon. assure your vegetables consistent Vegetables in containers will dry out fertilizer. faster than those in the ground. Timed-release fertilizers are also a The best way to water container good solution. Their capsules are con- plants is by hand—either with a hose structed to release a tiny amount of that has a sprayer attachment or a fertilizer each time the vegetable is watering can. More inventive garden- watered, and you only apply this type ers may want to try automatic water- once a season. ing systems, but these can be costly. Container gardeners are fortunate A few words of warning: Hoses since each vegetable is isolated by without a sprayer/mister nozzle can its pot, and no one crop is concen- disperse water with enough force to trated, lessening the chance of a pest create holes in the potting mix. This infestation. Unfortunately, pests can can damage root systems. Also, if still present a problem. Most insects, your hose sits in the sun, let enough such as whiteflies and aphids, can be water run through it until the water discouraged with blasts of water. To- is cool or lukewarm. Hot water isn't mato hornworms can be hand picked. good for plant roots. Snails and slugs can be baited with a chemical. Mulching and Fertilizing If pest damage becomes intolerable Mulching, especially in larger con- or your crop is being damaged, use tainers, can help keep moisture in the a spray formulated to kill the damag- soil longer. You can use any of the ing pest. Be sure any chemical sprays organic mulches, such as wood chips, you choose are recommended for use compost, or sawdust, very effectively. on vegetables. Plastic mulches will work, but they aren't too attractive. Choosing Vegetables Vegetables grown in containers are Vegetables that grow best in con- trapped. Once they use the nutrients tainers share certain characteristics. available in the potting mix, the root They will grow in confined spaces, systems have nowhere else to go. Fre- usually have determinate growth quent and regular fertilizing is the habits, need a minimum of added answer. support, and produce a large enough The container gardener will find crop yield to make your efforts many kinds of complete fertilizers worthwhile.

130 Some vegetables, such as asparagus Morden" and "Earliana". Chinese and corn, have such large root sys- cabbage is a good container crop; tems that trying to grow them in con- plant "Michihli" or "Burpee Hybrid". tainers—if you can locate pots large Carrots. Be sure to use containers enough—is very difficult. A low crop with enough depth (at least 12 inches yield per plant, again asparagus and up to 20) for root formation and a corn are good examples, is another very light mix for good growth. Any deterrent to container culture. variety will grow in containers. Some Listed here are the vegetables, and of the shorter varieties are fine: try specialized varieties of more difficult "Danvers Half Long", "Little Finger", vegetables, that are recommended as "Short & Sweet", and "Tiny Sweet". best adapted to life in containers. Chard. Any variety will grow in a Most have compact growth habits large container, at least 2 feet deep. and relatively high crop yields. Some Use a potting mix with enough sup- have been specifically hybridized for port for a large root system. container growth. Collards. If you harvest the outer Other varieties of recommended leaves consistently, you can have a vegetables can also be adapted to continuous supply of greens. "Vates" containers, but because of their size is a compact variety. or growth habits will require more Corn. Because of its size, low crop work and attention. With the pop- yield per plant, and need for cross ularity of growing vegetables in con- pollination, corn isn't a good containers on the upswing, seed hybrid- tainer vegetable. If you still want to izers should continue to find new, try it, plant dwarf or midget varieties. more adaptable vegetable varieties. Plant at least three stalks per con- Artichoke. "Green Globe" is a container. Some varieties to consider are sistent producer. Use very large con- "Golden Midget", "Golden Cross Ban- tainers. tam", "Midget Hybrid", and "Fireside Beans. Use bush forms in con- Popcorn". tainers for best results. Pole varieties Cucumber. Cucumbers need a large need supports (poles in teepee shape container, and some can adapt to a or trellises will work}; plants may trellis support. The varieties that form also be topheavy. Snap beans to try small vines or are bushlike are best: are "Green Crop", "Tender Crop", "Little Minnie", "Tiny Dill", "Spartan "Bush Romano", "Bush Blue Lake", Dawn", and "Cherokee 7". "Patio "Royalty" (purple pod). Lima bean Pik" and "Pot Luck" were developed varieties include "Henderson Bush" for containers and can be used in and "Jackson Wonder Bush". hanging baskets. Beets. These root crops will need Eggplant. Eggplant needs a large at least 10 to 12 inches of soil depth container to grow well. Since warm and about a 3- to 4-inch space be- soil is required for good growth, plant tween each plant. Two good varieties seedlings. Any variety will grow/in are "Little Egypt" and "Early Red containers; smaller varieties are Ball". "Morden Midget" and "Slim Jim." Brussels sprouts. This cool weather Herbs. All of the herbs can be crop needs a large container, but pro- grown in containers. duces a heavy yield per plant. Two Endive. Plant any variety in early compact varieties are "Jade Cross" spring; reseed containers again in and "Long Island Improved". August for a fall crop. Cabbage. Regular varieties aren't Kale. Plant any variety in a large recommended for containers. You can container. Harvest outer leaves to ex- try dwarf varieties such as "Dwarf tend the crop.

131 Kohlrabi. This vegetable's unusual ach (not a true spinach] grows well appearance makes it a conversation in pots and recovers rapidly from piece in a container. Any variety is cutting. fast-grov^ing. Squash. Not a good container crop Lettuce. Because lettuce is a cool because of its size, but you can at- v^eather crop, being able to move it tempt it if you use very large pots to a shaded or protected spot is a and plant bush varieties. One new plus. Try growing leaf lettuce in con- hybrid, "Scallopini", forms a compact tainers; harvest the outer leaves for a bush plant. continuous harvest. Any variety can Tomatoes. Many varieties have be container-grown. been hybridized especially for con- Melons. Because of the plant size tainers. Use medium to large con- and low yield, growing melons in tainers since most tomatoes need containers is impractical. You can try some support. Use stakes or a wire some of the midget varieties in large cage as a support; be sure the wire containers. A midget cantaloupe is squares are large enough to allow for "Minnesota Midget". "Yellow Lolli- harvesting. pop", "Red Lollipop", and "Little Some tomato varieties to try are Midget" are small-size watermelons. "Tiny Tim", "Small Fry", "Patio Hy- Mustard Greens. Extend the harvest brid", "Sugar Lump", "Tumbling by picking outer leaves. Mustard Tom" (recommended for hanging bas- greens are a good container crop. kets), "Stakeless", "Burpee's Pixie", Okra. Plant this Southern favorite "Salad Top", "Sweet 100", and "Toy in a large container. Plants have a Boy". high crop yield. Try "Dwarf Green Long Pod", "Clemson Spineless", and Harvesting "Red River". Since container gardenings is a Onions. While most onions can be small-scale operation, most crops will grown in containers, the larger types be harvested for a specific meal. This make unattractive displays. Chives allows you to pick them just before and green bunching onions (scallions) meal preparation begins so they will are good pot plants. be at their freshest. Peas. Peas grown in containers de- Pick leafy crops carefully, such as mand a lot of attention, need large chard, lettuce, or collards. Remove containers, and produce a small yield only the outer leaves to keep the for your time and effort. If you want plant producing. Root crops, such as the challenge, you can try "Little Mar- radishes or carrots, should be pulled vel", "Green Arrow", "Dwarf Gray out without disturbing their neigh- Sugar", and "Mighty Midget" bors. Crops that have fruit ripening Rhubarb. In larger containers, any continuously, like tomatoes and variety will do well and make an at- beans, should be picked so as not to tractive display. Move pots to a garage ruin or destroy future fruit. or sheltered area during a freeze. Try not to pick more of a crop than Radishes. All varieties make excel- you can use. If you harvest too much, lent container plants. You can use keep your vegetables in the crisper them as borders in large containers. section of a refrigerator. It is unlikely Spinach. Another cool season crop, that a container crop would produce spinach can be grown in boxes or enough to make canning or freezing large containers. New Zealand spin- worthwhile.

132 Play It Cool With Cole Crops (Cabbage, Etc.); They Attain Best Quality If Matured in Fall by Philip A. Minges The closely related vegetables com- mature seeding caused by undue ex- monly referred to as cole crops in- posure to cool temperatures early in clude cabbage, cauliflower, brussels the growing season and other prob- sprouts, broccoli, and kohlrabi. Being lems. frost-tolerant, they are valuable for As a group these vegetables rank extending the harvest season for fairly high in nutritional value and gardens after frost or cool vy^eather are quite adaptable for use fresh or has eliminated the popular warm sea- cooked and for preserving. Cauli- son vegetables. flower is suitable for freezing, can- In fact, this group of vegetables ning or pickling. Broccoli and brus- develops best quality and remains sels sprouts are excellent for freezing. edible longer in the garden when Cabbage when kept cool and moist matured during the moderately cool will store for several weeks after har- weather and shorter days of fall. vest and, of course, it can be pre- When maturing in hot weather, the served as sauerkraut. harvest period is relatively short, Cole crops can be grown on a wide quality often is less desirable, and range of soils. Fertile, deep, well- yields are likely to be lower. drained, sandy and silt loams are the The crops are adapted to all sec- most desirable. Have a soil test made; tions of the United States provided your county Extension office can tell proper planting dates are selected. In you how to have this done. Good areas with short growing seasons, drainage is particularly important spring plantings for summer and early where the garden will be continued fall harvest work well. In intermedi- into or through the winter months. ate areas, early spring plantings for A soil pH level of around 6.5 or summer harvest are possible while slightly above is desirable for ef- summer plantings for fall harvest are ficient use of fertilizer and soil nu- ideal. In areas with mild winters, late trients, and for reducing development summer or early fall plantings for of a soil-borne disease called club- fall and winter harvest are common. root. If the soil is acid as indicated For broccoli, cabbage and cauli- by a pH reading below 6.0, apply flower, planting two or more varieties lime before preparing the garden. In of differing maturities—for example, humid areas with acid soils, apply it a fast and a slow maturing one—can at a rate of 10 pounds per 100 square easily extend the harvest season from feet every 3 to 5 years. This should a single planting from a week or so maintain a good soil pH once the pH to a month or more. has been brought up to the desirable Local information on varieties and level. preferred planting dates should be In some parts of the Eastern United sought by gardeners. Poor selection States and generally in the Western of varieties and/or planting dates portions, soils tend to be alkaline and may lead to poor results due to pre- therefore don't require lime. In many desert areas a problem may be ex- Philip A. Minges is Professor of cessively high pH and/or a high salt Vegetable Crops, Cornell University, content. Avoid highly saline soils if Ithaca, N.Y. possible, or correct them by leaching

133 245-559 O - '77 - 3 —perhaps in combination with the ad- are set out. You can buy transplants dition of sulfur. There are a few excep- at local garden supply outlets, or tions, but minor element problems grow them at home. In direct seed- seldom are serious when the pH level ings, the plants being thinned can is in the range of 6.0 to 7.5, serve as transplants if carefully dug. Fertile soils may supply sufficient When reset immediately, they will amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and reach harvest stage some 10 to 14 potassium for cole crop needs, making days later than the undisturbed plants fertilizer applications unnecessary. In —thus spreading the harvest period the Western States nitrogen is often from a single seeding. the only limiting nutrient, though Transplants to be used for early phosphorus applications may bene- spring planting should be grown at fit late fall and winter plantings. temperatures no lower than 60° F to In the humid Eastern States a com- lessen the hazard of premature flower plete fertilizer usually is advisable. stalk formation. On new garden sites or where fer- Either flat or bed culture is suit- tility is known to be low, 3 to 4 able. Beds have an advantage when pounds per 100 square feet of a 5-10- soil drainage is likely to be slow dur- 10 fertilizer is advised. On more fer- ing the late fall and winter months, tile soils 1 to iy2 pounds may be ade- and where furrow irrigation is prac- quate. A sidedressing with nitrogen ticed. In the Western States, beds at a rate of about a half pound of about 6 to 8 inches high and 30 to 42 ammonium nitrate per 20 feet of row, inches center to center are common. applied 2 to 4 weeks after planting, On the wider beds, 2 rows 12 to 14 may be beneficial on sandy soils, inches apart can be used for most of when heavy rains occurred shortly these crops except brussels sprouts, after planting, or during relatively for which 1 row is usual. Fertilizer cool weather. can be broadcast before forming the beds or banded later along the sides. Planting and Culture Forming the beds a few days ahead Cole crops can be established in of planting to allow the soil to settle the garden either by setting trans- a bit is a good practice when time plants or by seeding. Using trans- permits. plants is the rule for cabbage, broc- In transplanting, dig holes deep coli, cauliflower and brussels sprouts enough to accommodate the root sys- in many areas while kohlrabi nor- tem for soil block), place the plant in mally is seeded. Using transplants the hole, and then firm some soil saves 2 to 3 weeks growing time in around the roots or soil block. Often the garden. But for fall crops of it helps to apply a cup of starter solu- cabbage, broccoli and cauliflower, tion containing some soluble fertilizer, direct seeding with later thinning is and in areas where root maggot is very satisfactory. To obtain simi- troublesome a chemical for control of lar maturity, seeding should be done this pest. about 2 weeks earlier than setting After the water has drained down, transplants. pile more soil around the plant so the A desirable transplant is 4 to 5 stem is covered a bit higher than it weeks old with 3 to 5 true leaves, and was in the plant-growing container. is free of diseases. Older transplants In direct seeding, open shallow fur- sometimes will head a bit earlier but rows and drop seeds about 1 inch otherwise there is little advantage; in apart. Partially cover the seed with fact, head sizes often average consid- soil and firm it over the seed, then erably smaller when old, large plants finish covering with loose soil to a

134 total of Va to 1 inch in depth. If the soil is dry and rains are not expected, water immediately. In hot, dry weather, you may need to sprinkle or otherwise apply water a few times to insure adequate germination. When the plants show 2 to 3 true leaves, thin them to the desired spacings. A row spacing of 30 to 36 inches is suitable. Slightly closer rows will do when space is limited, especially for kohlrabi. Common spacings in the row are 15 to 24 inches for cabbage, cauliflower, and broccoli; 30 to 36 inches for brussels sprouts; and 4 to 6 inches for kohlrabi. You can control weeds easiest when they are small, using a hoe or small hand cultivator. Approved herbicides young plants, so control for these can be applied before planting and comes early. Cabbage maggots which worked into the soil when rather feed on the roots, causing plants to large plantings are contemplated. wilt prematurely during hot weather, Consult the label for rates and other also must be controlled at planting instructions. Weedy gardens are never time. Aphids and worms usually as productive as those kept weed- cause trouble later in the season. free. Slugs or snails are a bothersome pest All cole crops develop most rap- in many areas. idly and with best quality when Most fungicides are non-toxic to adequate soil moisture is provided humans and animals, and there are a throughout the season. In humid number of fairly safe insecticides that areas, irrigation during dry periods give reasonable control of insect can be helpful. In areas with normally pests. dry summers, irrigation is essential Cole crops generally are biennials until fall and winter rains begin. Light or have similar tendencies. What this irrigation should start at transplanting means is the plants can be induced or seeding and the amount gradually to initiate seedstalks and flowers by increased as the plants grow until exposure to cool temperatures over about 1 to IV2 inches of water is a period of several days. If that oc- applied weekly. curs early in the growing season, the crops may fail to produce a usable Pest Control product. As a rule, fungicides and insecti- The threshold temperatures appear cides are essential for controlling cer- to be in the range of 50° to 55° F, tain diseases and insect pests on cole and the plants increase in sensitivity crops. For some diseases other pre- to the cold as they increase in size cautions are desirable, such as use of and age. Thus in areas with mild win- disease-free seed or transplants and ters, plants set out too late in the fall resistant varieties. or too early in the spring may go to Insect pests tend to be localized but flea beetles, aphids and cabbage To produce high quality cabbage the worms are common over the country. gardener must conirol weeds, insects, Flea beetles are most damaging on and diseases.

135 seed prematurely. In the case of broc- Center head of broccoli with side shoots. coli and cauliflower, crops where the Shoots can prolong harvest season developing flower stalk is the edible month or more after head is cut. product, the result is a very small curd or head. The use of slow-bolting will keep a few days under high varieties coupled with proper plant- humidity and low temperatures [near ing dates will avoid these problems, 32° F). unless the early part of the growing Spartan Early, Coastal, Italian season is cooler than normal. Green Sprouting, Early One and De- Cicco are among the fast growing Varieties standard varieties that are suitable Hybrid varieties (Fij are available for the Central and Eastern portions for cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower and of the United States. Waltham 29 is brussels sprouts. Usually tbey are a popular late one. Medium strains more uniform in plant size, maturity of Green Sprouting, Topper and Pa- and size of head than standard vari- cifica are popular on the West Coast. eties and often the total yield is great- Early hybrids (Fi] include Green er. The uniformity of maturity may Comet, Gem, Bravo and Premium not be an advantage for the home gar- Crop. From 50 to 85 days are required dener, except when the crop is grown from transplanting to harvest, or 65 primarily for processing. to 110 days when seeded in the gar- Varieties differ in many character- den. Late summer and early spring istics including color, days to matu- plantings require more time than rity, uniformity, yields, ease of bolt- plantings in periods of longer days ing, product size, length of time the and higher temperatures. product remains usable, and resist- Cabbage—Types of varieties vary ance to diseases and disorders. Gener- in color from green with smooth or ally there are not as great differences in flavor or eating quality as among varieties of other vegetables. And most varieties in this grouping are rather widely adapted, the exceptions being the winter types of cauliflower and late varieties of broccoli which are limited to areas of mild winters. Broccoli—The green buds and flower stems are the edible portion. The center shoot is large, ranging from 5 to 10 inches or more across depending on the variety, growing conditions and other factors. It should be harvested before the buds begin to separate or start to show yellow color. The heads remain in edible condition fairly long in cool weather, but pass prime maturity very quickly when it is hot. After the center head is cut, smaller side shoots develop which can extend the harvest season up to a month or more. Broccoli is of best quality if consumed soon after harvest, though it tm Early Marvel, Golden Acre, Copen- hagen Market, Early Round Dutch (slower bolting). Red Acre, Danish Ballhead and Chieftain Savoy. Some Fusarium-resistant hybrids are Wizard, Market Victor, Gourmet, Market Prize, King Cole, and Excel. Other hybrids include Emerald Cross, Stonehead, Ruby Ball, Red Head, Savoy King, and Savoy Ace. The heads are usable as soon as they become fairly firm. Early varieties groM^n under favorable conditions will reach the harvest stage 55 to 70 days after transplanting. Later varieties may require 110 to 120 days or more. In warm weather, heads may split open fairly soon after reaching the harvest stage. In cool weather they may remain good for several weeks. In cold regions, cabbage should be harvested before hard freezes occur. It can be stored at high savoyed leaves to reddish purple, and humidity and low temperature (32— in shape from flat to pointed. The 40° F) for several months. intermediate round types are the most Cabbage planted early for summer common. harvest often will develop small heads There are numerous acceptable va- on the stem after the center head is rieties. Some Fusarium-resistant stan- removed. These are quite edible and dard varieties are Resistant Golden can be used to extend the harvest Acre, Resistant Wakefield, Green- period. back, and Resistant Danish (in order of maturity from early to late]. Other CauiifJower—The Snowball group popular standard varieties include of varieties is the most commonly used in home gardens. Snow King, Snow Crown and Snowflower are fast-growing hybrids. Self Blanch and Snowball Y are examples of good standard late varieties. The purple headed type, somewhat of a novelty, turns green when cooked and re- sembles broccoli. In southern Cali- fornia and probably in other warm winter areas, the winter type will perform satisfactorily. November-Decem- ber, February, and Mayflower are common varieties. The ideal time to set out cauliflower plants is late July or August,

Top, early hybrid Premium Crop broccoli. Left, Savoy cabbage.

137 proved are common varieties. In warm weather the sprouts tend to be loose and of poor quality, but they firm up and become milder in flavor as the cool weather arrives. Sprouts 1 to IV2 inches in diameter are desirable. In harvesting, remove the leaf beneath the sprout and cut or break off the sprout. Harvesting can continue as long as the sprouts develop. Debudding, cutting out the growing point in late August or early Septem- ber after the plants are 15 to 20 inches tall, tends to induce the sprouts on the plant to be ready at about the same time. This practice may be helpful in areas where winter sets in early. KohJrabi—Kohlrabi, a "stem turnip", can be eaten fresh or boiled or added to soups and stews. It can be planted in the spring, but usually is best for use in the fall [and winter in the South] after frost-tender vegetables are gone. Seeded in the garden, kohlrabi is ready to use in 55 to 65 as late September and October often days. Harvest kohlrabi when it is 2 to provide the most desirable weather 4 inches in size and the flesh is still for developing good quality. Covering tender. the developing heads helps in pro- Suitable varieties include Early ducing pure white curds, but the White Vienna and Early Purple slightly yellowish curds obtained Vienna. without covering are generally of Chinese Cabbage—This vegetable, equal quality. Exposed curds (heads) though a different species than the may be injured by frosts. So as the cole crops, has similar culture. It can frosty season approaches, protect the be used raw or cooked. heads by tying together the inner Plants tend to go to seed rapidly leaves or breaking an inner leaf or when planted in the spring, so late two over the head. June and early July seedlings for fall The heads are ready to use as soon production are most suitable. as they reach suitable size. They Michihli forms a tall slender head. should be cut before the parts begin Wong-bok, Hybrid G, and Burpee Hy- to separate or become "ricey". As brid have shorter, blockier heads. with broccoli, cauliflower tastes best Crispy Choy is a non-heading or soon after harvest. looseleaf type. Brussels Sprouts—This crop is best grown for fall harvest by setting out Green and purple types of kohlrabi dug plants in June or early July. Catskill, after partially overwintering in a garden Jade Cross (FiJ, and Long Island Im- in Oregon.

w& The Popular, Cultivated Tomato And Kinfolk Peppers, Eggplant by Allan K. Stoner and Benigno Villalon

Tomatoes, peppers and eggplant are Indies and introduced into Europe all members of the same family. Since where they became popular before they require virtually the same cli- gaining widespread acceptance in the matic and cultural conditions to grow United States. Peppers became one in the home garden, they will be dis- of the first New World foods used cussed together. These are considered commercially in Europe. warm season crops. Thus they are Pepper varieties grown in the suited to spring, summer, and autumn United States are grouped in Capsi- culture over most of the North and cum annum, with the only exception upper South and they will grow in being the red hot tabasco pepper the winter in the extreme South. Capsicum frutescens imported from Tomatoes are probably the most the state of Tabasco, Mexico. popular garden vegetable grown in Eggplant, Solanum melongena, is the United States. This can be at- believed to be native to India. It ap- tributed to their unique flavor, at- parently moved into the Mediterra- tractiveness, richness as a source of nean area during the Dark Ages and vitamins C and A, and versatility as was later introduced into America by a food. The popularity of peppers can the Spaniards. be attributed to the same factors, Probably the most important step although they are usually not con- for the gardener in growing tomatoes sumed in large enough quantities to or peppers is to select the proper make them an important nutritional varieties to plant. Many varieties of factor in the diet. both crops are well adapted for home The cultivated tomato, Lycopersi- gardens. con esculentum Mill., originated in A good garden tomato variety the Andes mountains of South Ameri- should possess resistance to as many ca. It was introduced to other areas of the commonly occurring diseases of the world by Indians and European as possible, and resistance to growth travelers. The first report of the to- cracks and bursting caused by alter- mato in North America was in 1710 nating dry and wet weather. It should where it was grown primarily as an also be adapted to the local environ- ornamental plant. Tomatoes began mental and soil conditions and pro- gaining wide acceptance as a food duce attractive fruit with good flavor plant in the United States between and high nutritional value. 1820 and 1850. Resistance to verticillium wilt, fu- Peppers are also native to tropical sarium wilt and nematodes is often America and were grown by Ameri- indicated by including a V, F, N with can Indian tribes in both North and the name. Nematode resistance is nor- South America over 2,000 years ago. mally only required in Southern and The small red hot peppers were dis- some Western areas while V and F covered by Columbus in the West resistance is likely to be important in most areas. Allan K. Stoner is Research Horticul- Generally, gardeners should grow turist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, varieties with an indeterminate type Beltsville, Md., and Benigno Villalon is of vine that will continue to grow and Assistant Professor, Texas Agricultural set fruit over a long period of time. Experiment Station, Weslaco. Determinate varieties that set and

139 ripen all their fruits at nearly the used in the green stage for chili same time are ideal for home canning relleno or mild green sauce. The fully when you want a lot of tomatoes at matured red dry pod is used in mak- one time. ing red chopped chili pepper, ground In addition to different vine types, chili powder, paprika if the variety the gardener can choose from small is sweet, and oleoresin. "cherry" to large "beefsteak" varie- The Cayenne is 4 to 12 inches long, ties. Varieties range in ripe fruit color pointed, wrinkled, deep red, dry at from yellow to orange, pink, and maturity and used primarily in mak- bright red, and vary in fruit shapes. ing hot sauce. The small hot peppers New tomato varieties are released include the 2-inch pointed, slim red by seed companies and State and Fed- chili used in hot sauces, and the eral experiment stations each year. bullet-shaped iy2-inch to 2V2-inch You can obtain information about chubby Serrano eaten green in fresh adapted varieties from seed catalogs, salads or sauces. Probably the most local nurserymen, county agricultural popular of all the small hot peppers agents, newspaper and magazine gar- is the pungent jalapeno. It is conical, den articles, and successful neighbor- 2 to 3 inches long with a blunt point, hood gardeners. an inch to IV2 inches wide at the shoulders, with thick walls. Jalapenos Pepper Groupings may be eaten fresh but most are Pepper varieties are easily classi- canned by a process called "esca- fied as sweet, mild or hot depending beche". on the amount of the heat or pungent Perfection or Pimiento Group fruits compound, capsaicin, present in the are sweet, conical, slightly pointed, fruit. However, there are many differ- 2 to 3 inches wide and 3 to 4 inches ent common or commercial names for long, with thick red walls. Popular the hundreds of fruit types and pimiento varieties include Bighart, shapes. Truhart Perfection, and Pimiento L. The horticultural varietal grouping These are primarily used for canning, that follows helps in understanding stuffing olives, cheeses, etc., but can pepper fruit diversity even though be used fresh in salads for flavor and varieties within the groups may be color. completely unrelated. Celestial Group fruits are produced Bell Group fruits are large, blocky, upright or erect, cone shaped, V4 inch about 3 inches wide by 4 inches long, to 2 inches long, 3-celled, and colors 3- to 4-lobed, and taper slightly. Most may or may not change from yellow- are dark green, turning bright red at ish to red or purplish to light orange- maturity, although some turn yellow. red. Different colors may appear on The California Wonder sweet types the same plant simultaneously, mak- are probably the most popular garden ing them an attractive ornamental peppers in the United States. There plant. Popular varieties include Floral are also some hot bells. There may be Gem, Fresno chili, and Celestial. upwards of 200 open pollinated and Tabasco Group fruits are an inch hybrid varieties in this group. to 3 inches long, slim, tapered, and Cayenne Group—This is the chili very hot. Tabasco is the most popular group characterized by slim, pointed, variety in this group. Others include hot or mild, slightly curved fruit pods, Japanese Cluster, Coral Gem, Chili 2 to 12 inches long. The largest fruited Piquin, Small Red Chili, and very varieties in this group are the Ana- small Cayenne. They are used in heim or New Mexico chili whose pods sauces, for pickling, and are attractive are 6 to 12 inches long. These are ornamentals.

140 Cherry Group fruits are cherry- Teaspoon of all-purpose /ertiJizer (5-10- shaped or globose, 3-celled, borne on 5 or 10-6-4] applied to planting hole at planting time will give your iomato long slender, upright pedicels more plants a good start. or less above the leaves. Fruit may be orange to deep red, sweet or hot, large or small. They are attractive as while the plants are too small, they ornamentals and are used for pungent will be stunted and fail to develop seasoning. Popular varieties include the plant size needed for a good Bird's Eye, Red Cherry Small, and yield. Red Cherry Large. On loam and heavier soils of fair Tomato Group fruits are distinctly to good fertility, 5 to 8 pounds of 5-10-5 fertilizer per 500 square feet flattened or oblate, 4-celled, and bear a striking resemblance to a tomato. should be mixed with the soil about These are used for pickling, canning, a week before transplanting. On or fresh pepper rings. Varieties in- lighter or more sandy soils, 10 to 20 clude Sunnybrook, Topepo, and pounds of 5-10-5 per 500 square feet Tomato. should be incorporated into the soil Compared to tomatoes and peppers, before planting. When the plants have there are relatively few eggplant va- set several fruits, apply a topdressing of the same type of fertilizer to pre- rieties. Large fruited varieties are most commonly grown in the United vent the plants from slowing down in States; however, many gardeners and vegetative growth. If the soil is very cooks consider them inferior in qual- low in fertility, you may need to fer- ity to the small-fruited varieties. Gar- tilize more frequently. Poor foliage deners in Northern areas with a short color and stunted growth call for ad- growing season must be especially ditional fertilizer. aware of the number of days required for a variety to reach maturity. Egg- n E Carnahan plant varieties also differ in the shape and color of their fruits.

Planting, Fertilizing Plant tomatoes, peppers and eggplants where they will receive a maximum amount of direct sunlight. A fertile, well-drained soil is required for best results. If the soil is not naturally fertile, fertilize it, preferably with a combination of manure and commercial fertilizer. All three crops are moderately tolerant to an acid soil (pH 5.5 to 6.8], but strongly acid soils should be limed according to soil test recommendations. Fertilize tomatoes, peppers and eggplants in about the same way. However, since it is more important that peppers and eggplants start quickly and grow rapidly after transplanting, give them a little more nitrogen and potassium. If peppers or eggplants start blooming and set fruit

141 Tomatoes, peppers, and eggplants need water in an amount equal to that provided by a 1-inch rain each week during the growing season. If rainfall is deficient or you live in an arid area, soak the plants thoroughly once a week. If the soil is sandy, you may need to water more frequently. Heavy soakings at weekly intervals are better than many light sprinklings. Tomatoes, peppers and eggplant respond very well to trickle or drip irrigation also. Peppers particularly need abundant water during flowering and fruit set to prevent shedding of flowers and small fruits.

Transplanting v^. Tomatoes, peppers, and eggplant may be seeded directly into the garden in areas with a long growing season, but transplanting into the garden generally is recommended. Prior to direct seeding, work the soil into a somewhat granular condition. After planting, keep the soil moist until the seeds germinate. If the seeds are sown thick to insure getting a good plant stand, thin the seedlings to the proper spacing by the time they have three leaves. When early tomatoes, peppers or eggplants are desired, or the growing season is likely to be too short for heavy yields, use purchased or home grown transplants. A chapter about transplants begins on Page 111. Tomatoes can be safely planted outside on the frost-free date, but because peppers and eggplant are somewhat more exacting in their temperature requirements than tomatoes, they should not be planted in the garden until a week or more after the frost-free date. A good general rule is to transplant outside when the new leaves on oak trees are fully grown.

Stake tomato plants before they get too large and before roots can be damaged by stake. Wilham E Carnahan im i *«w^i ""^^^ilf»! 'M

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If there is danger of frost after the Plant peppers and eggplants in rows plants are put outside, protect them 30 to 42 inches apart and spaced 12 with paper or plastic coverings, news- to 18 inches apart in the row. papers, or boxes. Remove the covers Distances between tomato plants during the day. depend on the variety used and Set tomato plants into the garden whether they are to be pruned and at about the same depth as they were staked. Staked plants should be 18 growing indoors. You don't need to inches apart in rows 3 feet apart. remove the growing containers if they Unstaked plants should be 3 feet are made of peat or paper. If clay con- apart in rows 4 to 5 feet apart. tainers were used, knock the plants Staking or supporting tomatoes out of the pots before transplanting. makes it easier to cultivate and har- After transplanting, press the soil vest, and helps prevent fruit rots by firmly around the plant so that a keeping the fruits from coming in slight depression is formed to hold contact with soil. However, staked water. Then pour about a pint of water (to which fertilizer has been added) around each plant. Use 2 table- Tomato plants in wire cages. Be sure spoons of granular 5-10-5 fertilizer openings are large enough so you can per gallon of water or a water-soluble pick fruit. Cages are stored in off-season starter fertilizer. for re-use.

143 plants are more subject to losses from blossom-end rot than unstaked plants. Due to the woody nature of pepper and eggplant stems, you don't have to stake or support these crops. If you plan to stake your tomatoes, insert the stakes soon after transplanting to prevent root damage. Wood stakes about 6 to 8 feet long and IV2 inches wide can be used. Push the stakes into the soil about tomato fruitworms, hornworms, 2 feet. aphids, leafminers, pinworms, Colo- Tie soft twine or strips of rag rado potato beetles, whitefly, and tightly around the stake 2 to 3 inches spider mites. In small gardens some above a leaf stem, then loop the twine of these can be controlled by hand loosely around the main stem not far picking them from the plants. The below the base of the leaf stem, and others can be controlled by using ap- tie with a square knot. Plant ties, proved insecticides at the proper time. made of tape reinforced with wire, Two of the most common tomato may also be used to fasten plants to diseases occurring in home gardens stakes. Six-inch mesh concrete rein- are fusarium and verticillium wilts. forcing wire may also be used to sup- They are caused by fungi that live in port tomato plants by forming a circle the soil. Before the development of 18 inches in diameter around the resistant varieties, gardeners were plant. urged to plant in a different part of If you wish to prune staked tomato the garden each year; this is still a plants to 1 or 2 stems, about once good idea. The best control, however, a week remove by hand the small is to grow resistant varieties. Spray- shoots that appear at the point where ing or dusting is ineffective in con- the leaf stem joins the main stem. trolling either of the wilt diseases. Grasp the shoot with your thumb and Blossom-end rot is the most trou- forefinger and bend it sharply to one blesome fruit rot for the home gar- side until it snaps, then pull it off in dener. It is caused by a calcium the opposite direction. deficiency and is aggravated by any kind of drought stress on the plants. Weed Control Calcium, in the form of finely ground The area around tomatoes, peppers, dolomitric limestone, will help pre- and eggplants should be kept free of vent blossom-end rot. It must be ap- weeds because of competition for plied before tomatoes are planted. sunlight, soil nutrients, and water. Other fruit rots are caused by fungi. You can do this by mulching, hand Usually these fruit rots are not a pulling, or cultivating not more than problem when plants are staked. Most 1 to 2 inches deep. Pepper and egg- fruit rots can be controlled either by plant roots are particularly slow spraying with a fungicide or mulch- growing; thus any amount of root ing with a suitable material such as pruning can cause stunted growth and black plastic. In areas where the flowers to drop. Avoid cultivation leaves are frequently wet because of when the soil is wet since it can lead rain or dew, leaf spot diseases such to clumping of the soil and soil compaction. Tomato hornworm damages foliage and Several insect species damage fruit on tomatoes, eggplants, and pep- tomatoes including flea beetles, pers. .-■: r .;- ,::...

*§^ as early blight, late blight, gray leaf Mosaic virus diseases such as spot or septoria leaf spot can be de- tobacco etch virus, potato virus Y, structive. These can be controlled by tobacco mosaic, cucumber mosaic and applying a suitable fungicide at 7- to tobacco ringspot virus can only be 10-day intervals. Wetting the foliage controlled by using resistant varie- v^hen v^atering can accentuate these ties. There are many pepper varieties diseases. resistant to tobacco mosaic, but very Virus diseases can cause a mottled few resistant to tobacco etch and discoloration of tomato foliage and potato virus Y, and none to cucumber occasionally a mottling of the fruit. mosaic or tobacco ringspot virus. Since tobacco mosaic virus is trans- The release of multiple virus resist- mitted by direct contact, wash your ant pepper varieties can be antici- hands and tools before touching the pated in the future, plants. Do not smoke while handling Phomopsis rot and verticillium wilt tomato, pepper, and eggplant plants. are two serious diseases of eggplants. Cucumber mosaic virus is trans- The Phomopsis rot is characterized mitted by aphids that may be har- by large sunken, tan-colored or black bored in some perennial flowers or areas on the fruits. It may also cause in nearby weeds. Cucumber mosaic canker-like lesions on the lower part can be controlled by eradicating pe- of the stem and leaf spots which may rennial weeds and by spraying the enlarge until the whole leaf turns tomato plants with an insecticide that brown. The disease may be carried controls aphids. over winter by debris in the soil from Tomatoes are subject to damage by the previous crop. To control fruit many species of nematodes, but root- rot, use clean seed, practice a 3- to knot nematodes are the most trouble- 4-year crop rotation, and grow rot- some. Affected plants become yellow resistant varieties. and stunted and their roots can be Verticillium wilt of eggplant is par- galled, pruned, matted, or decayed. If ticularly common in cooler regions nematodes are known to be present and is similar in its behavor to wilt in damaging numbers based on the disease of tomato. It seems to persist experience of previous years, they in the soil indefinitely, and can be should be controlled before tomatoes distributed by plants from infested are planted. Nematode control can seedbeds. Wilt injury ranges from be obtained by using an approved stunting, with decreased productivity, nematicide. to death of the plant. Insects attacking peppers—such as Several insects attack eggplants, leaf miners, aphids, budworms, flea particularly flea beetles, aphids, lace beetles, hornworms, pepper weevils, bugs, and sometimes the Colorado cutworms, and the pepper maggot— potato beetle. Red spiders occasion- can be controlled with timely appli- ally become troublesome on egg- cations of insecticides used according plants, especially during dry weather. to the manufacturer's directions. Common pepper diseases include Harvesting seedling damping off, bacterial leaf To obtain the best flavor and spot, Cercospora leaf spot, Phytoph- color, harvest tomatoes after they are thora root rot, and mosaic virus dis- fully ripe. Tomatoes can be expected eases. Seed treatment and applications to ripen 60 to 90 days after trans- of fungicides or soil fumigation can painting. If picked green, they can be help reduce losses. Several fungicides ripened at temperatures between 55° give adequate control of most leaf and 72° F. Light will increase the spot diseases. color of tomatoes somewhat, but light

145 '■^••*. *>^..>l*-<í'v EggpJaní nearly ready for harvesting. is not essential to ripening. When them from the plant with the stems tomatoes are placed in direct sunlight left attached to the fruits. to ripen, the added heat often lowers Eggplants may be harvested any their quality. time after they have reached suffi- Green sweet peppers are harvested cient size, but before the skin color when they reach a good usable size becomes dull, the flesh tough, and and still retain their dark green color. the seeds begin to harden. Most varie- Immature peppers are soft and yield ties will be ready for the first harvest readily to mild pressure of the fin- in 85 to 90 days after transplanting. gers. Red peppers, either sweet or Harvest eggplants by cutting the hot, are allowed to develop full red tough stems with a sharp knife. color before picking. Hot peppers can Per plant yields for the various be harvested early for green sauce or crops will vary greatly depending on canning or allowed to ripen, then the variety, the growing season, the harvested. area of the country, and the cultural Pepper fruit will be ready for har- practices you follow. However, it is vesting between 70 days for early reasonable to expect tomatoes to yield green fruits to 130 days for some of 10 to 14 pounds per plant, peppers to the fully mature red pods. Peppers yield 1 pound per plant, and you can are generally harvested by breaking anticipate 4 to 8 eggplants per plant.

146 Leafy Salad Vegetables: Lettuce, Celery, Cress, Endive, Escarole, Chicory by Bruce Johnstone The principal leafy salad vegetables in Asia Minor and the eastern Medi- covered in this chapter, especially terranean region. Used as a food plant lettuce, are among the most widely for some 2,500 years, it was a favor- grown vegetables by home gardeners ite of Persian kings in the sixth cen- throughout the United States. Most of tury B.C. and later as a food plant by them—but not celery and chicory— the Romans. In the late 15th century, are easy and fast to grow, and with it first was brought to the New World the exception of celery are among the by Columbus. relatively few vegetables that tolerate Lettuce seed is rather small (25,000 moderate shade. seeds per ounce), germinates quickly They also are adapted to small [7 days) in cool (65''-70° F) tempera- home gardens because each of them ture, and produces a crop compara- requires but little space for an aver- tively fast. Loose leaf lettuce types age size crop. Salad crops in general normally produce a crop in 40 to 50 also conform to the currently popular days while most heading varieties American taste for low calorie and require 60 to 80 days to mature. high vitamin content foods. The loose leaf varieties are more Besides the leafy salad crops cov- widely grown than heading types in ered in this chapter—lettuce, celery, home gardens because they are faster cress, endive, escarole and chicory— to mature, easier to grow, and some- a few other leafy vegetables covered what more shade tolerant. They also under different categories and in sep- have about three times as much vita- arate chapters also can be used min A and roughly six times as much advantageously as green leafy ingre- ascorbic acid or vitamin C as the dients in salad making. Among these equivalent amount of the heading va- are spinach, New Zealand spinach, rieties. Loose leaf varieties of lettuce chard and mustard, each adding a require less thinning and thrive under slightly different flavor, color and somewhat warmer and more adverse texture to various salads. conditions than the heading types. Other common salad vegetables Because lettuce basically is a cool such as tomatoes, cucumbers, onions weather crop, seed should be sown and radishes are covered in different direct in the garden in early spring chapters of this book and can be in order to mature before the summer located through the table of contents heat arrives to cause bolting and de- or the index. terioration of the foliage. (Bolting is premature flowering). Five feet of row Lettuce per adult in family is usually enough Known botanically as Lactuca for each planting. sativa of the Composite family, let- Successive plantings can be made tuce probably originated somewhere in midsummer for autumn crops. The seed should be scattered thinly, covered a quarter inch deep in rows Bruce Johnstone of Excelsior, Minn., retired as chief horticulturist at North- as close as 8 and up to 24 inches rup, King & Co. He co-authored Veg- apart, depending on space available. etable Gardening From the Ground Up, Thinning is not absolutely neces- a paperback book, in 1976, and Ameri- sary for loose leaf kinds but spacing ca's Most Beautiful Flowers in 1977. the plants 4 to 6 inches apart is com-

147 a longer, cooler growing season, more careful thinning, and need full sun for best development. All lettuce types are heavy feeders and because of their limited root structure require ample and constant soil moisture. They need high nitrogen fertility in a moist soil and give best results if growth continues unchecked. monly recommended and results in Cos lettuce [Romaine] or celery let- larger, more easily harvested leaves. tuce has an elongated framework, Typical loose leaf varieties available smooth outer leaves, and a blanched are: Black Seeded Simpson, Grand inner head. The leaves are more brit- Rapids and Salad Bowl. tle than the other heading types, the Heading varieties are of two main midrib is heavier, and the flavor uni- types, crisphead and butterhead. quely sweet and mild. Cos types usu- Crisphead varieties are of thinner tex- ally take 65 to 70 days to mature and ture, are crisp, frequently have curled have the same basic planting and cul- and serrated edges, are harder and tural requirements as the other head- more durable in handling and storage. ing types. Most popular varieties are Most of the so called Iceberg types Paris White Cos and Paris Island Cos. available in stores are of this class. Where there are short, hot growing Other typical crisphead varieties: seasons as in much of our Northern, Ithaca, Great Lakes 118 and 659. Central and Midwest states, the head- In contrast, butterhead types are ing varieties are most successfully softer and more fragile in texture, grown by starting seed indoors in have thicker leaves and a smooth, very early spring, then getting the buttery substance. Butterhead types— transplants into the garden as soon as Bibb, Buttercrunch, White Boston— frost danger is past. In this way the have a distinct delicate flavor and plants can mature and form heads usually are more perishable than the crisphead varieties. Heading varieties have cultural re- Left, young gardener checks lettuce in quirements similar to the loosehead her garden in Hawaii. Right, Bibb let- types of lettuce except they require tuce being harvested.

148 before summer heat curtails growth sandy loam soils with good fertility and development. are ideal. These exacting conditions Harvest with a sharp knife as soon make celery growing by home gar- as looseleaf types are the size of your deners rather difficult, especially in hand. Heading varieties should be full much of the Midwest and inland and firm. If allowed to go to seed in Northern areas. In coastal regions or warm weather, leaves lose quality areas near large bodies of water, the and become bitter. usually longer and more temperate When cultivating or hoeing lettuce, growing conditions are more suitable take care to keep the blade shallow for celery culture. and not too close to the plants to Because celery is such a slow grow- avoid injuring the root system which ing, rather difficult crop to raise, it is sparse and close to the surface. should not ordinarily be chosen by Homegrown lettuce is relatively a beginning gardener in most areas. free of disease although leafhoppers It is successfully produced, however, can be a problem, mostly in spreading by many experienced gardeners in virus disease. Effective chemical con- favorable areas who take the time trols are available. and care necessary. Because of its many culinary uses from salads to Celery casseroles to attractive canapes, it Celery fApium graveoJens—family probably is well worth the effort. Umbelliferae] is native to marshy Celery seed must be started very areas from Scandinavia to Algeria early (usually indoors) 8 to 10 weeks and Egypt and eastward to the Cauca- before spring planting time unless sus and into Baluchistan and parts commercially grown transplants are of India. available. Germination is very slow, The two main classes of celery are usually 2 to 3 weeks, and can be has- the green and the golden, or self- tened sbghtly by presoaking the seed blanching. The green type with un- blanched stalks adds considerably to Celery display in o garden. the appearance and flavor of both salads and casseroles and is currently more popular on American tables. This type includes Giant Pascal, Fork- hook and Utah strains. For use as a canape of raw vegetables, some cooks still prefer the golden or self- blanching type with yellowish white stalks and usually a milder, blander favor. Popular golden varieties grown are Golden Plume, Cornell 19 and Michigan Golden. Celery seed is very small (60,000 per ounce) compared with other common vegetables, very slow to germinate (15 to 21 days) and requires a long, cool growing season of 120 to 140 days to produce a crop. Celery needs a rich, moist soil and mild, equable growing conditions without sudden cold spells or dry periods to check its growth. Muck or

245-559 O - "77 - 4 149 overnight before sowing in flats 1/16 loose head with partly blanched inner inch deep. Seed flats must be kept foliage. moist and covered at 60° to 70° F Endive is more tolerant of sum- temperature until the sprouts appear. mer heat and low soil moisture than At this stage, they should be un- most lettuce varieties, and is also covered immediately and moved to slower to grow and mature (usually direct sunlight and a slightly cooler 85 to 95 days). The curled varieties situation. Seedlings must be trans- can be cut and cropped, yet continue planted or thinned so that developing to produce new secondary edible plants are IV2 to 2 inches apart and leaves. These curled varieties such as kept in full sunhght until frost-free Green Curled, Ruffec, and Deep Heart planting time. The young plants then have a slightly bitter flavor but are can be hardened off outdoors, and set very decorative and desirable in in the garden, spacing them 6 to 10 salads and for garnish. The broad- inches apart in rows 2 feet apart. leaved Batavian or escarole varieties For ordinary usage, figure on a are somewhat milder and add a dif- half-dozen plants per adult in family. ferent flavor and texture to salads. Harvest by cutting at base of stalk Seed is usually sown direct in the with a sharp knife. The usual harvest garden in the early spring Vi inch span is from the stage when the stalk deep in rows 2 to 3 feet apart, later is two-thirds of full size until fully thinned to 6 or 8 inches between would be about a 5-10-10 ratio. plants. Four to five feet of row per Celery requires ample and continu- adult in family will suffice for aver- ous soil moisture and a high fertility. age table use. If soil is not rich, fertilizer should be For earlier harvest, seed may be used. The formula depends on the started in flats indoors 6 to 8 weeks individual soil type, but in most cases before planting time, then trans- would be about a 5-10-10 ratio. planted to the garden. Summer sow- Celery may be attacked by leaf- ing of seed will produce autumn crops eating worms and aphids (plant lice). which, maturing in cooler weather, You can control these insects with are apt to be somewhat milder in approved insecticides. Blight and mil- flavor and with less of the slight dew also may be problems; control bitterness characteristic of summer them with an appropriate fungicide. harvested crops. Loosely tying the outer leaves upright to exclude sun- Endive—Escarole light tends to blanch the inner leaves, Endive (Cichorium endivia—fam- making them milder and reducing the ily Compositae) is native to regions bitter taste. of the eastern Mediterranean and was Harvest by cutting at base or care- grown and used by Greeks and Egyp- fully pulling entire plant when inner tians before the Christian era. Closely leaves are partly or wholly blanched. related to chicory, endive has small Outer leaves are apt to be bitter and seeds (27,000 per ounce] which ger- usually are discarded. minate quickly (5 to 14 days) under moist conditions and in varying tem- Endive seldom is bothered by in- peratures from 60° to 70° F. sects or disease problems. Sometimes, There are two principal types of in mild damp areas, slugs or snails endive: Curled or Curly—with loose, may appear and eat the foliage. Con- narrow, medium green fringed and trol them with special snail bait or curly leaves; and Batavian or escarole slug protectant. Dry ashes around with broader, thicker, smooth leaves plants usually repel both slugs and that have a white midrib forming a snails.

150 Cress A 10- to 15-foot row usually suf- Garden Cress or ptepper grass fices for the average family. Cut with (Lepidium sativumj belongs to the a sharp knife as soon as leaves are Cruciferae family and although simi- formed. lar in flavor to water cress and upland cress, it is far more popular and Chicory much easier to grow under ordinary Chicory (Cichorium intybus—fam- gardening conditions. Water Cress ily Compositae], also known as [Nasturtium officinale) is a semi- French Endive or Witloof Chicory, aquatic plant requiring very cold is thought to be native to Europe and spring water conditions to grow well. Asia. Although some chicory is grown Upland Cress (Barbarea verna] toler- for the roots which are dried, ground ates a normal soil but is slower to and used as a coffee adulerant, we grow, somewhat bitter in taste, and will cover here the salad type and not commonly produced in U. S. culture in which the blanched leaves gardens. are the garden crop wanted. Garden Cress is both easy to grow Chicory is related closely to endive and extremely fast to form edible but usually produced in a far dif- leaves. The seeds are moderate in ferent manner. size (12,000 per ounce} and under The seeds are small (27,000 per moderate temperature of 65° to 70° ounce] and they germinate in 7 to germinate in 4 to 7 days. 14 days at temperatures between 68° Garden cress is probably the fastest to 85° R. seed to sprout of all garden vege- Seed ordinarily is spring sown a tables. The young seedlings also grow quarter inch deep in 15- to 18-inch rapidly and the very young immature rows and the seedlings thinned to leaves are tender, mildly pungent hke eventually stand 4 to 5 inches apart. water cress, and they can be cropped It must not be planted too early or for table use when only a few inches premature flowering (bolting) will high—10 days to 2 weeks old. occur. Garden cress is used commonly as The parsnip-like roots are har- a quick growing indoor crop, often vested in the fall before freezing available in preseeded kits with a weather, washed, and trimmed of all medium of vermiculite, peat moss, leaves except the single central crown etc., and is intended to be grown in bud on top. The roots are then stored a sunny kitchen window to produce under cover in a cool frost-free room. edible leaves in 10 to 15 days. Grown These roots are stored and later this way indoors, cress can be avail- planted for winter production of the able and used all winter long by suc- edible shoots by setting them slant- cessive plantings. wise at a depth of 4 to 6 inches with Outdoor spring and summer garden crowns about even with the surface culture is also easy enough but for continued harvest one must make in a medium of sand, sawdust or a successive plantings every few weeks. similar porous medium at tempera- Hot summer weather causes garden tures of 50° to 60° F in a dark place. cress plants to bolt quickly and lose In 3 to 4 weeks the blanched heads quality, so early cropping is neces- or shoots appear and are ready to cut sary. and harvest. Successive winter plant- Sow the seed Vi inch deep in rows ings of the stored dormant roots a foot apart and harvest as soon as every 2 to 3 weeks can be made to seedlings are 3 to 4 inches high for produce edible shoots throughout the the best quality. winter.

151 Onions Are Finicky as to Growing, Curing; And Garlic May Not Be a Joy Either by J. S. Vandemark

Onions are grown in nearly every grown in winter, from seeds, sets or part of the United States. Fairly cool seedlings that were fall-planted. In temperatures are important during Northern and Central regions, onions early development, and good soil fer- are planted in spring as early as the tility and adequate moisture are es- soil can be prepared. Onions are sential. High temperatures help dur- tolerant to frosts. Seeds germinate ing bulbing and curing. Low humidity best about 60° to 65° F; however, is desirable for curing. satisfactory results will be obtained Domesticated in Asia and the Mid- anywhere from 50° to 75° soil tem- dle East, onions were rapidly moved perature. to Europe. They were grown both by Onions must be kept free of weeds the settlers and Indians after being and grasses throughout the entire sea- brought to North America by Spanish son as they compete poorly with explorers. other plants. Onions are used in a variety of forms. They are eaten raw, as seal- Onions From Sets lions, and in salads. Cooked onions Onion sets are the surest route to are served broiled, boiled, baked, success in the home vegetable garden creamed, steamed, fried, french fried, as the emerging plant will be vigor- pickled, in soups and stews, and in ous and strong. They may serve dou- combinations with other vegetables ble duty, producing green onions or and meats. mature dry onions. Onion sets, which Growers learned from experience you can buy, consist of small dry that the early development period of onions up to % inch in diameter onions should be cool and damp to grown the previous year specifically allow secondary roots to develop. for starting plants. Soil fertilization should be given Select sets early when they are particular attention. Onions require firm and dormant. While it seems about twice as much fertilizer as most contradictory, round onion sets pro- vegetables. Gardeners may find it duce flat onions, while elongated or advantageous to give the row a sec- tapered sets mature into round onions. ond feeding after 40 to 60 days by Sets are available in three colors: placing the fertilizer in a trench 1 to White, red or brown. Most gardeners 2 inches deep and 3 inches to one prefer white sets for producing green side of the row. Use 10-10-10 fer- onions or scallions; but the other two tilizer at a rate of 1 pound per 25 or colors are acceptable. 30 feet of row for this sidedressing. Divide the sets into two groups, Good growth requires a loose, fri- those smaller in diameter than a dime able (crumbly], fertile soil. Hard com- and those larger 'than a dime. Use pact soils tend to restrain bulb devel- large size sets for green onions; the opment, causing the bulb to be large size may bolt (form flower irregularly shaped and small. stalks] and not produce a good dry Proper time to plant depends on bulb. the area. In the South, onions are Plant the small size set for dry onion production as there is little J. S. Vandemark is Vegetable Crop chance of bolting. These small sets Specialist, University of Illinois, Urbana. will best produce large, dry bulbs.

152 For dry onions, plant the sets to a Texas Grano, and Granex. In the depth of 1 inch in rows 12 to 14 North suitable varieties are Early Yel- inches apart, with the sets 2 inches low Globe, Empire, Fiesta, Downing apart. Soil should be worked to a Yellow Globe, Spartan lines, and Nut- medium fine condition, fertilized, and meg. kept free of weeds throughout the season. Onions From Transplants When you observe half or more of Transplanting of young onion plants the tops bent over naturally, the is an increasingly popular method for onions may be pulled and allowed to home gardeners because of the large dry. Do not break onion stems early size bulb produced. Plants may be as this interrupts their natural growth obtained from your seed dealer and period and will result in reducing the garden supplier. In the South and bulb size. Onions can be eaten at any Southwest plant in fall, and in the point between green onions and ma- North in early spring. To produce ture dry onions. large dry onions, plant 4 to 5 inches When planting larger size bulbs for apart in the row, with rows 12 to 24 green onions, use 12- to 24-inch wide inches apart. Closer spacing yields rows. Sets can be planted close smaller size bulbs. Fertile, loose soil enough to touch each other and IV2 is essential. inches deep. If you hill the row slight- Transplants are put in soil to a ly after the stem is up 4 inches, the depth of 1 to iy2 inches and covered. green onions will have longer usable Many growers use a special water- white stems. Once the tops are 6 soluble fertilizer mixture immediate- inches high you can start using them ly on planting. as green onions. This transplant fertilizer is in ad- Green onions become stronger in dition to the normal fertilizing of the flavor as they get older. When too garden and the necessary sidedressing strong to eat raw, they are excellent discussed earlier. To prepare a water for cooking. fertilizer mixture, buy a soluble fer- If you notice a plant producing a tilizer, 10-50-10, 10-52-17, or similar flower stalk (bolting], pull and use it. analysis. Dissolve one tablespoon in Seed is the least popular method of a gallon of water and apply at the growing, as a longer period for devel- rate of 1 cup per plant. opment is needed. Onion seed should Crystal Wax, Bermudas, and Grano be planted at the same time as sets types are used in the South for fall and requires similar fertilization. To planting. In the North, Bermudas are assure a good stand, plant seed VA to used when flat bulbs are desired. For 1 inch deep, at a rate of 1 to 5 seeds large round bulbs use standard or hy- per inch. When the seedlings are es- brid Sweet Spanish (white or yellow). tablished they should be thinned: For If red onions are preferred, varieties large dry onions 2 to 3 inches apart, like Red Bermudas, Red Giant, Red for medium sized 1 to 2 inches, and Hamburger, and Benny's Red are used for boilers and green onions, V4 to 1 in the North, while Early Red or inch. Creole are suitable for the South. Choose varieties adapted to your Special onions include the Egyptian purpose and section of the country. onion or tree onion, a perennial Green onion varieties from seed in- planted in fall throughout the coun- clude Evergreen Bunching, Beltsville try. This onion forms small bulblets Bunching, and Southport Bunching. or sets where the flowers normally Varieties for dry onions produced in grow. It may be harvested, planted the South include Crystal Wax, Excel, and used in the same manner as sets.

153 inal bulb splits into segments; when dry, they may be used to plant as sets. In the South, multiplier sets are planted in fall and used as green onions in spring. In the North, they are planted early in spring. True multipliers also are hard to get at most gardening centers, and like the Egyptian onion frequently are passed from gardener to gardener. Many homeowners do not have proper conditions to store onions for long periods; however, they usually can make out all right for three to four months. After half of the tops have broken over naturally at the neck, the onions may be pulled. When the tops have wilted, cut them off 1 to IV2 inches above the bulb. Cure by placing in an open crate or mesh bag. This process, which pre- pares the onions for storage, takes from two to a few weeks depending on humidity. Clean by removing dirt and outer loose dry skins that come off when handling. The cleaned onion may be left in a mesh bag and hung in a place such as a garage ceiling. An ideal storage spot is dry with air temperatures of 35° to 50° F. If roots reappear, the conditions are too moist, and if sprouts appear the temperature is too Hanging onions for curing. high; either will cause rotting and deterioration of bulbs. The storage period is shorter for In late winter or early spring, Egyp- Sweet Spanish and Bermudas than for tian onions may be pulled and used small globe-type onions. as green onions. Those left unhar- vested will produce new sets for fu- Offshoots of Onions ture planting. If you choose, the Garlic, shallots, chives and leeks plants also may be dug, divided, and are members of the onion family. replanted for additional propagation. These are often grown at home as Planting material, either sets or plants, they frequently are hard to obtain. are hard to get through normal chan- Fertility and cultural practices are nels and often gardeners obtain their similar to those for onions. starts from friends. Many areas will find garlic poorly The Potato or Multiplier onion sel- adapted to home gardens. dom produces seed and is propagated Garlic produces a group of cloves by bulb division. These onions are that are encased in a sheath, rather planted in the same manner as sets, than a single bulb. Separate into sin- usually 2 to 3 inches apart. The orig- gle cloves for planting.

154 and gourmet cooks, are grown for either dry bulbs or young green shoots. They are harvested and used like green onions. Frequently writers confuse shallots with green onions, but shallots are a different species of the onion family. The shallot bulb has multiple sections like garlic. These are separated and planted the same way you plant onion sets for dry bulbs, spaced 3 to 5 inches apart, with 12- to 24-inch rows. In the South they are most often raised and used for the green portion, being planted in fall and har- The larger outer cloves produce the vested during winter. In the North, best garlic. These are planted 1 to 2 shallots are planted as early as pos- inches deep in a well fertilized gar- sible in late winter or spring and used den, in rows 12 to 24 inches apart, for both green onions and dry bulbs. with the cloves 5 to 6 inches apart. Seed shallots may be obtained from Planting is done in the South and specialty seed stores or by purchasing Southwest from fall through January, dry shallot bulbs in the gourmet sec- and in the rest of the country as early tion of your food store and dividing in spring as possible. Delayed plant- into single segments for planting. ing seriously reduces yield. Shallots are harvested, handled and Harvest when the top dries down. stored like onions. Gardeners fre- To prepare garlic for storage, cure the quently save their own planting ma- bulbs under cool, dry conditions. terial from year to year. Garlic may be stored under a wide Chives are a perennial member of range of temperatures, but does best the onion family and are grown for under dry conditions with a tem- leaves, rather than bulb or stem. A perature range of 40° to 60° F. small bulbous plant, chives grow in Shallots, prized by French chefs 6- to 10-inch clumps. Attractive violet flowers appear on older plants in spring. Chives may be propagated by either dividing the clump or starting from seed. They are generally started from seed very early in spring. After three years, large chive clumps should be subdivided in early spring to prevent overcrowding and a decline in vigor. The fertility pro- gram for chives is similar to that for onion transplants. Remove the flowers as they will cause the plant to be-

Top, clump of great headed (Elephant) gariic. Left, chives grown in Jiifchen window can he harvested as needed all year long.

155 DarrowM Walt come semi-dormant, preventing new The primary production difference growth. from onions is that leeks are blanched Harvest chives any time there are by banking soil along the row grad- fresh, young leaves. Young leaves ually throughout the growing season. may be chopped and frozen for future Exercise care when the plants are use. In late fall in the North many young as early banking may cause gardeners dig a clump of chives, al- decay. Common varieties are Amer- lowing the exposed clump to freeze ican Flag, Conqueror, Tivi and Odin. until mid-winter, and then bring the Leeks can be used any time the chives indoors for a fresh winter stems reach the size of % to 1 inch supply. in diameter. Before freezing in the Leeks are grown as an annual, en- North, they are harvested and stored tirely from seed rather than plant in root cellars or placed in a poly- divisions. The seed is planted in the ethylene bag in the refrigerator. In garden or started in a hotbed for 2 to parts of the country with open win- 3 months before transplanting to the ters, they are allowed to remain in garden. The young plants are set out the garden and eaten as desired. in the South in fall and in the North in early spring. Leek transplants are handled in the same manner as onion Left, leeks are used JOT almost any pur- transplants as regards fertility, trans- pose that onions are. Right, leek seed- plant solution, and sidedressing. lings being transplanted.

156 Root Crops More or Less Trouble-Free, Produce Lots of Food in a Small Space by N. S. Mansour and J. R. Baggett

Root crops are valuable and satis- slightly alkaline soils if club root fying additions to the garden because disease is present. This disease is in- they offer a prolonged harvest sea- hibited by an alkaline soil condition. son, long storage life, and produce a You can reduce acidity by adding large amount of food in a small lime, at the rate of 15 to 20 pounds amount of space. With few excep- per hundred square feet of garden tions, the root crops are trouble-free area. and do not require the continual care A fertilizer rate of 2 pounds of of other kinds of vegetables. They 10-20-10 per hundred square feet of are also adapted to winter storage in garden area is adequate; additional root cellars or simple pits. nitrogen may be required for celeriac. The table gives general charac- The fertilizer and lime should be teristics of some of the root crops. thoroughly incorporated in the soil to Root crops are best grov^n in v^ell a depth of 4 to 6 inches. Lime is best drained, loose friable (crumbly) soil. applied in fall. Don't use manure This is especially important because where carrots are to be grown, be- these crops are among the earliest cause misshapen roots can result. planted and the latest harvested. If Root crops may be planted as soon the soil is heavy, it may be beneficial as the garden soil can be prepared. to form a raised bed, 4 to 6 inches All have small seeds, which should high and 12 to 24 inches across the be planted no deeper than Vi inch. top. The width of the top depends on Crusting and drying can be mini- whether 1 or 2 rows are planted on mized by mulching the seeded row the bed. Use of raised beds reduces with sawdust or bark dust, or using soil compaction during the growing such materials as vermiculite or season, permits easier digging, and washed sand for covering the seeds allows carrots and parsnips to attain instead of soil. Water the newly greater length and be smoother in seeded rows frequently, as often as shape. once a day, in order to prevent a Root crops, especially carrots and crust from forming and to protect the parsnips, tend to have fewer mis- tender seedlings from drying out until shapen roots when grown on beds they are well established. Consult the and will store better in the garden table for appropriate thinning and without splitting or rotting. Adding spacing information. sand and humus to heavy soils will improve soil fertility and permit Pests easier digging and cleaning of roots. Root crops do not often require However, adding sand without humus pest control. However, radishes, tur- can cause a concrete-like condition. nips, and rutabagas can be seriously Soil pH (acidity) is usually not attacked by the cabbage maggot and limiting. But radishes, turnips, and control of this insect is important. rutabagas benefit from neutral or The best prevention for the pest is treatment of the soil before planting N. S. Mansour is Extension Vegetable with a suitable soil insecticide. This Crops Specialist, and J. R. Baggett is material can be spread over the gar- Professor of Horticulture, at Oregon den area and gently raked into the State University, Corvallis. top 1 or 2 inches of soil. Take care

157 oí Root Crop Characteristics 00

Optimum soil Optimum monthly temperatures average growing range for Harvest temperature germination Frost Spacing suggested Days to Time and frequency duration for (Fahrenheit] (Fahrenheit) tolerance in inches maturity of planting each planting

Between Min. Max. In row rows Beets 40° 65° 50°-85° Moderate 2-4 16-24 55-80 Early spring and 2-3 months early summer Celeriac 45° 70° 60°-70° Good 4-6 23-30 100-110 Early spring 3-6 weeks (56-84 only for transplants) Carrots 45° 70° 45°-85° Moderate 1-3 16-24 60-85 Early spring and 2-4 months early summer Parsnips 40° 75° 50°-70° Good 3-6 18-30 100-130 Early spring 3-4 months only Salsify 45° 85° 50°-90° Good 2-4 18-30 150-155 Early spring 1-2 months only

Radishes 40° 75° 45°-90° Good 1/2-1 9-18 25-30 Early spring and 1 week (spring) weekly (winter) 40° 75° 45°-90° Good y2-i 9-18 52-56 Early fall 3-5 weeks Turnips 40° 75° 60°-95° Good 2-6 12-30 45-75 Early spring and 2-3 weeks late summer Rutabagas 40° 75° 50°-90° Good 5-8 18-36 90-95 Early spring and 1-2 months midsummer not to mix the insecticide too deeply into the soil since this will dilute it and reduce effectiveness. You may need to drench turnips and rutabagas with an insecticide solution four to six weeks after planting, since the soil treatment can wear off by that time. Control of aphids and flea beatles may sometimes be necessary. Always consult the labels for application details of any pesticide. Use of weed control chemicals is not feasible in most home gardens. Mulches are useful in reducing weeds after the crops have been well established. They are also useful in improving the color of carrots by preventing the green discoloration normally seen at shoulders of the root. Turnips and rutabagas should not be covered with a mulch if the typical purple color of the upper part of the root is desired. There are usually no serious dis- nips are best left in the garden area ease problems. The club root disease until severe frost is expected. They of radishes, turnips and rutabagas oc- should then be pulled, topped, and curs only occasionally in gardens. stored in a cool, moist root cellar Beets are sometimes seriously af- until needed for table use. Don't wash fected by canker, a non-parasitic dis- them until they are needed. In milder order that occurs when there is boron winter areas, leaving the roots in the deficiency in the soil. ground is a practical storage method. Fungus and virus diseases of root Root crops are relatively efficient crop foliage occasionally occur, but it as good producers for the space oc- is generally not necessary nor feasible cupied. Twenty feet of row of each for the gardener to attempt control. crop should produce an adequate Most root crops can be harvested quantity for a family of 4. Radishes, over a wide range of maturity. Beets however, should be planted in short can be harvested when small or al- rows, preferably no more than 3 to lowed to mature fully, and carrots can 6 feet long, at weekly intervals. This be used from pencil size to full grown will provide a steady supply of ra- over a period of three to six months. dishes throughout the season. Turnips Spring radishes, a fast growing crop, also have a shorter life than most are usable over a very short period. root crops and are best planted sev- See table for days to maturity and eral times during the season. harvest duration. Root crops often The root crops are moderately high must be thinned if they are to mature in vitamin C, with carrots an excellent properly and in the right length of source of vitamin A. time. Mature root crops can be harvested and stored in a cool, moist location, Radishes are a quick and easy crop to but carrots, beets, parsnips and tur- grow in a small space.

159 tense in color, with less conspicuous light colored rings, more tender and finer textured. Choice of varieties for gardens is not critical because a number of good ones of equal quality are available. However, if downy mildew is a problem, then look in seed catalogs for resistant varieties such as strains of popular Detroit Dark Red. Red beets are traditionally the most popular, but other types such as golden and white are also available. AH have about the same potential flavor and quality. CELERIAC (Apium graveolens, var. rapaceum]—A variant of common celery, celeriac produces heavy roots somewhat like a rutabaga in appearance. It is used raw in salads, pickled, or cooked in soups and stews. Good culture requires plenty of water and fertility and a long growing season. The use of transplants started indoors 10 weeks prior to outdoor planting Notes on individual crops follow. time is superior over direct seeding. BEETS [Beta vulgaris]—Somewhat Celeriac roots are used when they more susceptible to foliage diseases reach 2 to 3 inches in diameter, but than the other root crops, and less have a long period of use and can be tolerant of drought or low fertility than some, beets are still a relatively Roof crops in Oregon. Top right, Sakuri- easy crop to grow. jima Japanese radish left overwinter. Quality factors are not critical and Top left, three types of beefs, Cyhndra although there may be a preference type, Crosby's FJaf Egyptian type, and for small roots for whole pickles, giobe type, dug from garden in February. beets are edible over a wide range of Boffom, American PurpJe Top rutabagas maturity. Young roots are more in- in garden in February. m stored with success. Few varieties are available. CARROTS (Daucus carota L.]— Because of its nutritional value, bright orange color for the table, productivity, storage life and ease of culture, the carrot is a garden favorite. If a problem is encountered with carrots, it is often failure to get a stand of seedlings. Carrots can not tolerate either deep planting or a dry seed bed, so the trick is to manage shallow planting with a continuously moist soil. Seeding at Vi-inch depth with a light mulch of sawdust and daily sprinkling is usually successful. If frequent, light irrigation is not pos- the greatest hazard in storage, so they sible, use a slightly deeper planting should be surrounded by a moist me- depth [to V2 inch]. dium or otherwise protected. Carrots are well adapted to culture Roots left in the ground are remark- in a wide row or bed instead of a ably resistant to decay and to freez- single row. Seedlings should be ing injury. Exposure to cold increases thinned initially if there is not open the sugar content and greatly en- space around each plant. Harvest of hances the flavor, but non-chilled seedlings can begin when they are roots are not poisonous as is some- finger-size and continue through what times supposed. will appear an inexhaustible supply, Because parsnip roots are very because the more the roots are pulled long, digging them in wet, heavy soil out, the larger the remaining ones is a burden. Lightening the soil with will become. sand and using raised beds makes Choose varieties to suit soil condi- digging and washing easier. tions. If the soil is deep and friable, Only three varieties are normally any variety will do well and the very available: Hollow Crown, Model and long market types such as Imperator All America. All are satisfactory, or similar Fi hybrids may be pre- though Model is smoother and less ferred. In heavy, impermeable soil, thinly tapered than Hollow Crown. it is best to grow the shorter types SALSIFY (Tragopogón porri/oíius) such as the very adaptable Red Cored —Used mostly for soup, in which it Chantenay, or even the stubby Ox- may have a faint oyster-like flavor, heart. Nantes is a medium-long type salsify or oyster plant is not fre- which is tender and of good flavor, quently grown. Generally free from but susceptible to cracking and rot- cultural problems, salsify has one ting in fall and generally not cultural- disadvantage—the tendency for a ly rugged. branchy root which is difficult to PARSNIPS [Pastinaca saíiva]~Par- clean and peel. snips resemble carrots in cultural There is little or no choice of varie- needs and the same suggestions for ties in the United States. Mammoth planting apply, except they should Sandwich Island is usually listed. have more space for full development. Parsnips are slower to mature, but have a long storage life, either in the ground or in the cellar. Drying out is Parsnip seedlings in early true stage.

161 SPRING RADISHES (Raphanus sa- A giant beet-shaped variety, Sa- tivus]—This is the short-season, kurajima, can reach 50 pounds or strictly annual type of radish. The more if a long fall growing period is term "spring radish" is somewhat available. Smaller varieties such as misleading because these radishes Long Black Spanish and Chinese Rose can be grown throughout the season Winter are also available. in cooler areas and in all but the Try varieties to find the degrees of hottest months in warmer climates. pungency desired. Depending on con- Spring radishes live a very fast life, ditions, they vary from very hot to maturing and becoming pithy and un- mild. Winter radishes retain good usable in a remarkably short time. texture for a long period and are Radish seeds germinate very rapidly good for cooking and pickling as well and seedlings are fast and vigorous as fresh table use. compared to those of most relatives TURNIP [Brassica rapa]—The tur- in the cabbage family. They tolerate nip is second to spring radish in quick a wide range of conditions. However, growth and short life. In hot weather hot, dry conditions encourage strong the roots are often strong or bitter flavor and even faster maturing. Over- in flavor and become pithy almost crowding results in small unusable when they reach maximum size. For roots. Overfertilization can cause ex- this reason turnips are usually grown cessive top growth at the expense of for harvest in spring and fall and root enlargement. The most difficult sometimes planted several times dur- problem for many gardeners is the ing each of these seasons. Cabbage cabbage root maggot. Control was root maggot control is the most cri- discussed earlier in the chapter. tical culture problem. Many varieties of spring radishes One variety. Purple Top White are available, especially of the small Globe, dominates home garden turnip red globe type. Comet, Sparkler, production. There are other choices, Cherry Belle, and Early Scarlet Globe however, including pure white, yel- are examples. Another distinct variety low, and red varieties if catalogs are is the long White Icicle. There are searched. Special varieties for greens also white globe types which are such as Shogoin are available, but the slightly larger and in some cases tops of any variety can be used. longer lasting than the red globe RUTABAGA [Brassica campestris varieties. Try different varieties until var. napohrassica]—Originating long you find what suits your particular ago from a cross between cabbage needs. and turnip, rutabaga generally resem- WINTER RADISHES (Raphanus bles turnip but has slower growth, sativus]—These radishes are slower longer storage life, less prickly leaves, in growth, much larger, and longer firmer flesh, and a great deal more keeping than spring types. They are vitamin A. almost always grown as a fall crop Rutabagas may be left in the ground because the decreasing temperatures for use during winter, if climate per- and day length discourage flowering. mits, or stored for long periods. They When planted in spring, most vari- do not become pithy if overmature, as eties flower before sizable roots can turnips do. Cabbage root maggot con- develop. An exception is All Season, trol is equally critical, however. a long white variety of the Japanese Most rutabagas grown are of the "daikon" type. Well grown daikons variety American Purple Top. Others are smooth, cylindrical, and up to 18 encountered, such as Laurentian, are inches in length while still of excel- essentially the same or of no better lent quality. quality.

162 Greens or "Potherbs"—Chard, Collards, Kale, Mustard, Spinach, New Zealand Spinach by Albert A. Banadyga Greens include chard, collards, 13 calories and provides 87% of the kale, mustard, spinach, and New Zea- Vitamin A and 25% of the Vitamin C land spinach. Grown for their tender required daily by the average adult. and succulent leaves and stems, Chard thrives best in a well-drained greens are often referred to as "pot- mellow or friable [crumbly] soil, herbs" since they are usually cooked such as a sandy or clay loam. How- before eating. ever, it will grow well in most soils Quite easy to grow, greens require if provided with nutrients and mois- a relatively short growing season. ture. Soil pH may range from 6.0 to Greens are good sources of some of 6.8. Chard is a cool season crop, will the vitamins and minerals. They are withstand light frosts, and does best tasty when cooked fresh from the if planted in the early spring about garden. Raw greens are often added 2 to 4 weeks before the last frost. to tossed salads to give them addi- The optimum monthly average tem- tional color and a different and zest- perature for plant growth is 60° to ful flavor. 65° F with a monthly minimum aver- Greens are cool season crops, with age of 40° and a monthly maximum the exception of New Zealand spin- average of 75°. Soil temperatures for ach. Thus home gardeners normally seed germination may range from 50° plant and grow them during cooler to 85° with a minimum of 40°, an periods of the year—spring and fall. optimum of 85° and a maximum of Rapid and continuous growth is es- 95°. sential for both high quality and high Adequate soil moisture is especial- yields. To obtain this growth, you ly important for seed germination and need to provide a fairly rich soil early plant growth. Irrigation is par- containing adequate amounts of or- ticularly beneficial during dry condi- ganic matter, a good supply of plant tions. nutrients, and a continuous supply of Popular varieties include Lucullus, soil moisture. Fordhook Giant, Large White Rib, and CHARD [Beta vulgaris var. cicla)— Rhubarb (red stemmed). Chard has a often called Swiss chard, is a type of multiple seed, as does the beet. Thus beet developed for its large crisp one to six plants may emerge from leaves and fleshy leafstalks rather each seed. There are about 1,200 than its roots. It is of quite ancient seeds per ounce. origin, first reported in the Mediter- ranean region and the Canary Islands. Fertilizing Chard is a popular garden vege- Before planting, broadcast about 3 table, particularly in the North. It will pints of a complete fertilizer, such as withstand warm summer tempera- 10-10-10, to each 50 feet of row. Mix tures, so that a planting in the early the fertilizer thoroughly with the up- spring can be continuously harvested per 6 to 8 inches of soil. The seed throughout the summer and fall. bed should be thoroughly prepared, One serving of cooked chard has free of clods and trash, and slightly firmed. Albert A. Banadyga is Extension Hor- Distance between rows may be 18 ticulturist, North Carolina State Univer- inches. Make a sUght furrow in the sity, Raleigh. row, about V2 inch deep, and plant 163 the seeds in the furrow 1 to 2 inches Loft, Fordhook Giant Swiss chard. Right, apart. Cover the seed with V2 inch Sïvi.ss clinrd, properly spaced and with of soil and firm hghtly with the back outer ifidves ready for harvest. These nverngo obout a foot high, and should of a rake. Seedlings should emerge not be ¡eft to become coarse and over- in 8 to 10 days. grown. As the plants grow, periodically thin them out until they are about 12 inches apart. Plants pulled out in the be removed by hand picking, aphids thinning process may be used as may be washed off with a fine spray greens. of water from a garden hose, or For a very early crop, plants may recommended insecticides may be be started in a greenhouse or cold- used. Crop rotation and sanitation frame and transplanted to the garden will help reduce damage from leaf after danger of heavy frosts is over. spots and other diseases. Plant the seeds in cups, or other small For rapid and continuous growth, containers, about 3 to 4 weeks before sidedress the crop about a month they are to be planted in the open after planting. Repeat at 4- to 6-week garden. Be sure to "harden-off" the intervals. At each sidedressing uni- tender plants by gradually withhold- formily distribute one pint of a coming water and exposing them to out- plete fertilizer (or one cup of sodium side weather conditions. Hardening- nitrate) per 50 feet of row. Place the off should begin about a week before fertilizer in a band 4 to 6 inches out the plants are set out in the open. to the side of the plants, making cer- Control weeds by hoeing before the tain not to get any on the plants weeds get a good start. Or better still, themselves. mulch the young plants with such Leaves and stems are ready for har- materials as straw, grass clippings, vest about 50 to 60 days after plant- newspapers, or black plastic film. ing. With a sharp knife cut off a few Be on the lookout for such insects of the outer leaves, about an inch as cabbage worms, aphids, beet leaf above ground, while they are still miner, and flea beetle. Worms may tender and succulent. Cut carefully to avoid injury to younger leaves and Optimum monthly average tem- the central bud. Continue harvesting peratures for plant growth are 60° throughout the summer and fall. As to 65° F with a monthly minimum you remove the outer stems and average of 40° and a monthly maxi- leaves, new ones w^ill continue to mum average of 75°. Soil tempera- form and grow from the central bud. ture for seed germination may range Harvesting should be continued, from 45° to 95° with a minimum of regardless of whether or not the 40°, an optimum of 85° and a maxi- greens will be used, or else new mum of 100°. Collards will withstand leaves will not be available later in a greater range of temperature, both the season. heat and cold, than most other vege- A good yield, for the full season, tables grown in the South. If the tem- is about one pound of chard greens perature drops gradually over a period per foot of row. A 30-foot row will of several days, collards can with- supply an average family of 4 with stand temperatures as low as 15°. an adequate supply of fresh chard Collard seed will germinate in 4 to greens throughout the season. 9 days even under low soil moisture Some gardeners dig up the plants conditions. The plants grow best in just before the first heavy freeze in well-drained soils that are provided fall, and store the entire plant in a with adequate moisture by rainfall protected cellar or coldframe for or irrigation. continued harvest into the winter. Plants are stacked upright, with roots Popular Varieties in contact with the soil, and watered Vates, Morris Heading, Georgia, lightly to prevent excessive wilting Cabbage-Collard, and Green Glaze and to encourage a very limited are popular varieties. One-fourth amount of continued growth. ounce of seed is sufficient to plant COLLARDS [Brassica oleraceae var. 100 feet of row. There are about accphala]—originated in the British 8,000 seeds per ounce. Isles and Western Europe. The col- Collards are hardy and may be lard is often called a non-heading planted in the spring about 4 to 6 cabbage, since it does not form a true weeks before the last spring frost head but rather a large rosette of and again in the fall about 6 to 8 leaves. It belongs to the cabbage weeks before the first fall frost. Pre- family and its culture and use are pare the soil as suggested for chard. quite similar to those of cabbage. It Broadcast 4 pints of fertilizer, such may be grown throughout the year as 10-10-10, per 50 feet of row and in the South, and as both a spring mix it thoroughly with the soil before and fall crop in the North. planting. Rows are normally 3 to 4 One serving of cooked collards has feet apart. 21 calories and provides 87% of the Collards may be seeded directly in Vitamin A, 74% of the Vitamin C, the garden or transplanted. When and 14% of the calcium in the mini- seeding directly in the garden, plant mum daily requirements of an aver- the seed y4-inch deep and about 1 age adult. inch apart in the rov;^. Seedlings will Collards may be grown on a very emerge in about 5 days. Plants may wide range of soils, but sandy, silt, be left at the seeded spacing, or or clay loams are preferred. Soil pH thinned to 6, 12, or 18 inches apart may range between 5.5 to 6.8, with depending on how they will be har- 6.0 being ideal. The plant is a heavy vested. The plants pulled out in thin- feeder, often growing to a height of ning may serve as transplants or 3 to 4 feet. trimmed and used as greens.

165 When the entire small or immature plants are to be harvested, successive plantings may be made at 2- to 3-week intervals. Immature plants may be harvested about 40 days and mature plants about 75 days after planting. Collards tend to improve in flavor as the weather becomes cooler in the fall. Many gardeners do not harvest the fall crop until after the first frost. Leaves remain tender and edible for several weeks after they reach maturity or full size. Harlequin bug. Adult, ¡eft. Nymph, right. Yields vary from Va to iy2 pounds per foot of row, depending on har- Transplants may be grown in pro- vesting methods used. tected beds in the spring and in open KALE [Brassica oleraceae var. ace- plant beds in the summer. Seeds are phala]—is a native of Europe and planted in individual containers, flats, recorded use dates back to 200 B.C. or rows in ground beds about 4 to 6 Like collards, it is a member of the weeks before time to transplant into cabbage family and is grown for its the garden. When plants are 6 to 8 succulent leaves and stems. inches tall, set them in the garden A hardy vegetable, kale can be row 12 to 18 inches apart, and water overwintered in latitudes as far north well. as southern Pennsylvania and in About a month after planting in areas having similar winter condi- the garden, sidedress collards as sug- tions. It is also quite heat-resistant gested for chard. and may grow in the summer, but its Control weeds by hoeing or mulch- greatest value is as a cool weather ing. Insects that may cause problems green. No other vegetable is so well include cabbage worms, aphids, har- adapted to fall sowing in areas having lequin bugs, and root maggots. Two winters of moderate severity. diseases that may cause damage are One serving of cooked kale has 21 downy mildew and black leg. General calories. It provides an average adult control measures are the same as sug- with all his daily requirements of gested previously for chard. Vitamin A and Vitamin C as well as Collards may be harvested by three 13% of his daily calcium require- general methods, or a combination of ment. the three. The entire young plant may Temperature, soil, fertility, and be cut off at ground level just as are moisture conditions for kale are the mustard greens, the entire mature same as previously suggested for col- plant may be cut off at the ground, lards. or the bottom leaves may be stripped Vates, Dwarf Siberian, and Dwarf off the plant periodically leaving the Blue Scotch are good standard vari- bud to grow and produce more leaves. eties. Seed may be planted in the The last method is most popular with spring 4 to 6 weeks before the last home gardeners since it entails mak- killing frost, and in the fall 6 to 8 ing only one planting, and spring- weeks before the first killing frost. planted collards may be continuously There are about 10,000 seeds per harvested throughout the summer and ounce. into winter. Rows may be 18 to 24 inches apart.

166 Seed is planted in the row an inch apart and a half inch deep. SeedHngs will emerge in 3 to 5 days. Plants may be left as thick as seeded or gradually thinned until they are 8 to 14 inches apart. The plants pulled out in thinning may be used as greens. Pests and pest control for kale are similar to those suggested previously for collards. Kale may be harvested in one of two ways. The entire young plants may be cut off at ground level, about 40 days after seeding. This process is used when the plants are left unthinned after seeding. When plants are spaced 8 to 14 inches apart, the lower leaves are stripped off periodically while the bud and a rosette of leaves are left to continue growth for future harvests. This second harvest method requires about 50 to 60 days from seeding to first harvest. Leaves should be harvested before they become old, tough, and woody. A foot of row will produce about a half pound of kale greens. MUSTARD [Brassica júncea var. crispi/oJia]—also known as "mustard greens," is a short season crop grown for its tender leaves and stems. This crop had its origin in China and Asia. A different species, black mustard, is grown for its dark seed which is used in making the condiment known as table mustard. One serving of cooked mustard greens has 16 calories and provides 91% of the Vitamin A, 74% of the Vitamin C, and 12% of the calcium in the daily requirements of an average adult. Soil, fertility, and moisture requirements for mustard greens are similar to those previously suggested for collards. This crop will not withstand the extremes in temperature that kale

Top, collards arc a nutritious crop found in many gardens of Southeastern U.S. Left, r.oUaid plant ready for harvest.

167 and collards will. It also bolts [goes Below, TOWS of spinach in a garden. to seed) much more rapidly, par- Bottom, Long Standing BJoomsdale ticularly in spring. spinach. Optimum monthly average temperature for plant growth is 60° to 65° F portion of the plant is the compact with a monthly minimum average of rosette of leaves before the central 45° and a monthly maximum aver- bud begins to elongate to form a age of 70° to 75°. Optimum soil tem- seedstalk. perature range for seed germination This is a hardy cool weather crop. is 60° to 105° with a minimum of In most of the United States it is 40°, an optimum of 85°, and a maxi- grown as an early spring and a late mum of 105°. fall crop. In some areas having mild Reliable mustard varieties include summer temperatures, spinach is Southern Giant Curled, Tendergreen, grown continuously from early spring Florida Broadleaf, and Green Wave. to late fall. In portions of the South One-fourth ounce of seed will plant it may be planted in the fall and har- 100 feet of row. There are about vested during the winter and early 15,000 seeds per ounce. spring. Soil preparation and fertilization are similar to those previously suggested for collards. Seeds are planted directly in the row about 4 to 6 weeks before the last frost in the spring and about 6 to 8 weeks before the first frost in the fall. Additional successive plantings may be made at two-week intervals. Rows may be 15 to 30 inches apart. Seeds are planted in the row, an inch apart and Vi inch deep. Seedlings will emerge in 3 to 5 days. Plants may be left unthinned or thinned to 4 to 6 inches apart. The plants thinned out may be used for greens. Pests and pest control are the same as described for collards. The young tender leaves are harvested any time after they reach 6 to 8 inches in height and before they become tough and woody. Harvest begins about 35 to 40 days after seeding. Normally the entire plant is cut off slightly above the ground. In the Deep South, mustard greens may be carried over into winter and harvested by stripping the lower leaves similar to collards and kale. One foot of row will yield about a half pound of mustard greens. SPINACH [SpinacjQ oJeraceac var. inermis]—was cultivated by the Per- sians over 2,000 years ago. The edible

168 A serving of cooked spinach has Keep weeds out by hoeing before 20 calories. It provides an average they get a good start. Use varieties adult with 100% of the Vitamin A, resistant to mildew and yellows. Ob- 56% of the Vitamin C, and 28% of serve plants closely for aphids, leaf the iron indicated in the minimum miners, or cabbage worms. Use simi- daily requirement. lar control measures as suggested Spinach will grow on almost any under chard. fertile soil that is well drained and Spinach may be harvested from the has a good supply of organic matter. time the plants have 5 to 6 leaves Avoid poorly drained soils or those until just before seedstalks develop. that cake or crust easily. The soil pH This period is usually 35 to 45 days range is 6.0 to 6.8. Spinach grows after seeding. Harvest by cutting the poorly on soils with a pH below 6.0. entire plant off, just above ground Optimum monthly average tempera- level, with a sharp knife. ture for plant growth is 60° to 65° F. One foot of row will yield a third Optimum monthly minimum average to a half pound of spinach greens. is 40° and optimum maximum aver- NEW ZEALAND SPINACH (Tetra- age is 75°. Optimum soil temperature gonia expansa]—is a native of New for seed germination is 70° with a Zealand, Japan, Australia, and South minimum of 35° and a maximum of America. It was introduced to En- 85°. gland in 1771 and is presently grown Spinach is shallow rooted; provide to a very limited extent in the United adequate soil moisture for rapid and States. Not a true spinach, it does re- continuous growth. semble spinach somewhat in appear- Among the leading spinach vari- ance and is used similarly. eties for fall production are Hybrid The plant is large, growing to a #7, Virginia Savoy, Resistoflay, Viro- height of two or more feet in a flay, and Chesapeake. Among the bet- spreading and branching habit of ter spring varieties are Long Standing growth, and has thick succulent Bloomsdale and America. A half leaves. It is a warm season crop and ounce of seed will plant 100 feet of an excellent source of fresh greens row. There are approximately 2,800 throughout the summer. seeds per ounce. One serving of cooked New Zea- Spinach is normally planted about land spinach has 11 calories and pro- 4 to 6 weeks before the last frost in vides 72% of the Vitamin A, 27% of the spring and again 6 to 8 weeks the Vitamin C, and 10% of the iron in before the first frost in fall. Two an average adult's minimum daily to three successive plantings may be requirement. made at 2- to 3- week intervals. New Zealand spinach thrives in a Rows are usually 14 to 30 inches well drained loamy soil, high in or- apart, depending on cultivation equip- ganic matter and fertility. A soil pH ment to be used. Before planting, of 6.0 to 6.8 is desirable. Fertility and soil moisture needs are similar broadcast about 3 to 4 pints of fer- to those for spinach. The plant grows tilizer, such as 10-10-10, per 50 feet of best with a monthly average tempera- row and mix thoroughly with the soil. ture of 60° to 75° F, a monthly mini- Plant seeds in the row a half inch mum average of 50° and a monthly deep and an inch apart. It takes spin- maximum average of 95°. Optimum ach seedlings about 5 to 8 days to soil temperature range for seed ger- emerge. Thin plants to a 3- to 4-inch mination is 70° to 95° with a mini- spacing before they become crowded mum of 60° and a maximum of 100°. in the row. Since this is a warm season crop,

169 Control weeds by hoeing or with a mulch. There are no insects or diseases of consequence. About 4 to 6 weeks after planting, sidedress with either one pint of fertilizer [such as 10-10-10] or V2 cup of nitrate of soda per 50 feet of row. Harvest may begin about 70 days after seeding. Successive harvests of the tips are made from a single planting. At each harvest about 3 inches of the tips of the branches are cut or pinched off. This results in more branching and more new succulent growth. The thick leaves as well as the tender stems are cooked. Harvesting continues throughout the summer and until the first fall frost. Take care not to remove too large a portion of the plant at one time. During early harvests, a half to New Zealand spinach. , ; two-thirds of the branch tips may be taken at one harvest. As the plant delay planting until danger of spring continues to branch a greater por- frosts is over and the soil has warmed. portion of the tips may be harvested Space rows 3 to 4 feet apart. Be- at one time. fore planting, broadcast 3 pints of One foot of row will yield about fertilizer, such as 10-10-10, per 50 three-fourths pound of greens for the feet of row and mix thoroughly with entire season. the soil. Summary: Greens are easy to grow Seed is large and irregularly shaped and quite nutritious. For maximum with a count of about 350 per ounce. yields and quality, growth should be Plant seeds in the row 1 inch deep rapid and continuous. To insure such and 4 to 6 inches apart. To insure growth, provide for a well drained prompt germination, soak seed in soil, add organic matter if needed to warm water for 2 to 3 hours before keep the soil loamy and retentive of planting. moisure and nutrients, maintain an Seedlings normally emerge in 7 to adequate fertilizer level, provide for 12 days. Plants may be gradually adequate moisture, plant during the thinned out until they are spaced 12 proper season, control pests, and har- to 18 inches apart in the row. vest at peak of quality.

nm Beans and Peas Are Easy to Grow And Produce a Wealth of Food by Jack P. Meiners and John M. Kraft

Beans and peas are among the most of bean known collectively as "com- satisfying vegetables for home garden mon bean" and by the scientific name, growing and eating. The seeds are Phaseolus vulgaris. The home gar- planted directly in the garden, and dener may grow several kinds de- germinate rapidly to give rise to pending upon how he plans to use the plants that grow quickly and vigor- product. ously. This gives even the beginning Those grown for the immature pods gardener a feeling of accomplishment. are known variously as "snap" beans, In fact, beans and peas should be in "string" beans, "green" beans, every garden because they are easy "French" beans, or "garden" beans. to grow and provide a wealth of food. Other types grown for the immature When we speak merely of beans seeds are known as "green shell" and peas we are over-simplifying the beans, and still others grown for the situation regarding legumes of in- mature seeds are called "dry" beans. terest to the home gardener. Actually, All the types are similar in require- he can choose from several types of ments for growing in the garden. legumes, all of which make tasty and Snap beans, used when the pods highly nutritious food for the family. are immature, need only a short grow- Beans may include snap or string ing season and thus are favored by beans, dry beans, and lima beans. most home gardeners. Peas include garden pea—also called The common bean probably origi- English pea—and southernpea, also nated in Central America, but has known as cowpea. been cultivated throughout much of Beans and peas are discussed to- North and South America by the In- gether in this section because, bo- dians since prehistoric times. Because tanically speaking, they are related. the seeds were easily carried and Both are members of the legume stored, and because beans grew well family, which bear the characteristic in a variety of climates, they were butterfly-like flowers and have the widely distributed by the explorers capacity with the help of bacteria in and now are widely grown throughout the root nodules to take nitrogen out the world. of the air. Otherwise, beans and peas The Indians probably consumed differ from each other somewhat in beans primarily in the dry or green culture. Most beans and southernpea shell state, and early varieties of snap are warm weather plants while gar- beans were stringy—hence the term den pea requires cool growing condi- "string" beans. The tender, stringless tions. and nearly fiberless varieties we know today were developed within Snap Beans the last 50 years. Snap bean is one of several types Snap beans are a good source of vitamins A and C, thiamine, and ribo- J. P. Meiners is Chief, Applied Plant flavin. They are also a good source Pathology Laboratory, Agricultural Re- search Center, Beltsville, Md. John M. of calcium and iron. Kraft is Research Plant Pathologist, Snap beans are a warm season crop Agricultural Research Service, Irrigated and easily injured by frost. The first Agriculture Research and Extension of several successive plantings should Center, Prosser, Wash. be made at about the time of the aver-

171 range of soils, the best being those that are well drained and reasonably fertile. The physical nature of the soil should be friable and not interfere with emergence. Upon germination, the two large seed halves or cotyle- dons must emerge through the soil and they can be seriously hampered by compact or crusted soil. If your soil is very heavy you may need to cover the seed with sand, peat, leaf mulch, or other material that will not form a crust. Should a crust form following planting, it may be necessary to break it to allow the seedlings to emerge from the soil. If you live in an area of heavy rainfall you may need to plant beans on raised beds to get proper drainage. Snap beans are not heavy users of water but require a constant supply. One inch per week is sufficient on most types of soils. An adequate supply of moisture is important from bud formation to pod set. Excessive or too little moisture may cause blossom and age frost-free date for your area. Usu- pod drop. If soil is too dry at planting ally there is not much to be gained by time, it is preferable to irrigate first, planting earlier, since early planted then plant. beans require longer to mature and there is the risk that seed may rot in Bush and Pole the cold soil, with additional delay if There are two basic plant habits— reseeding becomes necessary. bush and pole. The bush is a low, Snap beans grow best where the self-supporting plant that grows 1 to average maximum temperature does 2 feet in height. Pole beans are vines not exceed 85° F and the average which must be supported by stakes or minimum temperature does not go be- a trellis. low 50°, but the most desirable range Use bush varieties for quick pro- is between 70° and 80°. Very high duction and pole types for a longer temperatures lower the yield due to season. Successive plantings of bush blossom drop. types every 10 to 14 days will provide The soil should be warm at plant- beans for most of the growing season. ing time. Snap bean seed germinates Because pole beans bear over a longer poorly at soil temperatures below period, usually one planting suffices. 50° F and the optimum range is be- Disease-free Western-grown seed tween 60° and 85°. should be used rather than that grown In the lower South and Southwest, by the gardener since snap beans are snap beans may be grown during all seasons except mid-winter, but should Tendercrop snap bean is mosaic-resis- not be planted so that podding occurs tant and heavy yieiding. It has tender, when weather is too hot or cold. round, green pods and wide range of Snap beans grow well in a wide adaptability.

172 Planting Guide for Beans and Peas

Spacing Spacing Pounds of Depth of between in rows seed per planting, rows, inches Days to Type 50-ft row inches inches Seeds Plants harvest

Snap beans, bush y4-V2 1-11/2 18-30 1-2 2-4 50-60

Snap beans, pole V^-Vz 1-11/2 24-48 3-6 4-8 60-70

Lima beans, bush 1/4-1/2 1-11/2 18-30 2-4 4-8 65-75

Lima beans, pole 1/4-1/2 1-11/2 36 3-6 6-8 70-90 Peas, garden 6 (double 1/4 1-2 rows) 1-11/2 1-11/2 55-70 36-48 ,^:'- -...-,,.-,. / ■ '..:,

Peas, southern 1/4-1/2 1-11/2 30-54 2-4 2-4 55-80

Don Nor mark subject to diseases carried on the seed. Do not soak the seed prior to planting because seeds of many bean varieties tend to crack and germinate poorly under extreme moisture conditions. Bush-type beans are most commonly planted in rows 18 to 30 inches apart with seeds placed 1 to 2 inches apart and thinned so plants are 2 to 4 inches apart. Pole beans may also be planted in rows 2 to 4 feet apart with vines supported by poles, a fence, or a trellis made of posts and twine. In addition, they may be planted in hills about 3 feet apart each way, with 6 to 8 seeds in each hill, and later thinned to 4 to 5 plants. A pole is placed in the center of every hill with each pole upright, or four poles are tied together in wigwam fashion. Gardeners usually train the vines to climb the supports in a clockwise direction. Bean seed should be covered not more than 1 inch in heavy soils and II/2 inches in sandy soils. If the vegetable garden has received a general application of manure, com-

Corn may get as high as an eJephant's eye, but pole beans can top that when properly freliised. 173 post, or commercial fertilizer, beans helps control bacterial diseases. Not should need no additional fertilizer planting beans in the same ground during the growing season. Where no year after year reduces root rots. fertilizer has been applied, a moderate Seed catalogs or State agricultural application of one such as 5-10-5 usu- experiment station publications usually is all you need. Avoid heavy ally indicate if varieties are resistant applications of fertilizers high in nit- to particular diseases. rogen as they may cause heavy vine Insects must be controlled with in- grow^th, delayed maturity, and a small secticides applied to the plants (for yield of pods. aphids, Mexican bean beetle, mites, On light soils or after periods of potato leafhopper), or seed (for the heavy rainfall, you may need to side- seed corn maggot). Contact your local dress the plants with a nitrogenous county agent or State university for fertilizer during the growing season. specific control recommendations. Mulching of beans with organic Snap beans are best for eating materials or black plastic is recom- while the pods are still young, the mended since it conserves moisture seeds still small, the interior flesh is and prevents weed growth. Black firm, and the pod wall fiber content plastic also hastens early season low. The proper stage for picking growth. lasts only a few days and delay can Control weeds by cultivating or mean a poor quality product. hoeing. These operations should be Bush varieties usually yield three or very shallow since bean roots are four pickings whereas pole varieties close to the surface. In cultivating, yield numerous pickings. Regular and throw soil against the bean stems to thorough picking of both types is im- aid in support and development of ad- portant because it causes the plants ditional roots. An adequate mulch to continue to set pods longer. greatly decreases weed growth. Yields can vary tremendously, but bush beans yield about 50 pounds per Pest Control hundred feet of row and pole beans Snap beans suffer from diseases about 60 pounds. and insect pests, the number and in- Green shell beans are harvested tensity of attack depending upon geo- and shelled out after the seeds are graphic location. In the West, virus nearly fully grown, but before they diseases and root rots are the most have hardened and dried. Snap bean serious diseases. In the East and varieties may be used for green South, bacterial and fungus leaf and shell beans, but it is better to plant pod diseases are most important. one of the horticultural varieties for Diseases are best controlled by pre- this purpose. Depending on variety, ventative measures such as using from planting to green shell stage will disease-free. Western-grown seed take 55 to 75 days. which controls bacterial diseases and Dry beans are harvested after the anthracnose; planting disease-resis- pods are mature and dried or partially tant varieties when available which dried. Delay in harvesting may result controls virus diseases and rust; and in loss of seed due to shattering. using seed treated with pesticide to control soil-borne diseases and insects. Lima Beans Practicing cleanliness and sanita- Natives of the Western Hemisphere, tion in the garden controls many dis- limas probably originated in Central eases and insects. Not handling or America. The small seeded types have working among the bean plants when been cultivated since prehistoric times the foliage is wet from dew or rain in North America. The large seeded

174 Below, Fordhook 242 bush lima beans aie vigorous, productive and heaf-resistant. Right, treliised lima beans. Bottom, lima pole beans growing on strings.

Terence O Dnscoll

175 types were developed in South Amer- textured, well-drained soils. They ica, specifically in Peru, hence the need a soil somewhat richer than re- name ''lima" from the capital city of quired for snap beans, but not exces- that country. sive in nitrogen. The growing of lima beans is simi- Don't plant lima beans until two or lar to that of snap beans. Therefore, more weeks after snap beans are first this section will emphasize mainly the planted. To lengthen the growing sea- cultural requirements specific for son, plant protectors can be used over limas, and we suggest that the pros- the seeds and young plants in margi- pective lima bean grower read the nal areas—or to obtain earlier growth section on growing snap beans also. in other regions. It is possible also for Lima beans fall into two classes as gardeners to start limas indoors and far as the gardener is concerned—the transplant to the garden. Be sure the large seeded, generally referred to as root systems are not disturbed in Fordhook type, and the small seeded, transplanting. known as baby limas. The scientific Because of requirements for a name for both types is Phaseolus longer growing season, successive ¡unatus. In the South the lima is called plantings of bush lima beans should butter bean. not be made except in the more south- Both large and small seeded limas ern areas of the United States. come in bush or pole types similar to those of snap beans. Seed Treatment Vital Lima beans are used as green shell If at all possible, lima bean seed beans when the seeds have developed should be treated with a fungicide to nearly full size. The pods are not and insecticide before planting, espe- consumed. Nutritionally, lima beans cially if the soil temperature is below are high in the vitamins thiamine and 65° F. Consult your seedsman, county riboflavin and in phosphorus and agent, or State university as to the iron. proper seed treatment and follow the Lima beans require warmer soil and label instructions carefully. air temperatures than snap beans, and Lima beans may be attacked by a thus are planted somewhat later. A number of diseases and insects. Many planting date of 2 weeks after the of these pests also attack snap beans. average date of the last frost prob- As mentioned previously, lima beans ably is a good rule-of-thumb. Further- are more subject to seed and seedling more, lima beans need a frost-free diseases, so seed treatment is essen- period of 3 to 4 months with relatively tial to obtaining good stands and warm days and nights. sturdy plants. Proper soil temperature is critical In the Mid-Atlantic States mildew for seed germination and should be may be a problem and can be con- 65° F for quick emergence of seedlings. trolled by fungicides or use of resis- Gardeners in most of the more tant varieties, if available. In the northerly parts of the United States, South anthracnose may be serious including the northern New England and should be controlled with a fun- States and parts of other States along gicide. Nematodes may be a problem, the Canadian border, probably should particularly in the South. These can not attempt to grow lima beans. Just be controlled through resistant varie- south of this region only bush baby ties and soil fumigation. limas should be grown since they ma- Insect control through insecticides ture in a shorter period than large may be necessary. seeded bush or pole limas. Consult your county agent or State Lima beans grow best in lighter- university for diagnosis and recom-

176 mendation of specific control mea- in early crops, but plants on these sures against pests. soil types frequently suffer from Lima beans are ready for picking water stress if there is no supple- when the pods are well filled but mental irrigation. still bright and fresh in appearance. Select a seed bed site which is The end of the pod should feel spongy uniform, level and well drained. The when squeezed. seed bed should be worked at least Bush limas can be picked for about to a depth of about 2V2 inches. A 3 weeks and pole limas for about 4 well prepared seed bed is essential weeks or until frost. Depending upon for uniform germination and seedling soil fertility, temperature, moisture, stands. Peas will not thrive on poorly and many other factors, yields of drained or water soaked land. from 20 to 40 pounds per 100 feet of An adequate range in soil pH for row may be expected. peas is between 5.5 and 6.7. A soil with excessive organic residue or Garden Peas nitrogen is not ideal for pea growth The garden pea [Pisum sativum L.) because it promotes rank vine growth is thought to have originated in East- at the expense of pod production. ern Europe or Western Asia and was Peas are usually planted from 1 to widely distributed in prehistoric iy2 inches deep (heavy soils) to 2 times. It has been traced back to the inches deep (sandy soils) as soon as stone age where dried seeds were the soil can be properly worked. Peas found among relics of the Swiss Lake are sown 8 or 10 to the foot. villages. The seed should be treated with However, the eating of green peas a commercial seed protectant and was not referred to until the Norman planted in single or double rows. The conquest around 1066. double rows should be about 6 inches Green pea consumption was not apart which allows dwarf or bush common until the 18th century but varieties to cling and hold one an- with the appearance of canning and other up. When planted in single freezing, peas have become an im- rows, the dwarf varieties should be portant vegetable crop. To distin- sown in rows 3 feet apart and the guish them from the field pea, used taller varieties 4 feet apart. dried and split, or the southernpea, If the plants are to be supported, garden peas are often called green wire netting or string trellis can be peas or English peas. put between the rows. Tall varieties Peas are a cool weather, rapid usually do better when grown on a maturing crop. They must be planted trellis. However, left unsupported early for maximum yield and should they will form a ground cover, smoth- be brought to maturity under cool ering the weeds. conditions. Staked or trellised plants will The garden pea thrives best when usually require some hand weeding. grown in the South and lower parts Always avoid deep hoeing that may of California during fall, winter and injure the roots. early spring. Farther North, peas Peas have a number of disease and thrive when grown in spring or au- insect pests. Preventive measures are tumn. In the Northern States and at desirable—for example, protective higher elevations, they may be grown seed treatments, never plant peas in from spring until autumn; however, if the same location in succession, and summer heat is too severe, the season remove old vines from the garden. may be limited to spring. If a disease or insect problem ap- Sandy or rocky soils usually result pears that you aren't familiar with,

177 Picking Qnd sampling green peas.

consult your county agent. And keep in mind the many excellent books and articles available from public libraries and garden stores, as well as the extension bulletins on vegetable gardening and pest control. In general, harvest the pods when they appear well filled but before they begin to harden or fade in color. Peas will yield the maximum food value when the seeds are full size. A few days before this stage, however, peas are at their prime for taste and tenderness. The number of pickings will be at least two or three, since pea pods do not all mature at the same time but usually during a period of 7 to 10 days. Pull the pods carefully off the vine, or plants may be uprooted. For best quality, pick peas just before meal preparation or processing because sugar conversion to starch will begin only a few hours after picking. Edible podded peas (sugar peas, Chinese peas, snow peas] have pod walls that are tender, brittle, succulent, and free from fiber. After destringing, the young pods are cooked whole (like snap beans), or used as greens in salads. If pods develop too fast, eat the shelled peas.

Southernpeas In the South the unqualified word "pea" usually refers to the southernpea, also known as cowpea and pro- topea. There are several distinct types of southern pea of which blackeye, crowder, and cream are the best known. Each of these types has its own unique appearance and flavor. Southernpeas (Vigna unguiculata) are highly nutritious, tasty, and easily grown. They deserve to be much more widely grown by home gardeners. Southernpeas are natives of Africa, brought to the West Indies by slave Photos by Fred s W¡ traders. From there they are believed

178 Terence ODriscoll

to have been introduced to the United As with beans, southernpeas may States in the 1700's. Southernpeas are be classified as vining, semi-vining, consumed as fresh shelled peas, some- or bush types. Also, there are short-, times mixed with the immature pods, mid-, and long-season varieties. The and as dry peas. Nutritionally, they bush or compact varieties that mature are similar to lima beans. quickly are most suitable for home The yard-long bean, or asparagus gardening, particularly outside the bean, a pole type of cowpea, pro- deep South. Southernpeas are usually duces pods 1 to 2 feet long. However, planted in rows 2V2 to 3% feet apart it is less productive than other vari- with an inter-row spacing between eties, and commonly used in Chinese seeds of 2 to 4 inches. cookery. Heavy applications of nitrogen fer- The southernpea is a warm weather tilizers should not be used for south- crop and should be planted much ernpeas. An application of a low ni- later in the spring than snap beans. trogen fertilizer such as 4-12-12 ap- Adequate stands are difficult to plied at the equivalent of 1V2 to iVz achieve until the soil is quite warm. pounds per 50 feet of row usually is Although well suited to summer cul- adequate. ture in the South, it also is adapted Seed should be purchased from a to northern conditions of about the seedsman as it is more apt to be free same range as the lima bean. of disease and true to variety than if Southernpeas are adapted to a wide the gardener saves his own seed. If range of climatic, soil and cultural possible, the seed should be treated conditions and are particularly with a fungicide and insecticide. drought and heat tolerant. Excess moisture causes reduction in yield. PJonting southernpeas.

179 In the South, successive plantings perature. Depending on variety and made about three weeks apart until environmental conditions, peas may mid-summer will give a continuous be ready for picking from 55 to 80 supply of green peas. days after planting. Various insects and diseases attack For Further Reading: southernpeas. Some can destroy the Grow Your Own Green Beans, Extension crop while others do little damage. Service, Ext. Cir. 886, Industrial Bldg., The most destructive insect, espe- Oregon State University, Corvallis, cially in the South, is the cowpea cur- Oreg. 97331. 5(^ culio which feeds on the pods and Grow Your Own Vegetables, Coopera- seeds as they develop. Other insects tive Extension Service, Ext. Cir. 559, also may be destructive to the plant Pennsylvania State University, Univer- and several species of weevils may sity Park, Pa. 16802. 10(^ Growing Vegetables in the Home Gar- seriously damage stored cowpea seed. den, H. and G. Bui. 202, for sale by Application of insecticides is es- Superintendent of Documents, U.S. sential for successful culture of Government Printing Office, Washing- southernpeas in the South, especially ton, D.C. 20402. 95i^ during the fall. Several insects, such Home and Farm Vegetable Garden, Ext. as the southern green stinkbug and Cir. 871, Extension Service, Industrial cornworm, cause great damage dur- Bldg., Oregon State University, Cor- ing this time of year. vallis, Oreg. 97331. 15íí Home Gardens, Cooperative Extension Specific information on insecticide Service, Ext. Cir. 442, Washington application may be obtained from State University, Pullman, Wash. your county agent or State agricul- 99163. 20(^ tural experiment station. Home Vegetabie Gardening, Coopera- Diseases include wilt, root knot, tive Extension Service, Ext. Cir. 457, and those caused by viruses. They New Mexico State University, Las may be best controlled by use of re- Cruces, N. M. 88003. Free sistant varieties, planting disease free Illinois Vegetable Garden Guide, Coop- and treated seed, removing old vines, erative Extension Service, Ext. Cir. 1091, University of Illinois, Champaign- and not planting peas in the same Urbana, 111. 61801. location in successive years. More Vegetables From Your Garden, Southernpeas for home use as Extension Division, Pub. 657, Virginia fresh-shelled peas are harvested when Polytechnic Institute and State Uni- the deep green pod color changes— versity, Black'sburg,Va. 24061. 12^^ depending upon specific variety—to Plant Diseases, Cooperative Extension light yellow, silver, red or purple. Service, College of Agriculture, E. M. The peas should be almost maximum 3540, Washington State University, in size but with appreciable green Pullman, Wash. 99163. 62^ color still in the cotyledon. Soil Sanitation Procedures for the Home Gardener, Cooperative Extension Ser- A rule-of-thumb states that peas vice, College of Agriculture, E. M. should be harvested 16 days after 3844, Washington State University, bloom, but this depends on the tem- Pullman, Wash. 99163. 5(i

180 Sweet Corn, That Home Garden Favorite For Good Nutrition and Eating Pleasure by E. V. Wann Sweet corn is a common item in Plymouth, Mass. In Thomas Jeffer- most American home gardens. It pro- son's Garden Book (1810] "shriveled vides a delightful addition to every- corn" is mentioned, which is obvious- day meals, and in season the roasting ly sweet corn. ears are enjoyed for picnics and cook- By 1828 "sugar corn" was listed in outs. Since the days of the Pilgrims, New England seed catalogs. Also, corn-on-the-cob has been a popular evidence indicates sweet corn was American favorite. Sweet corn— being grown by the American Indians either fresh, frozen or canned—may of the upper Missouri by 1833. An- be served as a separate dish or used other early reference to sweet corn in succotash (an American Indian appeared in the Travel Letters (1821) dish), custards, puddings, fritters, of Timothy Dwight as being the most souffles, and stuffed peppers, or delicious vegetable of any known in added to soups and chowders. Sweet this country. corn may also be used in relishes and Sweet corn as a specific crop must mixed pickles. have come into existence at least by Most gardeners will regard sweet 1820 and reached sufficient popular- corn as an essential item in their gar- ity by 1828 to be in a seed catalog. den and take great pride in the good The subsequent history of sweet corn nutrition and eating pleasure it af- is one of variety development. By fords. 1900 there were no less than 63 vari- Corn [Zea mays] is a member of eties, and the first Fi hybrid was in- the grass family, which includes other troduced about 1924. Today, there cereal crops such as wheat, oats, are well over 200 varieties and hy- barley, sorghum, and rice. Corn is brids available to sweet corn growers conveniently divided into six types and gardeners. based on its use and kernel charac- Sweet corn differs from the other teristics. These are dent corn, sweet types of corn primarily by its ability corn, popcorn, flint corn, flour corn to produce and retain greater quan- and pod corn. They are all of the tities of sugar in the kernels. This same species but differ genetically. characteristic is conditioned by a sin- Dent corn, sweet corn, and popcorn gle recessive gene called sugary-l, are the most commonly grown for symbolized suj. Other less pro- their food and feed value throughout nounced differences are its tender the world. kernels at edible maturity, refined Sweet corn is believed by most au- flavors, a tendency to produce suck- thorities to have originated in North ers at the base of the plant, and America as a mutation from field wrinkled seeds when dried. Dent corn. The first references to sweet corn is considered the "normal" type corn date from 1779; an 8-rowed, red- with all the other types being genetic cob type called Susquehanna, or Pa- variation (mutations) of it. Popcorn, poon, was introduced that year near for example, has very hard starch in the kernels that expands explosively E. V. Wann is Research Geneticist when heated, thus producing the and Laboratory Director at the U. S. fluffy white popcorn kernel. Vegetable Laboratory, Agricultural Re- In recent years a new kind of sweet search Service, Charleston, B.C. corn has come into use that is sweeter

181 they are not pollinating at the same time.

Climatic Needs Sweet corn is essentially a warm- weather crop. It is easily killed by frost and may be seriously injured by prolonged temperatures several degrees above freezing. Germination and emergence of the seedlings are delayed and may be prevented by soil temperatures below 50° F. Sweet corn does best in areas having mean temperatures of 65° to 75° during the required 65- to 100-day growing season. In the Northeast and North Central States this corresponds to the months June, |uly and August. In central and south Florida, on the other hand, sweet corn is planted fall, winter and spring. Generally, sweet corn can be grown successfully in the proper season from Mex- ico to Canada and in many other parts of the world. Sweet corn will grow satisfactorily on a wide range of soil types as long Terence ODriscoll as they are friable and well drained. However, a deep, loamy, naturally than the standard sweet corn. Its rich soil is preferred. Soil should be sweetness is not conditioned by the only moderately acid (pH 5.8 to 6.8). sugaiy-1 gene but by a similar genetic If the pH is lower than 5.8, lime factor designated shrunken-2 (sh2). should be applied. Have soil tests This gene conditions an even higher made to determine the proper kind level in sugar in the kernels, giving and amount of lime and fertilizer to them a sweeter taste and prolonging apply. Consult your local Agricultural the edible state by three or four days. Extension Agent since most States The different types of corn should have laboratories that provide a soil never be planted together at the same testing service. time. Pollen from dent corn or pop- Available plant nutrients are espe- corn will contaminate sweet corn, cially important early in plant growth. causing the kernels to be starchy and If the plants become nutrient-defi- not sweet. Likewise, the standard cient and stunted, they never fully sweet varieties should not be inter- recover and the yield will be reduced. planted at the same time with the Commercial fertilizers are recom- extra sweet (shrunííen-2) varieties, as mended for sweet corn on just about the pollen from one v«ll contaminate all soils throughout the country. Fer- the other—destroying the quality of tilizer recommendations for sweet both. If both types are to be planted corn vary for different sections of the they should be separated by at least country and from one soil type to 400 yards distance, or one planted about four weeks after the other so Well-filled ear of sweet corn.

182 another. Again, depend on soil test- In the South and Southwest, after ing for specific recommendations. the tassels show, the plants need rain Some general fertilizer recommen- or irrigation every week. For these dations for typical soils follow: areas, and where soil moisture is • On light sandy soils of the Atlan- likely to be depleted, it is advisable tic and Gulf Coastal Plains, broadcast to provide some supplemental irriga- 20 pounds of 10-10-10 fertilizer per tion. Furrow irrigation is satisfactory 1,000 square feet of area before plant- in most soils where runoff can be ing. Then apply a side dress of nitro- controlled. gen when the corn is in the 6 to 8 Sweet corn varieties differ in the leaf stage at the rate of about a half way their growth is affected by day pound of actual nitrogen [N) per 100 length. Early maturing varieties devel- feet of row (note that Ammonium oped for the North are not recom- Nitrate contains 33 percent actual N mended for the South. They are and Sodium Nitrate contains 16 per- adapted to the long, cool summer cent). days in the North and do not make • On soil of average fertility in the satisfactory growth in the deep South. Northeast, apply 15 to 18 pounds of Conversely the southern varieties are 5-10-5 per 1,000 square feet of area not adapted to the North. When prior to planting and about 3 pounds planted in the North they may not of the same fertilizer banded per 100 silk and tassel until they reach 8 to feet of row at the time of planting. 12 feet in height, and it is too late for • In the more fertile valleys of the them to produce edible corn before West and Pacific Northwest and on frost. Therefore, specific varieties are the rich soils of the Midwest com recommended for different sections belt, apply in bands 3 to 5 pounds of of the country. 5-10-5 per 100 feet of row at the time of planting. Hybrids The broadcast applications are Fi hybrids have largely replaced the usually worked into the soil before open-pollinated varieties. As with all planting. The band applications hybrid plants, new seed must be ob- should be made when the seedbed is tained for each crop. Seed saved from prepared, about 3 inches to the sides the hybrid plants will not reproduce of the row of seed and 1 to 2 inches true to type and will not retain the deeper than the seed is planted. The hybrid vigor of the parent plants. above rates are based on rows spaced Several public research agencies and 3 feet apart. private companies breed and introduce new varieties of sweet corn. As Moisture Needs a result, a large number of excellent Sweet corn requires a continuous hybrids are available for gardeners. and adequate moisture supply for Some hybrids will be available for satisfactory growth and yield. In non- only a few years, being replaced by irrigated areas of the United States, better ones. sweet corn is grown with reasonable Sweet corn variety trials are con- success where the rainfall from April ducted each year by many State agri- through September is 20 inches or cultural experiment stations, and lists more and fairly well distributed. Un- of recommended varieties are pub- less the soil can retain a large supply lished based on these trials. Contact of water, sweet corn will suffer from your State agricultural extension ser- lack of moisture if rainless periods vice for a list of varieties recom- last more than 2 weeks during the mended specifically for your area. growing season. Sweet corn requires plenty of space

183 and is adapted only to larger gardens a serious threat to clean, well nour- exposed to full sunlight. It does best ished sweet corn plantings. Those planted in rows 30 to 36 inches apart that do occur most frequently are with single plants spaced 12 to 16 seedling root rot, Stewart's bacterial inches apart in the row. Overcrowd- wilt{ and common corn smut. ing the corn will reduce the ear yield Root rot is caused by rot-producing drastically. Planting four or more fungi in the soil. It is often associated short rows is better than one long with a damp, cold soil, and may be row to insure complete pollination. evident as a slight stunting and ir- If the prevailing wind is across the regular plant growth. Seed treatment row, pollen will be carried away from with a fungicide provides good pro- the silks and result in poorly filled tection for the seedling during its ears. early growth. Most sweet corn seeds To conserve space in the garden, packaged and sold commercially to- corn may be planted next to vine day have been treated with a fungi- crops, such as cucumber and can- cide. Use treated seeds whenever taloupe. As the vines grow, they will practical. grow between the corn plants. Stewart's wilt may appear at any Proper seedbed preparation is im- stage of growth, but is most notice- portant for sweet corn in the garden able when plants attain considerable since herbicides are generally not size. It produces yellow to brown used. A clean freshly worked seedbed streaks up to an inch wide on the enables the seedling to emerge rapid- leaves, and may extend the entire ly and get off to a good start ahead length of the leaf. Brown discolora- of grass and weeds. Seed should be tion and sunken cavities form in the planted to a depth of about 1 inch in stalk near the soil line. Plants that moist, heavy soils and 1 to 2 inches become infected early may wilt and in light, sandy soils, depending on the die. Those infected later may be only moisture conditions at planting time. stunted and have streaked leaves. It is generally a good idea to plant The disease tends to be more pre- at approximately twice the desired valent after mild winters and is stand and thin to single stalks at the known to be spread by corn flea desired spacing after the seedlings beetle. There are no sprays or seed have become well established. This treatments effective for controlling will allow for any reduction in seed this disease. germination and for loss of a few Where wilt is suspected of becom- emerging seedlings to insects, birds ing a problem, resistant varieties and other garden pests. About a quar- should be planted. Most varieties deter pound of seed is sufficient for veloped in recent years are resistant each 100 feet of row. to the disease, particularly among the Successive plantings are recom- full season maturity group. mended in order to provide a steady Common smut is characterized by supply of fresh corn throughout the the presence of large, fleshy galls on practical harvest season. Also, an the stalks, leaves, tassel and ears. At early, followed by a full season vari- first the galls are silvery white and ety, may be planted at the same time spongy. Later, they turn brown or to give a prolonged harvest period. black, rupture and release large Once the desired stand has been masses of powdery black spores. established, the area should be kept Smut galls are unsightly and render free of weeds by cultivation and the affected ears inedible. Smut is hoeing. promoted by injuries to the plant Diseases: Diseases are generally not during cultivation, by insects, or hail.

184 Again, there are no chemical treat- Several insecticides are available to ments to control the disease. control them. Recommendations for The best means of control is to specific compounds to use and rates avoid injuring the plants, avoid areas of application can usually be ob- v^rhere smut occurred the previous tained from a reputable garden sup- year, and remove and destroy smut ply center. galls before they break open. This Once the sweet corn becomes es- last step will prevent the spores from tabhshed and attains most of its plant being released to infect later plant- growth it can withstand a surprising ings. amount of insect feeding without drastic loss of yield. Earworms that begin feeding on the silks and burrow into the ear tips are difficult to control. Unless the infestation is extremely high and damaging, most gardeners choose to ignore the worm at the tip of the ear, merely clipping off the ear tip and any damaged kernels when the corn is husked. Most State agricultural experiment stations publish current recommendations for controlling insects on sweet corn. These bulletins and cir- culars can be obtained by writing to your State Agricultural Extension Service.

Harvesting Sweet corn should be harvested when the kernels are in the milk stage. At this stage the silks ave Corn earworm. brown and dry beyond the end of the husks and the ear has enlarged enough to fill the husks tightly to the Insects: Many species of insects are tip. The kernels are about as large known to attack and damage sweet as they will become, but they are still corn at all stages of its growth. Those soft, tender and filled with an opaque that attack the plants early are more milky juice. apt to cause serious damage, and they With some experience the optimum need to be dealt with promptly. These maturity for harvest can be recog- include the southern corn rootworm, nized by sight and feel. The husks cutworms, white grubs, wireworms should never be disturbed to peek at and flea beetles. You can get some the corn as this will permit insects protection against the rootworms, and birds to invade the ear. wireworms, and grubs by using seed Another way to estimate harvest treated with a combination fungicide- time is to note the date of silk emer- insecticide. Cutworms and flea bee- gence on the earliest plants in a row, tles may require an application of then harvest those ears 17 to 24 days insecticide for control. later. The number of days from silk Insects attacking sweet corn later emergence to prime harvest will vary in its growth are corn borers, army- according to weather conditions. If worms, aphids and the corn earworm. days and nights are exceptionally

185 the plant. For best quality, the corn should be picked early in the morning and refrigerated immediately. The sooner it is prepared for serving the better, but it can be held in a refrigerator (35 to 40° F) for 2 to 3 days with only a moderate reduction in eating quality. To harvest corn, break the ear shank as close to the ear as practic- able without breaking the main stalk or tearing the entire shank from the stalk. Grasp the ear with one hand near its base and bend it sharply downward or to one side with a rotary motion of the wrist. The inex- perienced may need to use both hands; hold the shank with one hand warm, prime maturity may be reached and use the other to snap the ear 17 or 18 days after silking. If cooler off. With practice and a strong grip, weather prevails during this period, the ears of most varieties can be it may require 22 to 24 days. After snapped off with one hand. picking a few ears, you usually can Many of the modern hybrids under make an accurate determination about optimum fertility and growing con- harvesting the remainder of the corn ditions will produce two nice ears per at its prime maturity. plant. The top ear will be the domi- Sweet corn passes through its prime nant one, and it will reach prime maturity very quickly. With uniform maturity a day or so ahead of the hybrid varieties the harvest of a sin- second ear. Under such conditions a gle planting will last only about 4 to 100-foot row should yield 100 to 120 5 days. If harvest is delayed the ker- nice ears. nels become tough, starchy and lose their sweet flavor. Sweet corn also loses its quality FuiJy mature and weJl-developed ears of rapidly after it has been picked from sweet corn.

186 Cucurbit Crops—Cucumbers, Gourds, Melons, Pumpkins, Squash—Have Uniform Needs by Thomas W. Whitaker

Cucurbit crops should be staples vines are senescent or have been for home gardeners from Maine to killed by frost. California. Cucumbers, gourds, musk- The cucurbit crops are a homogen- melons, pumpkins, squash, and water- ous group, easily identified by their melons will perform satisfactorily prostrate, sprawling vines, usually over a wide range of climate and soil with tendrils. Each runner bears many conditions. The vine, or more proper- large, lobed more or less palmate ly, the cucurbit crops are extremely leaves (having the shape of a palm uniform in their environmental and leaf). Except for the bottle gourd, the cultural requirements. Thus, a set of flowers are usually bright yellow, procedures designed for the culture large and conspicuous. The bottle of cucumbers can be used equally gourd has white flowers which open well for raising squash, with perhaps at night. They are pollinated by noc- some slight modification. tural insects. The wide adaptation of the cucur- Each vine bears two kinds of flow- bit crops to culture in temperate zone ers; the large or pistillate (no anthers, areas is surprising because they are female), and the smaller or staminate basically tropical or semi-tropical (no pistils, male). Commercial varie- plants, annuals, extremely frost ten- ties of muskmelons have a variation der, and mostly incapable of func- on the basic pattern. In this group, tioning normally at temperatures perfect flowers (with both pistillate below 60° F. For best seed germina- and staminate parts) are on the same tion, temperatures of 60° to 75° are plant with staminate flowers. required, and for maximum seasonal The botanical name for the fruit of growth, average mean temperatures a cucurbit is a pepo. A pepo is a of 65° to 85° are needed. fleshy, indéhiscent (closed at matur- Considering their tropical origins, ity), berry-like s+fucture, the product the cucurbits should thrive during the of an inferior ovary. Some of the long, hot, humid days and warm fruits of cucurbits are among the nights of summer in the north tem- largest in the plant kingdom. Squashes perate zone—and they do. Under such weighing 350 pounds have been reli- circumstances, and with adequate soil ably reported, and fruits of the bottle moisture from rainfall or irrigation, gourd are nearly as large. the vines grow rapidly and respond The most obvious disadvantages of by quickly producing fruit. Summer cucurbit crops from the viewpoint of squash and pickling cucumbers will the home gardener are their light and produce an edible product within 48 space requirements. They need maxi- to 56 days from planting. Muskmel- mum sunshine for best development. ons require 130 to 140 days from A few vigorous plants of pump- planting. Some baking squash, pumpkin, watermelon or gourd can over- kins and gourds have best quality if whelm the small garden. These the harvest is delayed until after the disadvantages can be successfully overcome by careful site selection within the garden, by planting bush Thomas W. Whitaker is a Plant Ge- or dwarf varieties of squash, and by neticist (Collaborator) with the Agricul- judicious use of a trellis, or using tural Research Service, La Jolla, Calif. structures adjacent to the garden—

187 Top, pumpkins and winter squash —■ banana, acorn, Hubbard, and butternut, fiighf, youngster displays cucumber grown in Children's Garden of Brooklyn Botanic Garden, New York. Above, easy does it/ A JittJe effort is worth the pies these pumpkins will make.

188 such as fences, garages, doghouses, at baseball games in this country. etc.—as a substitute for a treUis. Also, in Mexico, squashes have been Nutrients. Cucurbits are not con- selected for the number and quality sumed primarily for their nutritional of their seeds as food, while the flesh value. They contain only a sprinkling is ignored. of vitamins, minerals and protein, Soils. The cucurbits are not exact- and except for baking squashes are ing in their soil requirements. They low in calories. Since they are low accept almost any good garden soil, in caloric content, they are frequently well-drained, aerated, and enriched used in reducing diets. with a generous supply of plant com- The attraction of cucurbit fruits as post or animal manures. Sandy loams food is mostly to the palate. Their which warm up quickly in the spring aroma, flavor, texture, and juiciness are preferred for an early maturing are among the most attractive and de- crop, but crops can be grown on heav- lightful in the vegetable world. Musk- ier soils if they are properly man- melons make a superb breakfast fruit aged. Heavier soils have greater or dessert; besides they are relatively water-holding capacity, hence they high in vitamins A and C. The cool, withstand droughty conditions much crisp, juicy, refreshing taste of a wa- better than lighter soils. termelon on a warm summer day is One factor that places a definite an unforgettable experience. Cucum- limit on the culture of cucurbit crops bers, fresh or pickled, are zesty in- is soil pH. They are uniformly sensi- gredients of salads and sandwiches. tive to acidic soils, and they require Summer squash, boiled and seasoned, a neutral (pH 7) or even better soil is an extremely tasty dish, and baked with a slightly alkaline reaction. For squash is comparable to sweet pota- acidic soils, treatment with lime prior toes as a dietary staple. The dessert to planting is mandatory. qualities of pumpkin pie are well- known. Nutrient Needs Cucurbits are raised mostly for While cucurbit crops do moderately their fruits which are consumed in well on most fertile soils, they bene- the immature stage (summer squash, fit greatly from a generous supply of pickles), or mature stage (muskmel- organic material in the form of green ons, watermelons, winter squash). and animal manures. Well-composted Gourds are allowed to mature, and animal manures worked into the soil then can be used as ornamentals, and concentrated in the area where planters, liquid containers, work bas- the seed is expected to be planted kets, rattles, drums, etc. As food, the (hills) is the most efficient means of cucurbits can be boiled, baked, using these materials. In addition to stewed, dried, pickled, or eaten un- manures, applying mineral fertilizers cooked. In Latin America, the stami- is usually needed for a satisfactory nate flowers of squash are dipped in crop. Fertilizers act as a supplement a batter, fried, and served as a frit- to the manure and provide an added ter. Watermelon rinds are delicious source of plant nutrients during the pickled or candied. growing season. There are reasons for thinking that It is difficult to be specific about squashes and pumpkins were origi- fertilizer recommendations because of nally domesticated for their tasty, nu- great variation in soil types, soil fer- tritious seeds, rather than the fruit tility, and other soil conditions. In flesh. In Mexico, squash seeds, fried general, cucurbit crops can be ex- in oil and salted, are sold by street pected to respond to a complete fer- venders, much like peanuts are sold tilizer containing 4 to 6 pet nitrogen,

189 Spacing Distances, Planting Depths competition for nutrients, water and for Cucurbit Crops light. Under such conditions, the final Measurements are in Inches result is unthrifty plants and declin- ing yields. Crop Spacing Spacing Planting Irrigation. In the West and South- Between plants Between west, cucurbit crops are totally de- in row rows Depth pendent upon irrigation as a source Cucumber 12 1 48-72 of moisture, and even in the Midwest 24-36 2 and East some form of supplementary Muskmelon 12 1 60-84 1-1V2 irrigation may be desirable during 24-36 2 drought periods. The cucurbits are Pumpkin 36-40 72-96 2-3 moderately deep-rooted crops, filling Squash (bush) 24-30 36 2-3 the soil mass to a depth of three feet or more. This means the soil must be Squash (vining) 36-40 72-96 2-3 suppHed with enough moisture to Gourd 36-40 72-96 2-3 maintain a thoroughly moist condi- Watermelon 24-361 72-84 1-2 tion to this depth. 72 2 Furrow irrigation is probably the 1 Single plants. most practical for home gardens, es- 2 Hills. pecially after the young plants have a dozen or more true leaves. Moisture on the leaves from whatever source 8 to 10 pet phosphoric acid, and 5 to encourages several foliar diseases dif- 10 pet potash. This translates into 1 ficult to suppress with fungicides. to 2 tablespoons for each hill prior Hence, sprinkler irrigation is not rec- to planting. In light, sandy soils, that ommended if alternative methods are leach readily, one or two side dress- available. ings of ammonium sulphate may be Mulching and weed control are not needed during the season; perhaps a critical for growing cucurbits in the tablespoon per hill will suffice. home garden. If the soil directly above In the garden, cucurbit crops are the seed (the hills) is kept from crust- normally planted in hills, specific ing, no mulch is needed. A thick, hard spacing depending upon the crop. In crust will prevent emergence of the commercial practice, however, cucum- young seedlings. Therefore, after bers, muskmelons, bush squash, and planting and firming, it is important watermelons are drilled in continuous to scatter a thin layer of loose soil rows, and thinned to stand. over seed in the hill. Cucurbit seeds are relatively large, There is really no safe, effective and should be covered to a depth of chemical weed control for cucurbit 1 to 3 inches. After covering, the soil crops. If planting is done in a well- is lightly tamped, but not so firmly as prepared seed bed, weeds will seldom' to create a crust. In light, sandy soils be a problem and can easily be con- that tend to dry out rapidly, seeds trolled by hand or by hoe. The cucur- should be planted at greater depth bits are leafy, rapidly growing, vig- than in heavier soils. orous plants. Consequently, as they Assuming normal germination (80 grow older they tend to shade out to 90 pet), 4 to 5 seeds are planted in competition from weeds. Usually each hill. Thin the seedlings when weeds are not much of a problem they have 2 to 3 leaves. Remove all until late in the season, but by this but 1 or 2 large, healthy, well-spaced time the crop is mature and little plants per hill. More than 2 plants per harm will be done. hill causes undesirable crowding, and The cucurbits are subject to infec-

190 tion by several diseases and attack are in an area where anthracnose is by insects that can damage or even a problem, (a] Plant seed of varieties destroy a potentially promising crop known to have a high level of resis- without much warning, and within a tance to the disease, (b) Plant seed relatively short time period. Nearly that has been treated with a fundicide all the important pests are destructive to remove spores of the fungus, (c) to cucurbits you are likely to plant Practice garden sanitation, removing in the home garden. There are excep- all the debris of cucurbit vines be- tions, however, such as scab, a fun- cause the spores overwinter in this gus damaging only to cucumbers, and trash, (d) Select areas for planting anthracnose, also a fungus, commonly that have not been used for cucurbit attacking only watermelon. Squash crops within the past 3 to 4 years. bug and squash vine borer are more Downy mildew fungus is a destruc- of a problem on squashes and pump- tive disease of cucurbits, especially kins than with other cucurbits. when meteorological conditions favor its rapid growth. Warm, moist condi- Cucumber Beetles tions that occur at times during the Bacteria responsible for bacterial growing season in the Atlantic and wilt are spread by cucumber beetles. Gulf States are ideal for growth of This fact is the key to control. If the downy mildew. However, low humid- beetles are eliminated or reduced to ity, high temperatures and lack of low levels in the garden, bacterial free moisture on the leaves and stems wilt will not be a problem. The bac- immediately check the fungus growth. teria multiply rapidly and plug the Spores of the fungus are produced water transportation system of the on the underside of the leaves, and plant. This results in characteristic are spread by wind or splashing of wilting of the vegetative parts. Older raindrops. plants at first may have only one Initial symptoms are small, yellow- shoot affected, but later the entire ish spots, with irregular edges which plant will wilt and die. Younger plants appear on the leaves at about the time die quickly. It helps to promptly re- the vines commence to set fruit. Tis- move infected plants from the garden. sue at the center of each spot soon Anthracnose, a disease of water- turns brown and dies. Later the spots melon, flourishes in warm, moist become more numerous, coalesce, and weather, and is particularly trouble- the leaf shrivels and dies. The brown some in the Southeast. Under favor- or blackish withered leaves curl up- able conditions it also attacks ward, a characteristic that makes cucumbers and muskmelons, but is downy mildew easy to identify with an acute hazard only to watermelon certainty. The fruits are not attacked, production. The symptoms are small, but fruits from denuded vines are apt round, water-soaked spots on the to lack flavor, be tasteless, and are fruits. These spots later become en- practically inedible. larged, sunken, with dark centers, Whenever possible use varieties which may turn pinkish in moist, with some tolerance or even resis- humid weather. Infected leaves have tance to the disease. Generally the a scorched appearance, and the stems home gardener will have to lean heav- may be girdled. Vines with the dis- ily on the use of a suitable fungicide. ease may die. The fruits are worth- Powdery mildew fungus can be a less, often decaying before they are devastating pest of nearly all cucur- mature. bits, except watermelons. The first A few simple preventive measures symptoms are small, white patches often give satisfactory control if you on undersides of the older leaves. As

191 the disease increases in intensity, virus that attack cucurbits. (1) Water- leaves and stems become covered melon mosaic viruses which are not with the v^hite, powdery spore seed-borne, and are spread by suck- masses. The fohage gradually dies, ing insects—chiefly aphids. (2] Squash leaving the fruit exposed to the sun. mosaic viruses, which are seed-borne In muskmelons, such fruits ripen pre- and are spread by chewing insects— maturely, and are usually sunburned chiefly cucumber beetles. and of poor quality. The watermelon mosaic viruses are The fungus responsible for pow- destructive pests of cucurbits because dery mildew requires much sunshine they are spread by aphids, and it is and reasonably high temperatures for almost impossible to deny aphids ac- best growth. Rains and low light in- cess to home gardens. Apparently the tensity tend to check its rampant virus is carried by several widely increase. grown ornamentals, so sources of the virus are always present. Control is Resistant Varieties difficult, although there are resistant Resistant or tolerant varieties of or tolerant varieties of cucumber, but most species are available, and should resistance breeding programs in other be used where powdery mildew is species are not well-developed. likely to be a problem. Several safe Control of the squash mosaic vi- chemicals are effective against pow- ruses can be established by planting dery mildew. virus-free seed. Also, controlling cu- Scab is caused by a fungus which cumber beetles and other chewing attacks the fruit, particularly cucum- insects prevents dissemination of the ber, but it may occasionally damage virus. young squash fruits. Sunken, dark Root knot disease is caused by min- brown, irregular spots appear on the ute eelworms or nematodes which fruits from which a gummy substance enter the roots where they feed and is extruded. The young fruits become breed. Feeding causes the root tissues malformed and cannot be used. to swell, producing nodules or galls The disease spreads rapidly in cool, on the roots. Some galls are small, moist weather. It is most serious on others may be the size of a walnut. cucumbers in the northern tier of Plants become dwarfed, unthrifty, States (Wisconsin, Michigan, Minne- and often turn yellow and die. Soil sota, New York and Maine). Good heavily infested with nematodes garden sanitation and use of resistant should be fumigated, using one of the varieties should successfully solve several nematocides that are effective this problem for the home gardener. when properly applied. Fumigation Mosaic caused by virus is one of will reduce the population of nema- the most widespread and serious dis- todes to a point where good crops eases of cucurbits. Characteristic can be grown for at least 1 to 2 years. symptoms are light-green mottling of Some control can be obtained by crop the leaves, and the younger leaves rotation, that is, by not planting sus- are malformed, dwarfed, and slightly ceptible crops in the same soil for 3 curled. With late infection, the symp- to 5 years. Much research has been toms are mild and little harm is done done, but resistant varieties are not to the crop. Vines infected in early yet available. stages of development normally are Cucumber beetles, both striped and dwarfed, the leaves and flowers mal- 12-spotted, are common pests in most formed, and they do not produce ac- gardens. It is important to control ceptable fruit. them because the adults seriously There are roughly two classses of damage or totally destroy the plants.

192 and their activities also spread cer- causing the plant to wilt and die. The tain diseases of cucurbits (bacterial adult bug is about a half inch long, wilt, squash mosaic]. Additionally, and dirty brownish, or black. The the larvae bore into roots and stems nymphs are much smaller and steel- below the soil line, often causing the grey. The female deposits the rela- plants to suddenly wilt and die. There tively large and brownish eggs in are satisfactory chemicals that will regularly arranged masses on the control these insects, but they must underside of the leaves. be applied at the first appearance of Good plant sanitation helps con- the beetles for acceptable control. trol this pest. Promptly remove and Aphids—small, fragile, soft-bodied destroy debris from cucurbit vines insects with sucking mouth parts— and fruit. You can trap the bugs by can be a problem on cucurbits during placing a shingle or board at the base the course of the growing season. of the plants. The bugs collect here Aphids come in several colors, such during the night, and can be destroyed the following morning before they become active. Also, searching out the egg masses and destroying them can be helpful. Insecticides are effective against heavy infestations. The squash vine borer can damage squash and pumpkin in areas east of the Rocky Mountains. The borer is the larval stage of a day-flying moth that deposits her eggs on the stem of the plant, slightly above the soil line. The young borers penetrate the stem and burrow toward the base. When mature, the borer crawls from the plant to the soil where it pupates. Garden sanitation, and fall tillage deep enough to destroy the cocoons, are effective control measures. Also, Banded cucumber beetle. where only a few plants are involved, locate the wound and slit the stem with a razor blade or sharp knife, as black, green, yellow, or pink. They thus puncturing the borer. Then place feed on the undersides of leaves, moist soil around the stem to a height causing a curling or cupping. With a little beyond the wound. New roots severe infection, the leaves become will develop, thus compensating for sticky, lose color, and the' plant dies. the injury. Winged females fly from plant to Harvesting. The proper time to har- plant, establishing new colonies. vest is crucial for obtaining maximum Aphids can be controlled by chemi- quality of cucurbit fruits. Cucumbers cals, but be sure to use those insecti- for pickling should be harvested when cides that are least harmful to aphid the young fruits attain a length of 2 predators. to 4 inches, roughly 3 to 4 days after The squash bug is a troublesome the flower has opened. For dill and pest of squash and pumpkins, and larger pickles, harvest is delayed until occasionally attacks gourds. Adults fruits are 6 inches or more in length. and the immature forms (nymphs) The slicing type is harvested when suck the sap from leaves and stems, the fruit is 8 to 10 inches long.

193 Left, girl with squash she grew in Chil- dren's Garden at Brooklyn Botanic Gar- den, New York. Below, if vine separates from fruit easily, as with this cantaloup, melon is ripe and should be harvested. Note cantaloup is propped on fJower pot to keep it off ground.

For muskmelons, nature has pro- spot usually changes from white to vided an unmistakeable sign. At light yellow. maturity, an abscission layer forms Summer squash, which is consumed between stem and fruit. This layer in the immature state, is best har- appears as a crack, completely en- vested when 3 to 6 inches long, about circling the stem, at the point of at- 3 to 4 days after the pistillate flower tachment to the fruit. If the stem has opens. At this stage summer squash to be forcibly separated from the is tender, crisp, and has a good flavor. fruit, the fruit is immature. The ab- It should be harvested 2 to 3 times scission layer, or "slip" as it is known per week. in the trade, is characteristic of most Winter squash, or baking squash, muskmelon varieties except the casa- normally is harvested when mature. bas and honeydews. Maturity in the Maturity can be roughly estimated by latter is judged by softening of the pressure from the thumbnail on the blossom end of the fruit, and subtle fruit exterior. If the skin is hard and changes in the fruit's color. impervious to scratching, the fruit is The expertise required to select a mature. watermelon at prime maturity is only Fruits of pumpkins and gourds are acquired by experience. For the ama- customarily allowed to remain in the teur, some of the guesswork can be garden until frost destroys the vines, eliminated by rapping the melon or they deteriorate. sharply with the knuckles. A crisp, Storage. Most cucurbit fruits are metallic sound indicates immaturity, consumed fresh. Honeydew and ca- while a dull, flat sound suggests ma- saba muskmelons can be stored as turity. Also, at maturity the ground long as a month in a cool, dry environ-

194 ment. Pumpkins and the hard-shelled squashes can be stored for several months if properly cured. This means the fruit should be mature and carefully handled at harvest. After harvest, they should be placed in a room or other area with temperatures of 80° to 85° F for 10 days, then trans- ferred to a cool, dry place, preferably with temperatures of 50° to 60°. In storage, the fruit must be well- ventilated, not piled on each other. Since the cucurbits are large, vigorous plants, requiring relatively huge amounts of space for maximum development, the number of plants that can be accommodated in the averge garden is minimal. Plant population should be enough to cover the needs of an average family. Six cucumber plants, if harvested regularly, will produce sufficient fruit for a family. Muskmelons produce 2 to 3 fruits per plant and needs should be based on this estimate. Watermelons are not heavy producers. Most varieties produce 1 to 2 melons per vine. Some of the varieties with small fruits are more prolific. Two to three well-grown plants of bush summer squash will produce an abundance of squash for the average family and the neighbors, if harvested at regular intervals. For the average garden, 4 to 6 vine type squash or pumpkin should be sufficient. Gourds are terrifically prolific. Two or three vines on a trellis will produce 12 to 24 fruits depending upon the variety.

Thump test teils this young feller his icebox watermelon is ripe. But the most definite proof (and the most fun] comes from taste-test. Pholos by Wiiliam Apli

195 Asparagus Starts Up Slow But Goes On and On; Rhubarb Also Takes Its Own Sweet Time ASPARAGUS sects, diseases, and other injury be- hy Stephen A. Garrison and fore natural senescence and cold ]. Howard Ellison weather terminate the functioning of the green foliage in the fall. The cultivated asparagus plant, Spears should not be removed from Asparagus officinalis, is a perennial the plants during the first two grow- vegetable that can thrive in the home ing seasons in the permanent loca- garden for 25 years or more when tion. (See harvesting details later in well cared for. However, plants may chapter). have to grow 3 years before they can Unlike most plants that have both be harvested. male and female parts on the same The underground root system con- plant, the asparagus plant is dioecious. sists of an extensive network of The male flowers that produce pollen fleshy storage roots with small feeder are present on one plant and the roots that absorb water and nutrients. female flowers that produce the ber- The storage roots are about the diam- ries and the seeds are on a separate eter of a pencil and may be 5 to 10 plant. Bees transfer the pollen from feet long in mature plants, depend- the male to the female flowers. ing on the soil type in which the Research has shown that female plants are growing. plants, which expend much energy in These storage roots are attached producing fruits and seeds, do not to an underground stem called a yield as well and are not as long- rhizome. The storage roots and the lived as male plants. rhizome are commonly referred to as The genus Asparagus, a member of an asparagus crown. When the soil the Lily family, originated along the is warm and the soil moisture favor- shores of the Mediterranean Sea and able, buds arise from the rhizome on its many islands. Asparagus [As- and develop into edible spears, utiliz- paragus officinalis] was considered a ing the carbohydrate and other nu- delicacy by the ancient Greeks. The trient reserves present in the storage elder Cato discussed its cultivation in roots. 200 B.C., and 200 years later Pliny The spears which are not harvested described the spear size of asparagus. develop into attractive, green, fern- A. W. Kidner, writing in England in like stalks [brush]. Through photo- 1959, said the spear size described by synthesis, the mature plant produces Pliny was very similar to that in carbohydrates and synthesizes other England more than 19 centuries later. essential nutrients that are translo- It is remarkable how little the culti- cated to the storage roots. The stored vated asparagus has changed since reserves supply the energy required the time of Christ. to produce spears during the follow- Most asparagus strains grown in ing growing season. the United States today are seedling For this reason it is important to populations selected from the Martha protect the fern-like foliage from in- and Mary Washington strains developed in the early 1900's by J. B. Nor- ton of the U.S. Department of Agri- Stephen A. Garrison and J. Howard culture. Ellison are Associate Professor and Pro- All presently available asparagus fessor respectively in Vegetable Crops, strains produce plants with variable Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J. vigor, size and disease resistance.

196 Environment Needs Able to tolerate great variations in temperature, asparagus grows in places such as the Imperial Valley of southern California, where the temperature soars to 115° to 120° F in the summer, or Minnesota, where winter minimums of 40° below zero occur. However, asparagus grows best where the growing season is long and the days are sunny for maximum photosynthesis. Ideal day temperatures during the growing season are 75° to 85° F, and nighttime readings in the 60's to minimize respiration. These conditions favor maximum storage of carbohydrates in the root system for high yield and quality of

Terence O Dnscoll spears the following season. Asparagus can be a home garden Emerging asparagus spear. vegetable in most parts of the country except the Deep South. Asparagus Plant breeders are developing more does not grow well in the Gulf Coast uniform plants by reproducing highly States, due to the moist, warm winters selected parent clones through test- which may stimulate sporadic growth tube tissue culture. In the near future, during winter. gardeners will be able to purchase Asparagus can be grown on a wide these high-yielding uniform seeds or range of soil textures from loamy even highly selected, extremely pro- sands to clay loams as long as water ductive clones propagated by tissue drainage and aeration are good. In culture. the more arid regions the heavy soils The Viking strain is suggested for are satisfactorily aerated and pro- gardeners in the northern United duce excellent asparagus. However, States. For the West Coast, California in regions of moderate to high rain- U.C. 157 is recommended. In the East fall, asparagus grows best on deep, and Midwest, Rutgers Beacon, Wal- well-drained sandy loam soils. As- tham Washington, and local selec- paragus plants lose vigor, become tions of the "Washington" type are more susceptible to root rot, and die recommended to home gardeners and in poorly drained areas or following are available through the major seed prolonged high rainfall. distributors. The soil reaction (pH] should be Asparagus is low in calories, but maintained between 6.5 and 6.8. Me- high in flavor. A serving of 4 spears dium fertility is best, to provide a of asparagus (60 grams) contains just balance between top growth and root 10 calories, 1 gram of protein, 2 grams growth, but the plant has a relatively of carbohydrates, and only traces of high potassium requirement for maxi- fat. When the nutrient content of mum production. vegetables is compared, asparagus is a good source of vitamin A and ribo- Growing flavin, and a very good source of In the past, most garden asparagus thiamin. has been started by planting crowns.

197 Plant only healthy 1-year-old crowns such as 15-15-15, at half the recom- and never use 2- or 3-year-old crowns. mended rate 4, 8, and 12 weeks after It is difficult to obtain commercial sowing the seed. Rinse the foliage crowns free of Fusarium root rot (see lightly with water after fertilizing to discussion later in chapter). Fusarium avoid fertilizer injury to the tender carried on the seed will infect young growth. Excessive fertilization pro- seedlings and contaminate the garden motes large tender tops and small permanently. root systems with limited reserves One way to avoid Fusarium is to in the storage roots. Make the last plant asparagus seed that has been application just before transplanting surface-sterilized. You can use this to the garden, after danger of the last seed to grow your own crowns or killing frost is past. If you don't have seedling transplants. a suitable place to grow your own Crowns are produced by seeding a seedling transplants, you may be able nursery about 2 weeks before toma- to get seedlings from a commercial toes are normally transplanted into plant grower who specializes in bed- the garden. Seed is sown 1 inch deep ding plants. and 3 inches apart in the row with Asparagus should be planted with 2^2 feet between rows in the nursery. other perennial crops for convenience Plant 3 to 4 seeds for each crown you of tillage and management. It is pre- want to plant in the permanent bed. ferable to plant on the north or east The following spring (February- side of the garden so as not to shade March], when the plants are still dor- other vegetables or low-growing mant and the ground has thawed, fruits. carefully dig the crowns to minimize Asparagus can be planted along a damage to the root system. Immedi- fence, as long as there is plenty of ately plant the crowns in the per- sun. In fact, the beautiful green, fern- manent bed as described later. like foliage grows five to six feet high, To grow transplants, sow the seed and can be used as an ornamental 12 to 14 weeks before transplanting summer screen. The female plants seedlings to the garden in the spring. produce berries that become bright The sowing date will vary from late red in late summer and fall. The tops December in the Southwest to mid- turn from green to an attractive yel- February in Northern areas of the low in fall and brown during winter. country. Use a commercial potting Before planting, broadcast and turn mixture of peat moss and vermiculite, under 1.2 pounds of 5-10-10 fertilizer (pH 5.5 to 6.0] and sow two seeds y4 (or equivalent] per 100 square feet of inch deep in small (2-inch diameter] area. If lime is needed, turn it under pots, or seed in rows in flats. The along with the fertilizer. Keep a close rows should be 2 inches apart with check on soil pH, because asparagus seeds 2 inches apart in the row. does poorly at pH levels below 6.0. Maintain the temperature at 75° to Plant crowns with the buds up in 85° F while seeds are germinating. As the bottom of a 6-inch deep V-shaped seedlings emerge, they should grow furrow, and cover with 1 to 2 inches at 70° to 75° during the day and 65° of soil. Plant seedlings 1 inch deep on at night. Grow the plants in a green- small mounds in the bottom of a simi- house or window with full sunlight. lar furrow. The seedlings will require Use supplementary fluorescent lights some protection from water which to extend the day length to 12 to 14 may stand in the furrow and from soil hours when plants are not grown in which can wash into the furrow. the greenhouse. Spacing for crowns and transplants Apply a soluble complete fertilizer, is 12 inches apart within the row and

198 4 to 5 feet between rows. If only one grasses compete with the asparagus asparagus row is planted, allow at for water and nutrients. Thus, weed least 3 feet between the asparagus control is an important aspect of and the closest other vegetable crop. good asparagus culture. Chemical her- As the asparagus grows, carefully bicides are toxic to many other vege- fill in the furrow with soil so as to tables and not recommended for the avoid covering any asparagus foliage. home garden. The furrows should be filled in by the Asparagus can be mulched with end of the first growing season. Side- organic debris (leaves, grass clip- dress the plants with 1.2 pounds of pings, etc.), but mulches can harbor 5-10-10 fertilizer (or equivalent) per pests, alter the soil pH, and change 20 feet of row in late July or early the crop's fertilizer needs. Clean cul- August. Spread the fertilizer on either tivation of the asparagus is preferred. side of the asparagus and cultivate it lightly into the soil. Pests Adequate soil moisture is important The most serious disease of aspara- during the first growing season. Don't gus is Fusarium root rot, caused by let the plants suffer for lack of water the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. during dry weather. Weekly applica- asparagi. This organism is present at tions of irrigation sufficient to wet very low populations in most soils, the soil 8 inches deep should be where it grows slowly on organic adequate. matter in the soil. After the first growing season, as- Planting disease-free seeds or paragus plants do not require fre- crowns of the host asparagus causes quent irrigation because of the deep a slow build-up of the Fusarium pop- and extensive root system. Thorough ulation in the soil. However, planting watering (2 inches of water) slowly infested seed or infected crowns applied every 2 weeks during dry leads to a rapid build-up that may weather is sufficient. adversely affect performance of the During early spring of the year first asparagus planting, and perma- after planting remove the brush (old nently contaminate the garden in that stalks) and any over-wintering weeds. location for asparagus in the future. Broadcast lime as needed to maintain The Fusarium infects the root system the proper soil pH plus 1.2 pounds of and kills the feeder roots. As a result, 5-10-10 per 100 square feet of bed. plant vigor declines, spear size de- Sidedress another 1.2 pounds of 5-10- creases, and the weaker plants may 10 per 100 square feet in late July or die. early August. Fusarium can be identified by red- Remove brush during each suc- dish-brown color of the feeder roots, ceeding spring before the asparagus reddish-brown spots and streaks on emerges, and broadcast lime if the storage roots, and large lesions needed. At the same time spread 3.4 on the base of the spears and stalks pounds of 5-10-10 (or equivalent) fer- at or below the soil line. tilizer per 100 square feet of bed. The symptoms are much more Rake the fertilizer and lime 1 to 2 severe when the plants are under inches into the soil, taking care to stress due to excessively long har- avoid damage to the asparagus vests, poor drainage, competition crowns. from weeds, and damage from insects Maintain good foliage growth for and diseases. maximum photosynthesis. Tall weeds The best way to avoid Fusarium can shade asparagus and reduce pho- root rot in the garden is to plant sur- tosynthesis. Even low weeds and faced-sterilized seed in disease-free

199 soil. Although surface-sterilized seed The asparagus beetle [Crioceris is not generally available, you can species) is a serious pest every year, treat the seed yourself. although the insect populations vary Soak the seed for 2 minutes in a from season to season. Adult beetles, solution of 1 part laundry bleach which look like slender lady-bird (composed of approximately 5 per- beetles, lay small black elongated cent sodium hypochlorite) plus 4 eggs on end in rows on asparagus parts of water. Rinse the seeds for brush. The larvae (small, dark green one minute with cool running water worms] do the actual damage by eat- and plant in soil that has never grown ing the green epidermis from the fern. asparagus previously, or start seedling Beetles can kill very young seed- transplants in a disease-free artificial lings, and seriously damage fern soil mix. growth of mature plants. They can be Although research to control Fu- controlled by insecticides. sarium by the use of fungicides is European asparagus aphids invaded under way, no practical treatment is the eastern United States in recent yet perfected. Progress is being made years. They are blue-green, with a on development of Fusarium-resistant metallic sheen (like aluminum) when strains of asparagus at the New Jersey in clusters on plants. The aphids feed and California Agricultural Experi- on young growing shoots, and inhibit ment Stations. the elongation of internodes, produc- Rust [Puccinia asparagi] is another ing a kind of rosette (bushy stunted common fungus disease of asparagus growth). Heavy infestations of the in the East and Midwest, and certain insects can seriously decrease foliage valleys in California. Dew or other area needed for photosynthesis. free water on the plant for 10 hours Fortunately the European asparagus is enough for spore germination. aphid has many natural enemies, and Ten days after germination, the seems to be subsiding as a pest. fungus appears on the surface of Harvesting: An important culture stems and branches as small rust- requirement of asparagus is that the colored spots, containing spores that crop must be grown for two full cause spread of the disease. In the growing seasons before harvest be- fall the rust colored areas produce gins. This is necessary to allow the black, over-wintering spores that can plants to develop an adequate storage infect the plant the following year. root system to produce spears during Severe rust destroys much of the the first harvest season and beyond. foliage, reducing reserves for the next Any harvesting or damage to the year's crop. brush during the first two growing Rust can be partially controlled by seasons dwarfs the plants and can fungicides, and several asparagus reduce yield for the life of the bed. strains selected in the East and Mid- When the first spears emerge in west have some rust resistance. the spring, merely snap off spears 7 Several species of thrips are often to 10 inches long, with tight heads, a serious problem, primarily on small leaving the tough stub on the plant. plants in a nursery or on transplanted The upper portion which snaps off seedlings in the garden. Thrips are should be "all green" and "all tender". small, white, flying insects which are Harvest all spears that come up dur- very difficult to see. They suck plant ing the harvest season. juices and cause the green needles A good general rule for length of and stems on the young plants to turn harvest season for all areas except dull gray-green, then brown. Insec- the cool central valleys of California ticides can be used to control thrips. is the 2-4-8 week sequence. Harvest

200 RHUBARB by Daniel TompJkins Rhubarb, also known as pieplant, is a hardy perennial vegetable grown in many home gardens for its thick leaf stalks or petioles. It produces its crop early in spring, largely from food that has been stored in the large fleshy crowns and roots of the plant during the preceding year. It likes cool weather and grows best in the Northern States where the average summer temperatures are not much above 75° F. Rhubarb does not grow Asparagus spears harvested by snap- well in areas where the summers are ping. quite warm. Stalks can't be fully harvested until for 2 weeks the third year the plants the third year of the planting. are in the garden; 4 weeks the fourth A member of the buckwheat family, year, and 8 weeks the fifth and fol- rhubarb is native to Central Asia. It lowing years. In the cool central val- was introduced into Great Britain, leys of California, a 4-8-12 week where it is grown extensively, in the sequence is best. 16th century and was probably When the harvest season is approx- brought to the United States from imately half completed, 5 to 6 inches Italy late in the 18th century. It has of soil may be carefully ridged over long been grown in the Old World the row. This lowers the temperature as a vegetable, an ornamental foliage around the crown and increases spear plant, and for medicinal properties of size. The ridge should be raked level the dried root which provides a right after the last harvest. strong purgative. Here in this country White asparagus, which has a dis- rhubarb is grown for its acid stalks tinctive flavor, can be produced by which are stewed for pies and sauces, ridging 10 to 12 inches of soil over made into preserves, and sometimes the row in the spring when the first used for making wine. It is also ex- spears emerge. When the tip of the cellent baked. spear breaks through the ridge of Rhubarb leaves should never be soil, carefully remove some soil from eaten, since they contain levels of around the spear, and use a long knife soluble oxalic acid that can make one or asparagus knife to cut the spear quite ill or even cause death. The about 8 inches below the tip. stalks are harmless since the oxalic If the harvest from one day is not acid is present in smaller amounts enough for a meal or if the asparagus and mostly in an insoluble form. is to be consumed later, wash the Rhubarb contains vitamin C and spears, place the cut ends in a shal- calcium (largely insoluble). It also low pan of water and immediately contains some vitamin A, iron, phos- put them in the refrigerator. Good phorus, potassium and only about 60 quality can be maintained for several calories per pound of stalks. It has days if the spears are kept at 35° to been reported that rhubarb can pro- 40° F. A 40-foot long row of asparagus will yield approximately 10 to Daniel Tompkins is a Horticulturist 25 pounds of spears during the aver- with the Cooperative State Research age season. Service.

201 tect the teeth against acid erosion leave loose surface soil above and such as may be caused by excessive around the bud. The soil should be use of lemon juice or cola beverages. well fertilized and worked deeply and Rhubarb is one of the most acid of thoroughly before planting. Plant rhu- all vegetables; the juice has a pH of barb as early in spring as the soil can 3.1 to 3.2. The tender stalks are a\fbut be worked. For each person, about 3 94 percent v^ater. to 4 plants should produce an ample For home use, rhubarb varieties or supply. If well cared for, the new cultivars may be divided into two planting should last 5 to 7 years de- classes, those with red stalks and pending on cultivar and location. those with mainly green stalks when A deep, rich, well-drained sandy grown outdoors. The somewhat larger loam soil is most desirable for pro- and more vigorous green stalk culti- duction. However, rhubarb will grow vars are Victoria, German Wine and well on any type soil from sand or Suttons' Seedless. These cultivars are peat to clay, provided it is well commonly used by commercial grow- drained and has a good supply of ers for forcing where they produce moisture to encourage vigorous stalks with a delicate pink-red color. growth during hot summer months. The cultivars that produce red stalks Light sandy soils that warm up quick- when grown outdoors are Ruby, Mc- ly provide earlier spring growth than Donald, Valentine, Canada Red, and the colder, heavier soils. Crimson Wine. Rhubarb requires large amounts of Rhubarb grows easily from seed plant food and abundant moisture but this is not recommended since during the growing season. If avail- many plants v/ill not be like their able, a heavy application of manure parents. should be worked into the soil before planting to provide organic mat- Dividing Crowns ter and nutrients for the growing You usually propagate rhubarb by plants. This should be followed by dividing the crowns in early spring. a manure mulch each fall. Dig the crowns and then split them Before planting, broadcast a com- into pieces with one large bud to plete fertilizer like 10-10-10 at the each section of crown and root. Trim rate of 2 to 3 pounds per 100 square the pieces by removing all broken feet and thoroughly work it into the roots and shortening the long thin soil. In the following years a fer- roots. tilizer like 10-10-10 should be broad- Crowns vary in size and number cast or banded at the rate of IV2 of buds produced due to cultivar, age, pounds (sandy soil) to 2 pounds (clay and growing conditions. Vigorous soil) per 100 square feet before the crowns will normally provide 5 to 10 new leaves begin to grow each spring. pieces suitable for planting. Very old This fertilizer should be mixed 2 to 3 crowns may have only an outer fringe inches deep in the soil but not any of buds suitable for dividing. closer than 10 inches from the plant. • Protect the root pieces from excessive drying before planting. After harvesting is completed, a Space the plants 2V2 to 3 feet apart sidedressing of ammonium nitrate in rows 3V2 to 4V2 feet wide. Usually (33.5 percent- nitrogen) at the rate you plant in a furrow, placing the of 6 ounces per 100 square feet will crown pieces at a depth so that the stimulate summer growth and food buds will not be more than two storage in the roots. inches below the surface. Fill in soil If manure is not available, the rhu- around the pieces and firm well, but barb patch can be mulched with 1 to

202 3 inches of lawn clippings each year rhubarb production during the fol- during late spring or early summer. lowing year. To promote good growth during the Rhubarb is relatively free of insect summer, water the plants whenever and disease problems. But one insect the soil begins to dry. that can cause problems is the rhu- If the plants go dormant (leaves barb curculio. This snout beetle, com- die] after harvest, little food is stored mon in the eastern half of the country, in the roots for the next year's crop. can puncture the stems—leaving Rhubarb is tolerant to soil acidity, black spots. The beetles average and liming is seldom needed. It will about a half-inch in length and are grow well in soil as acid as pH 5.2, black. But they usually are so densely provided the essential nutrients of covered with a rusty powder that calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium they appear reddish. Since the cur- are well supplied. culio as a rule feeds on curly dock Weed control by hoeing and cul- weed, one control measure is to de- tivation should be shallow and fre- stroy these weeds growing near the quent enough to control emerging rhubarb. weeds. The most serious weed prob- Phytophthora crown rot or foot rot lems will usually occur early in spring is a disease that can affect rhubarb before the newly planted root pieces in the eastern half of the country. At start growing well. the base of the stalk lesions develop rapidly to cause collapse of the whole When to Pick stalk. In warm moist weather the Don't pick stalks during the first stalks may continue to collapse until season or the year of planting. Food the plant is killed. There is no effec- from the leaves is needed to enlarge tive control at present. the roots for the coming years' Other diseases that may affect rhu- growth. During the second year stalks barb are bacterial crown rot, pythium should be picked for only a short crown rot, rhizoctonia crown rot, gray period (two weeks). Beginning with mold or Botrytis (the most serious di- the third year the harvest period may sease of commercial forcing opera- extend as long as six weeks or until tions), and ascochyta leaf spot. There the stalks become small, indicating also are a number of viruses that can that food supplies in the roots are be- reduce plant vigor and yields. coming depleted. Don't remove more If you plan to propagate your own than two-thirds of the developed plants, identify the most vigorous 2- stalks from the plant at any one time. to 3-year-old plants with stakes dur- Pull only the large stalks, leaving the ing June. Leave the stakes by the young ones to grow. plants (crown) until the following Pick the stalks by pulling and not spring when the marked crowns are by cutting. Grasp the stalk near its dug and split for planting stock. Re- base and pull it slightly to one side place plants when they start to pro- in the direction it grows. The stalks duce fewer—and small size—stalks. separate readily from the plant and Remove the old crowns and associ- are easily pulled. After the stalk is ated fleshy roots by digging, and pulled, trim it by removing the leaf make a new planting elsewhere in the or leafblade. garden. If flower stalks appear, remove Commercially, much of the rhubarb them at once so the plant's food will crop is produced by forcing during go into the roots for the next year's the winter months. This is a unique crop of stalks. Continued develop- horticultural practice of producing an ment of flower stalks will reduce edible crop inside darkened, heated

203 buildings. Rhubarb plants are grown A crown can produce 4 to 12 pounds in the field for 2 to 3 years during of stalks, depending on cultivar and which the food materials produced in crown size and vigor. the leaves are stored in the thick While it is a messy and time-con- fleshy roots. During winter months suming job, crowns may be forced in when the plant leaves are dead, the the home basement or cellar. About crown (roots) are brought from the 6 to 10 good crowns should produce field to the forcing structures. The enough for the average family'after large amount of food stored in fleshy you learn how to force rhubarb. roots of the crown enables it to pro- For Further Reading: duce many well-colored rhubarb stalks under the proper forcing condi- U. S. Department of Agriculture. Rhu- barb Production, Leaflet 555, for sale tions of darkness, water, and low by Superintendent of Documents, U.S. even heat (50° to 55° F). After the Government Printing Office, Wash- crowns are forced they are discarded. ington, D.C. 20202. 25^.

204 A Few Rows of Home Garden Potatoes Can Put Nutritious Food on Your Table by Orrin C. Turnquist The potato is probably the most im- Not until the potato was introduced portant vegetable crop in the world into Ireland was it recognized for its today. None other is used as regu- great food value rather than as a curi- larly and in such quantity in the aver- osity, and by the 1600's it was culti- age American home. Its culture is vated extensively in that country. For simple and it is a dependable and approximately 250 years the potato efficient food producer on any soil was a major source of food in most suitable for general garden crops. of Europe. In fact the majority of the Does the potato have a place in population in Ireland depended on your home vegetable garden? The an- this crop for its existence. swer depends on the size of the When the late blight disease came garden. from America into Ireland (1845-1847) On the average, a 100-foot row it caused a national disaster. Destruc- planted v^th 10 pounds of seed tion of the vines and decay of the should yield between 1 and 2 bushels tubers caused a complete loss of the of potatoes. Obviously the 10 to 20 crop nationwide. The result was the bushels a family of 5 might require Irish famine in which thousands for winter use would be difficult to starved to death. produce in the small backyard garden. A colony of Presbyterian Irish who Yet, even in small gardens—after settled in New Hampshire introduced space has been provided for such veg- the potato to our country in 1719. etables as tomatoes, green beans, and Soon after the Irish famine the potato leafy greens—the potato might be gained in importance in the United considered for planting on any re- States. maining space. As late as 1771 only two varieties Space-saving techniques such as in- of potato were listed, but during the tercropping can also be used in grow- 19th century thousands of varieties ing early potatoes in the small gar- were developed and introduced in den. Vining crops like cucumbers, America. Only a small number were melons and squash can be planted be- accepted, however. Some varieties tween rows of potatoes. After the still prominent today originated dur- early potatoes are harvested the area ing that period. They include Irish is free for the vine crops to spread Cobbler (1875), Russet Burbank and produce their crop. (1876), Green Mountain (1878), Red The potato's home is in the moun- McClure (1880), and White Rose tainous regions of South America, al- (1893). though it is referred to as the Irish The cultivated potato in North potato. It was cultivated rather ex- America and Europe is known botan- tensively by the Inca Indians of Peru ically as Solanam tuberosum. It is a as far back as 200 A.D. Early ex- member of the nightshade family plorers after Columbus introduced the which includes such plants as tomato, potato to Europe between 1532 and egg plant, pepper, ground cherry, bit- 1550. tersweet, petunia and tobacco. Although grown as an annual, it is Orrin C. Turnquist is Professor and often considered a perennial because Extension Horticulturist, University of of its ability to reproduce vegetatively Minnesota, St. Paul. by means of tubers that arise from

205 underground stems. In fact the tubers have all the characteristics of normal stems, including dormant true buds which are called eyes and rudi- mentary leaf scars that are called eyebrows. The small dots on the tubers are identical to lenticels on a stem which facilitate the exchange of gases. These lenticels often become enlarged and objectionable when tubers develop in soils with excessive moisture and access of air is restricted. Contrary to much common opinion, development of tubers does not depend upon flowering. Potato plants will form tubers without any flower development on top. The fruits or days, warm temperatures, high mois- seed balls that develop from the flow- ture and fertility tend to favor plant ers on some varieties are true fruits. development whereas short days, These berries are not edible. They are cool temperatures, lower moisture, not the result of cross pollination with and less fertility promote tuber de- the tomato, as many gardeners velopment. Don't forget that a good believe. yield of potato tubers depends first Although some of these fruits are of all upon a good healthy plant seedless, normally they contain many development. small true seeds, no two of which are alike. The fact that these true seeds Certified Seed will not be the same as the variety One of the most important steps from which they came is the reason to success in growing potatoes is the we do not grow potatoes from true use of sound, healthy, certified seed. seed. Instead we propagate the potato Potatoes are subject to several di- by stem cuttings called seed pieces seases whose symptoms are not easily or seed eyes. The use of true seed is recognized on either tubers or plants. impractical for all except potato Many are virus diseases that dwarf breeders who control the pollination the plant and cut the yield in half. and use the resulting seed in develop- High-yielding seedstocks can be main- ment of new varieties. tained only under carefully controlled The tubers usually initiate at the conditions of isolation, disease con- tips of the stolons (underground trol and storage. stems) from 5 to 7 weeks after plant- Certified seed potatoes are grown ing or when the plants are 6 to 8 mainly in the Northern States where inches tall. This varies with the vari- lower growing temperatures favor the ety and several environmental factors. expression of virus disease symptoms As the plant grows the leaves make so the infected plants can be elimin- food for continuing growth. A point ated. There are also fewer insects is reached, however, where a supply present that spread the diseases. of food is made beyond what is needed for growth. This is when ex- Potatoes are grown from "seed pieces" cess food is moved down into tubers or "seed eyes" that ore a quarter cut for storage. of the potato and include a couple of Environmental factors such as long "eyes."

206 Home-produced potatoes may be- Norgold: An early maturing russet come infected in a single season, so variety with very smooth long to ob- there is no assurance that seed saved long tubers and shallow eyes. It is from a high yielding crop will per- scab-resistant. Cooking quality is form satisfactorily the following year. good, but under stressed growing con- It is best to buy new certified seed ditions tubers could develop hollow each year. Certified seed potatoes are heart. usually identified by an official State Anoka: A newer early white variety Department of Agriculture tag on with round to oval smooth uniform each bag. The higher cost of this seed tubers. It is an all purpose potato well is more than justified by the higher adapted to the home garden at 14-inch yield and better quality of the new spacing. It has less tendency to dark- crop. ening after cooking. Table stock potatoes that you buy Superior. A midseason white va- at the food store should not be used riety with a rather tough skin. It is for seed. They often have virus di- moderately resistant to scab and has seases present and may have been high table quality. treated with a growth-inhibiting chem- Kennebec; A very popular late va- ical to prevent them from sprouting in riety with white skin and shallow the market place. eyes. It has resistance to late blight disease. Cooking quality is excellent. Varieties Because of the thin skin the tubers Many varieties of potatoes are cer- are very susceptible to sunburn and tified in the United States each year. greening. Some are more specific in their adapt- Red Pontiac: A high yielding red ability to certain regions than others. variety with a midseason maturity. Furthermore, these varieties have a Tubers are oblong with medium deep wide range of maturity from very eyes. Wih excessive moisture the tub- early to late. ers tend to become oversized. Cooking For the small garden, choose potato quality is only fair, but it is a good varieties that are early in maturity. variety for winter storage. This facilitates intercropping with Red LaSoda: A good red variety for some of the later vegetables that re- gardens in the South. It is midseason quire more room further into the sea- in maturity with round to oblong tub- son after the potatoes have been har- ers. Eyes are medium deep. It appears vested. For the larger garden the mid- to have some tolerance to higher season and late varieties can be temperatures. grown. Katahdin: A very popular white va- Potato varieties adapted to the home riety with wide adaptability. Tubers garden are: are round to oblong with shallow Norland: A very early red variety eyes. It is midseason to late in matur- with oblong, smooth tubers with shal- ity. Cooking quality is good. low eyes. It has moderate resistance Sebago: A late maturing white va- to common scab and good table qual- riety with resistance to late blight. ity. It is widely adapted and com- It is popular in the South as well as monly available in the United States. in the East as a home garden variety. Irish Cobbler: An early maturity Tubers are smooth and nearly round white variety with round to blocky with shallow eyes. Cooking quality is tubers and deep eyes. It is a good fair to good, but not as mealy as producer and has excellent table qual- Kennebec. ity. It is very susceptible to common Russet Burbank: Also known as scab. Netted Gem and Idaho Russet. It is a

207 late variety with long cylindrical to cient plant food for a good potato slightly flattened tubers with a heavi- crop. Either fertilizer can be spread ly netted skin. Under conditions of at the rate of 15 pounds per 1,000 moisture stress the tubers often de- square feet at planting time. velop growth cracks or knobs. It has Some gardeners prefer to place the some scab resistance. Table quality is fertilizer in bands below and slightly excellent, especially for baking. Bet- to the side of seed pieces. If the rows ter size is obtained with a 14- to 16- are 3 feet apart and 100 feet long, inch spacing. apply 6 to 8 pounds per row. A side Consult the local extension service dressing may be applied after the for new potato introductions with plants are 4 to 6 inches high. Use the specific adaptation to your area. Po- same rate in an open trench 4 inches tato breeders continue to develop deep and 6 inches away from the varieties with improved market and plants. culinary quality combined with high Local agricultural extension offices yield and multiple disease resistance. will have more specific recommendations for your area; however, the sug- Soil Needs gestions given here should generally Like most vegetable crops, the po- be adequate. tato is adapted to a wide variety of Manure is often used as a source soils. It performs best, however, on a of nutrients where scab is not a prob- sandy loam well supplied with or- lem. This disease is more serious ganic matter and plant food. High when fresh manure is used. Manure organic soils like peat or muck can be that is well-rotted or applied during used if they are well drained. Heavy fall or early winter is less apt to fine-textured soils are satisfactory if increase potato scab. their structure is improved with or- Rotate the location of potatoes in ganic matter. your garden each year. At least a Applying organic matter in the form 3-year rotation is suggested for all of well-rotted manure, compost or garden crops. In large gardens where similar materials will improve the space is not limited it helps to plant structure for better air-holding capac- a small grain such as rye as a nurse ity as well as water-holding capacity. crop seeded down to red clover the Apply it to the top of the soil in early second year. After the hay is cut the spring at the rate of 3 to 4 bushels third year, the plot can be plowed per 100 square feet of area. With a down and fallowed. Potatoes are then rotary tiller, or spading fork, incorpo- planted in the area the fourth year. rate it thoroughly into the soil to Such a rotation will help control dis- make a uniform tilth or structure. eases, insects and weeds. Potato yield This practice binds together coarse- and quality will be improved. textured sandy soils and breaks up fine-textured, heavy clay soils. Planting The best soil-acidity range for po- The potato is considered a cool-sea- tatoes is between pH 4.8 to 5.4. On son crop and can be planted as soon soils with a pH of 5.5 to 7.0 the pota- as frost is out of the ground and the toes usually are scabby. Lime should soil dry enough to work. If soil tem- not be used unless a soil test indi- perature is below 40° F (5° C], how- cates a pH below 4.8. ever, there is a greater chance for One of the most widely used com- seed piece decay, especially when cut mercial fertilizers for the home gar- seed is planted. Using whole seed or den is 5-10-5. Another is 10-10-10. cut seed that has been suberized will These analyses should provide suffi- help prevent the problem. This is a

208 process of healing over the cut sur- If whole or B-size seed is used, it face by holding the cut seed for a should be from certified stock. Virus- period of 7 to 10 days at a tempera- infected plants tend to produce small- ture of 60° to 70° F (16° to 21° C) er tubers, and when such seed is and a relative humidity of 85 percent planted whole, weak and poor yield- vîth good air circulation. i ing plants result. However, small tub- Planting dates will vary wîth the ers from certified seed will produce locality and soil type. In the North, as good a crop as large potatoes cut potatoes usually are planted from for seed. April 15 to May 15, and in the South Plant potatoes deep enough so the from November to February. new tubers will develop sufficiently Plant early to get the highest yield. beneath the surface to avoid sun- By planting early maturing varieties burning. Generally the seed should as soon as the soil is dry enough to be planted in contact with moist soil, prepare and wârm enough to prevent 3 to 4 inches deep. This depth will seed decay, you can have potatoes of vary with the soil's temperature and usable size by midsummer. These moisture. A shallow covering of about will not keep as long as potatoes 2 to 3 inches of soil over the seed will that matured later in the growing result in quicker emergence and less season, however. sprout damage from rhizoctonia and Proper size of the seed piece blackleg disease. planted is important. Experience has In the small garden a trench is shown that IV2- to 2-ounce seed usually opened with a hand hoe or pieces are best. This is about the size cultivator. Distance between rows of an average hen's egg. The so-called will depend on the type of cultivation "potato eyes" are generally too small to be used, A 36-inch row is quite to provide sufficient nourishment, common, but rows can be spaced 24 and as a result weak plants develop. inches apart if cultivated by hand. Potatoes can be planted either whole Within the trench, place the seed or cut. If cut, there should be at least pieces 12 to 18 inches apart, depend- one eye on each piece and the pieces ing on variety. Oversize potatoes in should be uniform and blocky. varieties like Kennebec can be pre- Plant the seed immediately after vented by planting seed pieces as cutting, otherwise viability will be close as 6 to 8 inches. This also helps lowered by loss of moisture and en- reduce the amount of hollow heart trance of rot organisms. in tubers. Some gardeners prefer to treat seed The amount of seed needed varies potatoes before planting. A good fun- with the spacing and size of the seed gicide dust such as captan will help piece. When cut to a lV2-ounce size protect the cut seed pieces after plant- and planted 12 inches apart in the ing and assure better emergence. trench, a 100-foot row would require Seed can be cut and stored for 10 about 9 pounds of seed potatoes. days or more if it is properly sub- Water when dry periods occur, but erized. only if the soil needs it. Once water- If available, whole B-size seed ing is begun it should be continued is best. The value of planting small until the soil is moistened to an 8- to potatoes without cutting them has 12-inch depth. Water thoroughly at been known in Europe for many weekly intervals when needed. Dry years. With the skin around the en- periods alternating with wet periods tire potato, it is protected from soil can cause potatoes to develop such organisms and the result is less seed abnormalties as hollow heart, growth decay and better stands of plants. cracks, and knobs.

209 to 4-year rotation in the garden will Pest Control help prevent both insect and disease Cultivate frequently from planting time on, to destroy weeds in the seed- problems. Soil insects troublesome to potatoes ling stages. When the plants first are white grubs, wireworms and cut- emerge, rake lightly over the row as worms. Most garden soil insecticides well as between rows. All cultivation should be shallow—2 inches or less give satisfactory control. You can control leaf-feeding insects —to prevent pruning the potato roots like the Colorado potato beetle and near the surface. Hill or ridge the the flea beetle with recommended soil over the rows only if the tubers chemicals. Control leaf-sucking in- become exposed. This will help pre- sects like leaf hoppers and aphids vent sunburn and frost damage. Cease all cultivation when the vines fill in with a contact insecticide. Prevent foHage diseases such as between the rows. A pre-emergence weed killer is reg- late blight and early blight by applying recommended fungicides every 7 istered for use in many vegetable to 10 days according to label direc- crops, including potatoes. When used tions. Several new materials are avail- according to label directions, it is able for disease control. Soil-borne very good for control of annual broad- diseases such as scab and verticillium leaved weeds and grasses. Another wilt may be reduced by growing re- herbicide appHed to the garden in sistant varieties and following a good the fall after harvest is an excellent treatment for quackgrass. It is not rotation. Any damage to potato plants—by selective but will kill perennial grasses insects, disease or other causes—will when applied as directed on the label. result in an abnormal crop of poor Plowing or rototilling can be deferred quality. The better the plant growth, until spring with no residual effect on potatoes or other vegetables to be the better the crop of potatoes. planted in the treated area. Numerous insect and disease pests Harvest, Storage Potatoes may be harvested once may attack potatoes. An ounce of the tubers are large enough. As long prevention is worth a pound of cure. as the vines remain alive, the size of Use certified seed as a fundamental the potatoes and the yield will con- step in disease control. Practicing a 3- tinue to increase. When the vines are completely dead and the skin ceases to slip from pressure by the thumb, the potatoes can be dug with a spading fork or plow. Avoid bruises or other injuries such as cuts and fork holes in digging and handling. Do not expose the freshly- dug potatoes to sun or wind as they are very susceptible to scald and sunburn at that time. Potatoes have a sweating period the first two weeks after harvest. During this time they

Flea beetle that causes damage to many garden plants is not much larger than a flea and jumps like one when disturbed.

210 Potatoes are very sensitive to light, which causes green pigment to develop under the skin in the flesh of the tuber. This will make them bitter and unfit for table use. Tubers that have an excessive amount of greening should be discarded. If greening is only slight the affected area can be peeled away before use. Always keep potatoes in a place with total darkness to avoid greening in storage. If the temperature in the storage room reaches 32° F (0° C], the potatoes often become sweet. Increasing the temperature for a few days will cause the sugar to revert to starch and good table quality will be re- stored. should be kept in a place where the Some people have developed the temperature is about 65° F (18° C) erroneous idea that potatoes are fat- and the relative humidity at 85% to tening, but studies show this is not 95%. This will help the healing-over true. Potatoes are less fattening pound of any injuries or wounds in harvest. for pound than most foods in the Sort over the potatoes and place daily American diet. The potato alone only the best, sound tubers in bins is comparatively low in calories per or containers for winter storage. Store pound, but when fried or served with them dry in a room that can be kept a lot of butter or sour cream the at a temperature of 35° to 40° F [2° caloric intake may be high. French to 5° C] and a moderate humidity. fried potatoes have about five times Under these conditions well-matured the caloric value as the same weight tubers will keep in good condition of mashed potatoes. for 7 to 8 months. Above 40° F (5° C) Besides being a good source of food they may keep for 2 to 3 months but energy, the potato is also a source of sprouting and shriveling may occur. iron, thiamin, niacin, and vitamin C. Sprout-inhibiting chemicals are A few rows of potatoes in the home available under various trade names garden properly planted and well from garden supply stores. A common cared for should provide satisfaction type is applied to the vines accord- and achievement as well as some ing to label directions during the nutritious food to enjoy at your table. growing season. The harvested tubers are safe for table use and they will not sprout when kept at higher storage temperatures such as found in a Harvesting potatoes in the home garden modern basement room. — "it's a good feeling."

211 Sweet Potatoes—Buried Treasure hy John C. Bouwkamp

Since most of us will never savor use of the terms sweet potato and the excitement of digging for buried yam. The true yam [Dioscorea sp.] is treasure, digging sweet potatoes in of African or Chinese origin and be- your garden may be the next best longs to a different plant family than thing. The day-by-day progress of the sweet potato. It is only rarely your crop of tomatoes and beans is grown in the United States. readily apparent but the reward for The Blacks, when first brought to your efforts with sweet potatoes must this country, mistook the sweet potato await the day of harvest. Variety for a type of yam since the sweet names such as Jewel, Goldrush, Nug- potato was unknown to them and the get, Nemagold, Gem, and Maryland two crops grew and were used in a Golden allude to the feeling of buried similar manner. Their word nyami treasure by their developers. was shortened to yam and the sweet The sweet potato, like many of our potato became known as a yam in vegetable crops, originated in the many parts of the United States, par- Tropics. The exact area of origin is ticularly in the South. subject to debate but was probably The terminology was further con- in tropical America or somewhere in fused since the dry-fleshed varieties the tropical South Pacific islands. grown in the Middle States and North Two of the ancient civilizations of (known as sweet potatoes) were no- tropical America, the Mayan and the ticeably different from the moist- Peruvian, grew and cultivated sweet fleshed varieties grown in the Deep potatoes, although maize was their South (known as yams). Thus many staple crop. people came to believe sweet potatoes Primitive cultures of the South Pa- and yams were different vegetables. cific islands give a central role to the At present, the same varieties are sweet potato in their celebrations, grown throughout the United States suggesting that sweet potatoes were and a sweet potato by any other name culivated for food in two widely sep- is still the tasty, nutritious vegetable arated parts of the world from ancient many people associate with holidays times. Whether the crop originated in and special meals. the New World and was transported Almost everyone knows that sweet to the Polynesian islands or vice versa potatoes are a delicious addition to remains open to speculation. any meal, but not many know they Although Columbus noted the use also are very nutritious. An average of sweet potatoes by West Indian na- sized boiled sweet potato (2-inch tives on his fourth voyage, there is no diameter, 5 inches long) will provide record of pre-Columbian cultivation over half the recommended daily al- of sweet potatoes by Indians in the lowance (RDA) of Vitamin C and continental United States. Sweet pota- more than twice the RDA of Vitamin toes were grown in Virginia as early A for an adult male, 23 to 55 years as 1648, most hkely from roots ob- old and weighing 154 pounds. tained in the West Indies. In addition, this root will provide A frequent source of confusion is nearly 5% of the protein, 6% of the calcium, 9% of the phosphorous, 11% John C. Bouwkamp is an Associate of the iron, 10% of the thiamin, 5% Professor of Horticulture at the Univer- of the niacin and nearly 6% of the sity of Maryland, College Park. riboflavin required by an adult male.

212 All these vitamins and minerals are In many parts of the country, sweet provided with about 170 calories potatoes are grown on ridges 8 to 15 (6.4% of the RDA). Empty calories? inches high. These are especially im- Not sweet potatoes! portant on heavy or poorly drained soils. If the soil remains water logged Growing Requirements for several days, the roots may rot. What will you need to know about Ridges are a good idea if this is likely growing sweet potatoes? to occur. First, sweet potatoes are a tropical If your garden is a fine sandy loam crop and need 4 to 5 frost-free months and well drained, probably no ridge for growing. They thrive in hot is necessary. weather. Probably little or no growth Should you wish to grow on ridges, occurs when soil or air temperatures construct them before transplanting. are below 60° F. Growth appears to Rows should be 3 to 4 feet apart. be optimum when soil temperatures Plan to obtain disease-free plants, are near 70° and air temperatures also called sprouts, from a reputable near 85°. dealer. Your choice of varieties dif- Second, since the root is the part fers widely in various parts of the you will harvest, the soil should be United States, and not all varieties loose and friable [crumbly)—allowing will be available at any location. Your for unimpeded root enlargement and local Extension Office would be your easy digging. best choice for help in choosing a Meet these two requirements, and variety. you should be a success as a grower. You may also wish to produce your Choose a well-drained site in the own sprouts after you have some ex- full sun. The pH should be in the perience with growing sweet pota- range of 5.5 to 6.5. If your garden is toes. Set plants 2 to 3 inches deep, moderately fertile, apply 3y2 pounds and 12 to 16 inches apart in the rows, of 5-10-20 (or a similar analysis) of one plant per hill. Don't transplant fertilizer per 100 feet of row before until soil temperature reaches 60° F. ridge construction or transplanting. If A good rule of thumb is to plant your garden is very sandy and/or in- sweet potatoes 1 to 2 weeks after fertile, 5 pounds per 100 feet would frost danger is past. be more appropriate. If it's very rich After transplanting you may wish and fertile, 2 to 2V2 pounds should to water the plants with V2 cup or suffice. more of water or Vi cup of a starter solution. Starter solution can be made by mixing V2 ounce of a soluble, high phosphorus fertilizer (15-30-15 or similar analysis) per gallon of water. Be careful not to overdo the starter solution or you may damage the plants. Hoe and cultivate sweet potatoes frequently (once per week) after the vines have begun to run. This serves two purposes—to control the weeds and to keep the vines from rooting at the nodes. If these nodes are al-

Vigorous growth of young sweet potato vines.

213 lowed to root, some storage roots may less appealing appearance but with develop and the main storage roots no loss to eating or storing quality. will not develop as quickly. Sweet potatoes do not ripen or Three to four weeks after trans- mature, so the time for harvest is planting, make a second application judged by root size. At about 110 to of fertilizer at the same rate as before 120 days after transplanting (if you transplanting. Place the fertilizer near can wait that long] you may wish to the rows and work it into the soil. check on root size. To do so, carefully After 6 to 8 weeks the vines will dig away some of the soil from sev- become too large to cultivate and you eral hills near the center of the row— must weed by hand. the end plants may develop faster. When a majority of the roots have Moisture Needs reached a size you desire, they should Once established, sweet potatoes be dug immediately. A light frost which only slightly damages the vines won't cause problems. Dig roots carefully to avoid injury. A shovel usually works better than a fork. After digging, place the roots in containers. Keep separate any badly injured or cut roots for immediate use. A yield of two pounds a plant is good. Optimum conditions for curing and storing sweet potatoes are rather exact and should be maintained as nearly as possible. ("Curing" is a means of preparing sweet potatoes for storage.) Cure roots 6 to 8 days at about 85° F and 85% to 90% relative humidity. Temperatures should never exceed 90°. A high relative Sweet potatoes at harvest. humidity can best be maintained by loosely wrapping the containers in may be considered drought-hardy, polyethylene film. Don't cure in the and will produce a fair crop even un- sun as the roots may sunburn. der quite dry conditions. But supply After curing, store the roots in a them with ample moisture for best cool place (55° to 60° F) with a high yields. They need about % inch of relative humidity (85%). An unheated rain or irrigation per week while area of the basement or a root cellar small, and up to 2 inches of water might be okay. per week when growing vigorously If storage temperatures drop below in hot weather. 50° F for an extended time, chilling Occasional leaf wilting during the injury may develop and the roots may hot part of the day is no cause for spoil. Temperatures above 65° will concern. But if the plants do not re- likely result in sprouting and pithi- vive by early evening, you may wish ness. If the relative humidity is too to irrigate. low, shriveling will result. However, Excessive moisture after a pro- if proper conditions are maintained longed dry period may cause the roots you may expect your sweet potatoes to crack. These cracks usually heal to keep well and provide good eating over by harvest time, resulting in a through winter and into spring.

214 If you wish to produce your own If neither a cold frame nor a heated ''seed" for the following year, begin bed is available, you can bed sweet when the plants have developed vines potatoes in your garden. Choose a iy2 to 2 feet long. Cut a segment 8 sunny spot protected from wind and to 10 inches long from the tip of a make a raised bed 6 to 8 inches high vine and transplant it into a row and iy2 to 2 feet wide, 6 to 7 weeks which has been fertilized as pre- before transplanting. Bed the roots as viously mentioned. Plants should be described and cover with iy2 to 2 set about a foot apart and 2 to 3 inches of sand. Then cover the bed inches deep, making sure to cover at with clear polyethylene film, securely least 1 node. Water with V2 cup of anchoring edges of the plastic with starter solution or water. soil. You can expect a 10-fold increase When the sprouts begin to emerge, with most varieties. So if you want ventilate the plastic by punching 100 plants next year, have 10 hills of V4-inch holes every 6 to 8 inches. vine cuttings. Fertilize and cultivate After 2 to 3 weeks or when the your cuttings as suggested for the sprouts are 3 to 4 inches tall, you may regular crop. remove the plastic—but replace it if If the majority of roots from the a frost is likely. The sprouts should vine cuttings are 1 inch in diameter be 6 to 8 inches tall by transplanting or larger, harvest them at the same time. time as your main crop. Roots pro- Remove sprouts from the roots by duced for sprouts should be cured grasping them firmly one at a time and stored the same way as roots and pulling sharply from the soil. for table use. With a little practice you should be able to pull sprouts without disturb- Producing Sprouts ing the bedded root. Transplant the If you have produced roots from sprouts as soon as possible. The vine cuttings and wish to produce bedded roots will continue to produce your own sprouts, several methods sprouts which may be used for a sec- may be used depending upon the fa- ond planting, or you may wish to dig cilities at hand. If a heated frame is up the roots and destroy them. available, place disease-free "seed" Fortunately for the home gardener, roots near each other but not touch- there are relatively few serious dis- ing, and cover them with IV2 to 2 ease and insect pests of sweet pota- inches of light sand 4 to 5 weeks be- toes. Fusarium wilt, also called blue fore transplanting. Soil temperature stem and stem rot, attacks certain should not exceed 85° F. Open the varieties resulting in both a loss of sash on warm sunny days to avoid plants and a yield reduction. It can excessive heat buildup. be best controlled by growing resis- When the sprouts are 6 inches tall tant varieties and a rotation of four (usually a week or two before trans- or more years' duration. planting) turn off the heat and leave Scurf, also called soil stain, causes the sash open, except for very cold a dark "freckled" appearance to the nights. Water the bed as necessary skin of storage roots. The fungus at- to keep it damp but not waterlogged. tacks only the skin and causes no Alternatively, you may wish to bed loss to eating quality. Control it by roots in a cold frame. Put your cold using only vine cuttings to produce frame in a sunny place protected from the "seed" roots. wind. Allow an extra week to pro- Pox or soil rot results in deep corky duce sprouts without heat, but other- pits on the root. Once again, although wise the procedure is about the same. the appearance is greatly affected.

215 eating quality is not. Control pox by proper curing helps in reducing the reducing the soil pH to 5.0 to 5.5, re- incidence. The occurrence is sporadic sulting in greatly reduced incidence and seldom reaches serious propor- and severity. tions. Black rot is occasionally a problem Nematodes may cause serious losses both in the garden and in storage. Af- to sweet potato yields. The infected fected areas begin as small black, roots become misshapen and cracked, nearly round spots, but under favor- and galls may be observed on feeder able conditions they enlarge and may roots. At present the home gardener nearly cover the root and extend vêll has no effective way to control nem- into the flesh. Usually you can control atodes. Many varieties are resistant it by using disease-free sprouts, not to one or more races or species of planting in the same area of your nematodes. Your local Extension Of- garden each year, and using clean fice is the best source of information containers for storage. Some fungi- if nematodes become a problem. cides are effective in controlling Although several species of insects black rot. and soil grubs attack sweet potatoes, Rhizopus rot or soft rot attacks the they rarely result in serious losses. roots after harvest, usually entering Damage is usually confined to a small through a vôund. It results in total area of a root and may be pared away loss of the root. Control soft rot by prior to cooking. If serious losses carefully handling the roots during occur, consult your Extension Office. harvesting, thus avoiding as much as I have tried to outline the how's possible any injury to them, and by and why's of sweet potato growing curing the roots properly as soon for the average gardener, but experi- after harvest as possible in order to ence is the best teacher. You may find heal vôunds. it advisable to change some of the Fusarium root rot or surface rot is recommendations. usually not noticed until after some Sweet potatoes are likely to pro- months of storage. It appears as a duce a fair crop even if you make a generally circular spot, black or dark few mistakes, so feel free to experi- brov^n, sometimes slightly sunken, ment with changes after you have a and only extends about Vs inch into little experience. If you fail in your the root's flesh. If infected areas are attempt to grow sweet potatoes, find pared av\ây the remainder of the root out why and try again. After all, not may be eaten. There is no known everyone finds buried treasure on means of control, but immediate and their first try.

216 Herbs for Flavor, Fragrances, Fun In Gardens, Pots, in Shade, in Sun by Doris Thain Frost Herbs give much pleasure and Animal manure and compost are good profit if you grow them yourself. fertilizers, preferably applied in early Plant herbs in your garden, read books spring. Use mulches to keep the herb about them, and discover personal foliage clean, for weed control, and joy and an added dimension to your to preserve soil moisture. Cocoa hulls, cooking. buckwheat hulls, leaves, straw and First of all, a place is needed to hay are popular mulches. plant the seeds or roots and this Herbs are propagated by seeds, means productive soil. A grower with cuttings, layering, and divisions. If an outdoor plot is indeed fortunate. you want only a few plants, buy them Herbs will grow well in any garden from commercial growers. where vegetables thrive, in the garden Seeds come in packets sold by rows or around the edges. Herbs will established seed houses and by some grow in flower beds, in borders, commercial herb growers. Unless you among ornamental shrubs and roses, have the equipment and space to start just so there is good drainage and six seeds indoors to transplant later, ex- or more hours of sun. perience has proven that the average Most herbs prefer an alkaline soil, gardener had best buy seeds of an- a pH of 6.5 to 7.5. If the soil test indi- nuals and plant them where they are cates acidity, work ground limestone to grow, and start perennials from into the soil. The amount will be indi- cuttings, divisions and plants. cated in the soil test analysis received Parsley, the culinary biennial, can from your county extension services. be started from seed if many plants If an outdoor plot is lacking, many are desired, or a few small plants herbs will grow in boxes, pots or purchased. hanging baskets if the same condi- Cuttings can be rooted in water or tions—good soil, drainage and sun— in a medium of perlite, milled sphag- exist. num moss, or in compressed peat When planning an herb garden, re- pellets. The rooted cuttings may be member that herbs belong in different transplanted into pots or into the classes according to their life span. garden if the season permits. Annuals, tender and hardy, may be Divisions are made by digging up planted in the vegetable garden as an older plant and pulling apart or they mature in one season. Biennials cutting sections of the root and re- and tender and hardy perennials must planting each section individually. be planted in locations that will not Plants from commercial growers be disturbed by cultivation or rota- should be carefully examined for in- tion as they live several years. sects and disease, and if they are to Prepare the plot as for vegetables. grow outdoors, bought and planted when the ground has warmed and all danger of frost is past. Doris Thain Frost of Great Falls, Va., Bees, lady bugs, praying mantis and is a board member of the Herb Society many other insects are friends in the of America, has taught herb classes at the National Arboretum, and is editor herb garden as they pollinate plants of the Garden Bulletin issued by the and also destroy insect enemies. National Capital Area Federation of Herbs are peculiarly resistant to most Garden Clubs. insects and diseases.

217 Sometimes mints become mildewy velop. The leaves are kept as whole early in the season. Either harvest as possible to preserve the flavor. early, or cut and destroy the affected They can be crumbled when used. stems. New growth for the second When only the leaves are dried, as crop will be free of mildew. with comfrey, gather the leaves, and Sometimes dill and fennel attract spread thinly on newspaper in a tomato worms. These can be removed warm, dry place until crispy dry. by hand. Japanese beetles attack basil. Then store in jars. Shake them off into a can of kerosene Basil, parsley and chives sometimes or into a bucket with warm water, turn very dark if air dried. Stems of salt and detergent added. these can be laid on brown paper Do not use poisonous substances and put into an oven at 150° F or less. or powders on any herb to be used Leave the oven door open to allow in food or beverages. moisture to escape. This method takes several hours. When to Harvest The quickest, most modern way is The secret of a good harvest is to dry in a microwave oven. Place timing, taking into account the readi- sprigs on a paper towel and cover ness of the plant and the use to which with a paper towel. Put into the oven it will be put. Just before the flowers for one minute. Take out of oven and fully open is said to be the time when cool. If not completely dry put back the most oils and flavors are present into oven for a few seconds. When and the richest fragrances prevail. crumbly, store in jars. Basil, sage, Successive harvests can be made parsley, mints and orégano, especi- of mints, comfrey, basils, parsley and ally, retain beautiful, appetizing green others by cutting the stems early in colors when dried this way. the season, not too close to the ground If only seeds are to be used, such so that new growth will start quickly. as from dill, fennel or coriander, take Cut again in late summer, and—with care to cut the stems when ripe but annuals—before frost when the entire before the seeds fall. A paper bag plant may be harvested. If seeds are carefully put over a head or umbel desired or self seeding is planned, a and tied with string before the head crop must be allowed to mature and is severed is then hung upside down ripen seeds. (seed head down] to catch the seeds Herbs for future use may be dried, as they dry and fall. frozen, the flavors preserved in vinegars and jellies, or kept fresh for a Freezing short time. To dry, cut the stems or To freeze herbs, gather as for dry- stalks when the plant is ready, as I ing, wash if dusty, pat off excess explained. Don't cut too close to the water, place into plastic bags and put ground. Separate into small bunches, into the freezer immediately. When tie with string, and hang in a warm, it's time to use them, snip or chop the dry, dark place such as an attic or herbs without thawing as they mince vacant room until the leaves are crisp easily while frozen. Mint, tarragon, and brittle. In the summer this takes lovage, parsley, chives, sorrel, and from three to ten days. sweet marjoram take kindly to this Strip the leaves, and buds or flow- method. erettes if desired, and put as whole Another good way to freeze is to as possible into a jar with a tight lid. put the chopped herbs into an ice Check for a few days to be sure the cube tray, fill with water, and freeze. herbs are perfectly dry, or mold, Then put the cubes into plastic bags mildew or other problems will de- and store in the freezer. The cubes

218 can easily be popped into soups or stews when needed. Herb flavors can be enjoyed in vinegars, jellies, and pickles. Fresh herbs are probably the most desired as the flavor is at its best. Herbs can be kept in the vegetable bin of a refrigerator for a while, at least through the winter holidays. Or they may be planted in pots and kept in a sunny place or in a greenhouse. Parsley, chives, sweet marjoram, thyme and basil are some of the easiest to grow in pots. Many herbs have deep or large root systems that require more space than is usually available in pots. Herbs that are easy to grow and delightful to use are listed below. Do try to grow some of them in your Glenn M Cti( home garden. Advanced herbalists will know many more. ments, or chopped fresh and added to BASIL—Ocimum basiiicum (pro- salad. A beautiful perennial, chives nounced like dazzle). A tender annual. often are grown as garden borders. Plant seeds when all danger of frost is past, and cut the last harvest before Chives are best used fresh, and a fresh supply can be kept for winter cold winds turn the leaves black. Of the many\arieties, lettuce leaf, dwarf by potting a few plants and bringing bush, lemoik and the purple or opal them indoors in fall. Or the snipped foliage may be frozen in ice cubes as basils are the ones used for flavoring food. described before. Harvest basil when the flower Chives are good in herb butters, heads appear. If the leaves are to green salads, in sour cream for dress- be kept growing, keep the flower ing potatoes, in fact in any dish where heads pinched out. Use fresh in salads, a mild onion flavor is desired. salad dressing, soups, and vegetables. DILL—Aneihum graveoJens is a Basil's clove-like flavor has a special hardy annual. Plant the seeds where affinity for tomatoes, cottage cheese, they are to grow in the early spring, and egg dishes. The leaves can be or in the autumn to get an early start. dried quickly in the oven, or made Make successive plantings from April into a vinegar to which the red or opal to July. Dill reseeds very easily if a variety gives a lovely ruby color. few plants are allowed to mature. CHIVES — AJJium schoenoprasum Both fresh foliage and seeds of dill is the most delicate tasting member are used in pickling, in vinegar, of the onion family [see onion chap- minced over salads, cottage cheese ter for production details). The ten- and potatoes, blended into sauces for der, hollow spears are cut and veal and fish, or baked into dilly chopped finely to flavor a great vari- bread. Dill foliage is the dill weed ety of dishes. found in the grocery store. The lavender flower heads of chives may be cut close to the ground Fresh-picked dill grown indoors makes and dried to go in winter arrange- sandwich garnish.

219 Dill has such a refreshing flavor fall, the leaves can be spread out to that it should be much more widely dry on paper for winter use. used. Green dill umbels are distinc- The dried leaves turn yellowish and tive in flower arrangements. do not keep their flavor much more EGYPTIAN ONION—AJlium cepa than a year. All the foliage will die var. vivaparum is a hardy perennial, down in the fall but new shoots ap- a curious member of the onion family pear in early spring. Lovage is orna- that forms its bulbs on the tips of its mental in a garden corner. long green shoots rather than in the SWEET MARJORAM—Marjorana ground, as most of its relatives do. hortensis is a tender perennial, treated [See onion chapter for production as an annual. It is sometimes called details.) knotted marjoram because of the Egyptian onion is a very ornamen- form of the flowers and seeds along tal plant in a garden border. The the stem ends. It is a small, low plant, bulbs may be used in any way an most easily started by buying plants ordinary onion is used. The iFresh and setting them into the garden when stalks may be chopped and used too. the ground is warm. Seeds may be GARLIC—AJlium sativum. Garlic's sown indoors in early spring and health-giving qualities have been transplanted later but this is for the known since ancient times. It also advanced gardener. serves as a bug repellent in the gar- Two harvests may be made. The den. [See onion chapter for produc- first is when the plant starts to bloom. tion details.) Cut back all the stems, leaving at least Garlic gives that extra touch to a an inch of the stems above ground. salad, pickles, and vegetables. The The harvested marjoram may be dried taste for it develops and often it is in small bunches or spread on paper used as a condiment at the table like salt and pepper. Garlic contains an important essential oil, allicin. Chew- ing a sprig of parsley or a whole clove is supposed to sweeten the breath after indulging in garlic-flavored food. Garlic butter is excellent with sour dough or French bread, and garlic vinegar for flavoring potato salad, stews, and cooked greens. LOVAGE—Levisticum officinale is a hardy perennial that often grows to six feet in height. Plant it in a permanent place as it lives many years. One or two plants are enough for a small garden. It grows from seed but the best way to begin is with a division from an old plant, or with a young plant from a nursery. Lovage likes a bit of shade and moisture. The large celery-like leaves are the usable parts. They have a strong celery flavor. The leaves can be cut from the stems and put fresh in salads and soups, or like celery used with other vegetables. In the A pot maTJoiam.

220 in a warm, dry room. The plants can Oréganos are propagated by cut- be cut again when they flower the tings, divisions, and young plants second time. from nurseries—often not labeled Culinary uses are many, as mar- correctly. joram is one of the most aromatic As soon as the flowers appear the herbs. The delicious, spicy flavor re- stems may be cut to dry in small mains when the leaves are dried. It bunches. The leaves may be used can be used with fowl, lamb, herb fresh all summer long. butters, vegetables, and in herbal tea Oregano goes well with tomato mixtures. dishes, tomato juice, pizzas and other MINTS—Mentha. There are many pastas, spaghetti, macaroni, and varieties of these hardy perennials. noodles. It also enhances lamb, beef, The most popular mints are pepper- soups, and salads. mint (of which curly mint is a va- PARSLEY—Petroselinum hortense riety], spearmint, and orange and is a very hardy biennial. The seeds apple mint. The best way to start is take about three weeks to germinate, to find a friend who has a mint bed unless soaked overnight in water be- and get one or two root divisions, or fore planting. An old saying is that buy them from a nursery. the seeds must go to the devil seven Mint likes moist, fertile soil and times and back before they will doesn't mind some shade. It repro- come up. duces by sending long, lateral stolons Busy gardeners usually buy plants (runners) under the ground. These from a nursery every year and plant may be divided to supply new plants. them in a permanent plot or border Mints may be cut two or three times in order to always have a good sup- each year, leaving a few inches of ply. The foliage makes an attractive stem to grow again. The leaves are low border. Medicinal uses of parsley stripped off and dried in a warm dry are ancient and numerous since the place, or oven, or hung to dry in plant is a rich source of vitamins A small bunches and stripped later. and C and of calcium, niacin ribo- You can make mint tea, mint flavin and other properties. Parsley is sauces, mint jelly, or mix mint with often made into an infusion or tea other herbs or citrus juices for teas and drunk alone or combined with and jellies. The fresh leaves may be other herbs to promote health. The used in green or fruit salads, with leaves are used for flavoring in soups, new peas, and in candy. stews, potato dishes, and as a breath OREGANO—Origanum has many sweetener with garlic-seasoned dishes. varieties. These hardy perennials are Harvest parsley by cutting the not clearly defined by herbal authori- stems an inch or two above the ties. The oréganos and marjorams are ground, and dry quickly on paper in closely related but the varieties are a dry, shady place as the leaves turn different in growth and flavor. dark very easily. Many think oven Greek orégano, Origanum hera- methods are best to preserve color cieoticum, is thought by some to be and flavor. the true orégano. This plant is treated Fresh parsley can be used most of as a tender perennial in the Washing- the year as it is very hardy. It is also ton (D.C.) area. It is slow growing and lovely in hanging baskets for indoor the flowers are white. gardens. Others call Origanum vulgäre, a ROSEMARY—Rosmarinus officina- very hardy perennial, the true ore- Us is a tender evergreen perennial, gano. It grows several feet high. The one of the most esteemed and decora- blooms are pink and purplish. tive herbs. It needs a well drained

221 alkaline soil, a sunny location, and protection during the winter until well established. It makes a beautiful large pot plant in a green house. Rosemary is propagated by cuttings or layering. Young plants may be bought from nurseries. Late summer is the best time to take cuttings. Rosemary has an assertive spicy flavor delicious with lamb, chicken, other meat dishes and stuffings. Rose- mary butter is luscious on hot bis- cuits. The tips and leaves may be dried for future use, but since the plant is evergreen, fresh tips are always available. SAGE—Salvia officinalis is a hardy evergreen perennial that becomes woody and sprawly after four or five SUMMER SAVORY—Satureia hor- years. Sage is most easily propagated tensis is a hardy annual whose seeds from seeds or young plants from a are sown in the garden in the spring. nursery. It needs sun—and good It grows fast and the plants should be drainage. hilled to keep them upright. Savory The fresh leaves may be used all needs sun and plenty of moisture. year, but cuttings of sprigs may be Savory can be cut and dried when dried in a warm shady place or by the flowers open, or the tips of the oven methods. Sage makes a good, plants pinched and used fresh healthful tea. Its strong, dominating throughout the summer. Savory makes flavor improves cheeses, poultry, a delicate tea. It is the Bohnenkraut of dressings, sausages, pork, and wines. the Germans, excellent with green SALAD BURNET—Sanguisorba beans, butters, spreads, green salads, minor is a hardy perennial easily egg dishes, and all kinds of meat. grown from seed in full sun. As it Winter Savory, Satureia montana, grows 1 to 2 feet tall, it should be is a hardy perennial that forms a small thinned to leave the plants 12 to 18 bush with lavender flowers. It is very inches apart. The leaves are used desirable as a border plant, but not as fresh as the cucumbery taste and aromatic as summer savory—there- smell vanish when dried. It is a pretty fore less useful in cooking. border plant. The leaves are fern-like TARRAGON—Artemisia dracuncu- and usually evergreen. The flavor is Jus is a tender perennial, unless the good in fresh salads, vinegar, and roots are somewhat protected with wine punches. straw or mulch during the winter in SORREL, FRENCH—Rumex scuta- the Northeastern areas. Avoid buying tus is a very hardy perennial, whose seeds as the true variety rarely sets broad leaves add a nice sharp taste to seeds—you might find you have the spring greens, spinach, and herbal Russian or Siberian variety which is soups. It is used fresh. The leaves can very vigorous but lacks the aromatic be cut throughout the growing season. scent and flavor of the true type. It is grown from seed or from root divisions. The flower stalks should be Tarragon plant at harvest stage. Leaves removed as they appear, so that the and tops may be cut several times dur- green leaves may be produced longer. ing season.

222 Propagate from a cutting or root Basic Herbal Recipes division or buy young plants from a Herb Butter reputable source. Plant in a sunny Soften one half stick butter (sweet, unsalted if possible) place, especially well drained, with Add one tablespoon finely minced room for the shallow lateral roots. fresh herb or one-half teaspoon Stems should be harvested in early dried herb summer, leaving at least three inches Cream together, adding a few drops of stem above the ground to furnish lemon juice growth for one or two more harvests Use on hot breads, vegetables, bdked later in the year. potatoes Dry the leaves quickly as they turn Herbs to use: basil, tarragon, thyme, chives, dill, parsley, marjoram, rose- brown easily. Try oven methods. mary When dry, seal in dry tight containers. Herb Vinegar A better idea is to pot a plant or two Clean and dry wide-mouthed glass jars to keep indoors and enjoy fresh. Fer- Gather fresh herbs. If dusty rinse in tilize regularly and keep on the dry cold water and pat dry (water side. clouds vinegar] The culinary uses of tarragon are Fill jar lightly with herbs ancient. Tarragon vinegar is well Heat, do not boil, good cider or wine known for flavoring sauces and salad vinegar dressings. Tarragon is especially de- Pour vinegar over herb, cover with a lectable on fish, cauliflower, spinach, non-rust lid or just put waxed paper over mouth of jar roast turkey, and egg dishes, and it Set jar in room temperature location makes sauce Béarnaise. The robust for two or three weeks flavor is best used alone and not com- Strain through cheesecloth and bottle bined with other herbs. Herbs to use: dill, basil, salad burnet, THYME—Thymus vulgaris is a tarragon, mint hardy perennial that can be started Herb ]eUy from seed, but best results are from Two cups herb infusion divisions or plants purchased from a One fourth cup vinegar or apple cider nursery. Plant in a sunny, well drained Four and one half cups sugar Heat the above until sugar is dissolved location. It is a low, bushy plant with (high heat) lovely blooms that is attractive in a When boiling add one half bottle Uquid foreground. Of the many varieties, the pectin so-called French and EngUsh thymes Rolling boil for one and one half are best for culinary purposes. minutes One cutting, made when the flowers Take off fire. Add one or two drops begin to open, is taken for drying. The food coloring if desired next growth should be left to help the Fill sterilized jelly glasses and seal with plant survive the winter. Dry on melted paraffin. Herbs to use: Sage, basil, thyme, pars- paper in a warm, dry room. When dry, ley, marjoram, rosemary, mint rub off the leaves and discard the Infusion: 2V2 cups boiling water over stems. Store in dry, tight jars. 1 cup fresh herb. Let cool and strain Thyme makes a stimulating tea and can be used to flavor any meat, fish, For Further Reading: A Primer for Herb Growing, The Herb or vegetable. It is good in most any Society of America, 300 Massachusetts food. Greek thyme honey is famous. Ave., Boston, Mass. 02115. 50^^. It can be found in organic food stores, Foster, Gertrude B., Herbs for Every or a thyme syrup can be made from Garden, E. P. Dutton and Company, our native honey mixed with strong Inc., 201 Park Ave. S., New York, N. Y. thyme tea. 10003. $5.95.

223 Okra Is Produced Primarily in the South As Main Dish Vegetable, and for Gumbos hy W. D. Kimbrough, L. G. Jones, and ]. F. Fontenot

Okra [Abelmoschus esculentus (L) rial that some people object to, as it Moench) is a member of the mallow makes certain okra dishes seem slimy. family, closely related to Chinese This material, however, is what makes hibiscus and to cotton. Its beginnings okra so desirable in soups and are uncertain, but it probably origi- gumbos. nated in Africa or Asia and was Okra grows on a wide range of soil brought to America by the Spanish. types and tolerates large variations in Okra is a warm weather plant. Under soil reaction (pH). Good drainage is ideal conditions a perennial, it is essential. This does not mean just grown in the United States as an an- surface runoff, but that water will nual, since cold usually kills it here. percolate through the soil. Grown extensively in home gardens Any good garden soil should be in the South, okra is commonly served satisfactory, although a sandy loam as a main dish vegetable. It can be soil with a porous clay subsoil is used fresh or may be frozen or ideal. Adding manure or organic mat- canned. ter in some other form is usually The immature seed pods, produced helpful. Also, it is generally a good over a relatively long period if har- idea to apply a complete fertilizer, vested regularly, are the edible part relatively high in phosphorus, before of the okra plant. Okra is especially planting the seed. important to the lower South, where From 1 to 1.5 pounds of 6-12-6 fer- not many vegetables are productive tilizer per 25 feet of row may be used from midsummer through early fall. in a garden, or a similar amount of Most home gardens of the South nutrients provided by another grade should have a place for okra. How- and rate. It should be worked in to a ever, in small gardens there may not depth of about 4 inches. be room, as the plants get fairly large As okra has a long growing season, and occupy the space for a long time. application of additional readily avail- Okra is grown to some extent in able nitrogen during the season is Northern gardens, but due to the often beneficial, especially on lighter shorter growing season the yields will soil types. If this is done, 2 moderate not be as large as in the South. applications of nitrogen fertilizer 4 to Composition of okra pods varies 6 weeks apart would be preferable somewhat with growing conditions to 1 heavy application. and stage of maturity. The more im- When fertilizing okra, give care to mature the pods, the less food value the rate and timing of nitrogen appli- they have. They consist mainly of cations. This is because of the plant's water and carbohydrates, like most tendency to become excessively veg- vegetables. Several vitamins and min- etative and produce few pods if ex- erals also are present. cessive nitrogen is available. Excess Okra contains mucilaginous mate- nitrogen can result from either applying too much fertilizer or breakdown W. D. Kimbrough is Professor Emeri- of soil organic matter during the tus, and L. G. Jones and J. F. Fontenot growing season. are Professors in the Department of Include only light to moderate rates Horticulture, Louisiana State University, of nitrogen in the preplanting fertil- Baton Rouge. izer, especially on soil relatively high

224 tation, leaves, and stems. They also vary in leaf shape and flowers. Thus, okra may be enjoyed by the home- owner for ornamental purposes as well as for food. Seed catalogs usually list about six varieties. A short description of the most important varieties follows: CJemson Spineless is of medium plant height, about 5 feet; mature pods are 5 to 6 inches long, moderately ridged, straight, and green. The pods are very smooth and have few spines. The first fruit for harvest matures in about 55 days. It can be used fresh or processed. in organic matter. Withhold the first Emerald is also of medium height, side-dressing of nitrogen until after about 5 feet, with mature pods 8 a few pods have set on each plant. inches long. The pods are straight, Then you may make a moderate ap- round, smooth, very slender and deep plication of nitrogen fertilizer (Vs to green. Production starts some 50 days Vi pound of ammonium nitrate or from planting, and pods can be used equivalent per 25 feet of row, depend- fresh or processed. ing on organic matter content of the Louisiana Green Velvet is medium- soil). At this time, the plants usually tall, 7 to 9 feet, with mature pods will be about knee-high, depending about 7 inches long, slender, round, on the variety. straight, and green. Production starts As the season progresses and the about 60 days after planting. Pods can plants reach a height of waist to be used fresh or processed. shoulder, they may require a second Perkins Mammoth Long Pod is very moderate application of nitrogen fer- tall, 10 to 12 feet; mature pods are tilizer as side-dressing, especially if 7 to 8 inches long, ridged and green. you intend to harvest pods late in the The first fruit for harvest matures in season. about 60 days. It can be used fresh or processed. Important Varieties Gold Coast is of medium plant height, Okra varieties differ considerably about 4V2 feet; mature pods are short in size of plants and shape of pods. and round, green, straight, and about Height of plant will vary from 5 to 10 3 to 4 inches long. The first fruit is feet after a few months of growth. ready for harvest in some 55 days. It Length of the internodes and the de- has a long shelf life, and is recom- gree of lateral branching—both of mended for fresh use only. which are influenced by the plant's Size of the garden plot may deter- genetic makeup—as well as growing mine the variety to plant. Smaller conditions determine size of the plant. growing plants may be preferable in Dwarf varieties have shorter inter- gardens that aren't very big. nodes. As okra is a warm weather veg- Pod shape ranges from short to etable, don't plant it until the soil long and from nearly round to very ridged. Pod diameter also varies. Okra varieties and strains differ Okra plants showing hibiscus-type /low- greatly in plant growth, pod pigmen- er and young tender pods.

225 warms up in spring. If early okra is seventh day from the time the bloom desired, place black plastic on the opens, depending on variety and rows prepared for planting. Or grow weather conditions. Perference of the plants in peat pots and transplant harvester as regards pod size is also them to the garden when the soil is a consideration. warm enough. The okra pod becomes fibrous from the tip down. To be edible a pod Soak Seed Overnight should allow a knife blade to pass Getting a good stand of okra is not through it without providing notice- as easy as with many other veg- able resistance. Okra pods that get etables. Soaking seed overnight in fibrous or tough on the plant will water before planting usually results slow down the plant's growth and in quicker germination and a better decrease yield. plant stand. Seed generally is planted Periods between harvests should be in the prepared row, or 3 or 4 seeds short, usually not over two or three may be planted in hills at desired days. Even then there will be con- spacings. Plant seed at a depth of V2 siderable variation in the length of to 1 inch, depending on soil type. The pods harvested. deeper planting is for sandier soils. The harvested pods should be Rows should be 3 to 5 feet apart. handled with care, as they bruise eas- After the seed germinates, thin the ily. The pods will wilt rather quickly plants to a spacing of 1 to 2 feet, de- when harvested during warm periods. pending on the variety. Plant okra Therefore they should be used or where it will get full sunlight. stored at 45° to 50"" F and relatively Weeds and grass should be con- high humidity as soon as possible trolled. Since drought severe enough after harvest. A home refrigerator to affect the growth of okra plants provides adequate storage conditions. occurs commonly in the South, irrigation may be needed. Too much Cutting Back water may cause excessive vegetative Sometimes when plants get too growth of plants and less pod pro- large they are cut back and allowed duction. to sprout again near the soil surface. The okra plant and pods may have If this is done, apply a top-dressing small spines which some people are of a readily available nitrogenous allergic to. Plant breeders have de- fertilizer. veloped varieties with fewer spines, A 25-foot row of okra should pro- especially on the pods. At harvest duce 25 to 75 pounds of edible pods, time wear gloves and a long sleeved depending on variety, care, weather shirt or blouse as skin protection. conditions, and length of harvest With large plants and hot weather, season. harvesting okra can be mighty un- You can grow your own seed if you comfortable. raise only one variety of okra and have no near neighbor growing an- Harvest Carefully other variety. Late in the season al- Cut the pods with a knife or shears. low a few plants to develop mature In any case, harvest very carefully so seed. After removing seed from the as not to injure the pods or the plant. pod, dry thoroughly and store it in Harvest pods when they are large the refrigerator in a closed container enough to give a good yield but be- until the next spring. Then you can fore they become fibrous. This is usu- be assured of having seed of the kind ally when the pods are about four wanted at planting time. inches long or between the fourth and Several pests can injure okra, with

226 periodically treat the soil with male- rials that will kill most of them. Ob- tain directions for treating soil from your county agent. With other conditions favorable, a fair crop of okra may be produced despite nematodes. But the harvest season is likely to be shortened. Wilts may kill or injure okra plants. The organisms that cause wilt are soil-borne and require soil treatment. Several insects also may cause damage to okra. These include the corn earworm, which eats into the pod, and stinkbugs and ants which are especially troublesome late in the season. Recommendations for controlling pests vary as new products become available or old ones are taken off the market. Consult your county agent nematodes probably the most serious. for current recommendations. Gardens that have remained in the same location for several years usually are infested with these small Stink bug, which damages okra, pro- round worms. The only remedy is to duces foul odor when annoyed.

227 Miscellany, Including Celeriac, Horseradish, Artichoke, Peanuts, Vegetable Soybeans by Homer N. Metcalf and Milo Burnham

Plants discussed in this chapter will where 5% to 6% soil organic matter provide both experienced and begin- can be maintained. Home gardeners ning gardeners with an introduction are urged to follow locally applicable to the fascination of growing uncom- fertilizer recommendations based on mon vegetables. Once culture of the the results of soil tests that can be easier vegetables has been mastered, obtained through their county Exten- the natural tendency of gardeners is sion office or commercial soil testing to extend their experience. Unusual laboratories. vegetables which may require special Resistant varieties are the first line production techniques provide a stim- of defense against diseases, insects, ulating challenge. nematodes and other troubles. Where Information is provided for celeriac, resistant varieties are not available, chayóte, dasheen, globe antichoke, the home gardener should consult his horseradish, husk tomato, martynia, county Extension office for informa- mushrooms, peanuts, sunchoke, veg- tion about recommended pesticides. etable soybeans, and watercress. Of these, celeriac, chayóte, husk tomato, Celeriac martynia, peanuts and sunchoke occur Celeriac (Apium graveoiens L. var. naturally in some parts of the West- rapaceum DC.) is a botanical variety ern Hemisphere. The others are from of celery, differing from that veg- Eurasia or Oceania. Irrespective of etable in producing at the base of the their ultimate origins, they all are fas- plant a large, turnip-like swelling that cinating to grow and delightful to eat. may be as much as 4 inches in diame- Because these vegetables are, for ter. This rather bulbous base is the the most part, of no or minor commer- commonly eaten part of the plant. cial importance in the United States, Celeriac—like celery, carrots, pars- comparatively little research has been ley, parsnips and dill—is a member of devoted to them. Hence, the cultural the Parsley Family (Umbelliferae or practices suggested are often less ex- Apiaceae). The plant is a biennial, act than would be the case for major growing to about 36 inches in height, vegetables. Experience will certainly but in gardens it is treated as an an- improve the home gardener's skill in nual. It is naturally distributed in growing them, but lack of experience marsh areas in the temperate zones should not deter him from giving them of South America, South Africa, New a whirl. Zealand and Eurasia. Since soil conditions vary so widely Celeriac "bulbs" may be boiled like over the country, no specific recom- potatoes, and put to all the uses made mendations for fertilizer usage are in- of boiled potatoes. Boiling time for cluded, other than for fresh manure. celeriac will be somewhat longer than In general, most efficient utilization of for potatoes. Celeriac may also be applied fertilizers will be obtained grated raw as a salad topping. An in- triguing use is serving sliced, boiled celeriac with French dressing as an Homer N. Metcalf is Professor of Hor- ticulture, Montana State University, hors d'oeuvre. Celeriac has the odor Bozeman. Milo Burnham is Extension typical of celery due to the presence Horticulturist, Mississippi State Univer- of a volatile oil. Celeriac is compara- sity, Mississippi State. tively low in nutrients.

228 Although several varieties of cel- 70%, and germinate best at a 70° F eriac are grown in Europe, Giant minimum temperature. If maintained Prague has been the only one readily at this temperature, germination available in the United States. A should be complete in about 10 days. nev^er variety is Alabaster. Following germination, night tempera- The culture of celeriac is very simi- tures of 60° to 65° are desirable, with lar to that for its close relative, celery. daytime temperatures 10° warmer. If It is a long-season vegetable, requiring seeded directly in the garden, germi- nearly 6 months from seeding to har- nation and emergence will be mate- vest, and growing best where the rially slower. monthly growing season mean tem- Flat-grown seedlings should be perature is 60° to 65° F (approxi- transplanted to individual pots as mately 15.5° to 18.5° C]. It is unlikely soon as the first true leaves develop. to be grown successfully in areas or Weekly feedings with a complete at seasons where monthly mean grow- liquid fertilizer will promote sturdy ing season temperatures exceed 70° growth. to 75° F or are lower than 45°. Since Plants will be ready to transplant celeriac plants grow rather slowly, a to the garden 8 to 12 weeks after freeze-free growing season of at least seed-sowing, or when they are 3 to 4 110 days is desirable. inches tall. The home gardener has two options Celeriac needs a deep, fertile, well- for production of celeriac. He may manured soil which retains moisture either purchase seedlings from a veg- well throughout the growing season. etable plant grower or raise them him- Fresh manure, if available, should be self. The use of purchased transplants applied at the rate of 55 to 92 pounds is suggested for short growing season per hundred square feet. The quanti- areas, while gardeners living in milder ties of lime and commercial fertilizers climates may take either route. Gar- used should be governed by the re- deners raising their own transplants sults of soil tests. Since celeriac is a should be aware that celeriac must gross feeder, two or more side- have 60° to 65° F night temperatures dressings with readily soluble nitro- throughout the seedling and early genous fertilizers during the growing transplant stages if premature seed- season are suggested. Regular irriga- stalk development is to be avoided. tion will prove beneficial. When home-grown transplants are As a rule, wait until 5 days after to be used, the gardener will soon dis- the average last spring freeze-date to cover that celeriac seeds are quite set out the transplants, at which time small (approximately 70,000 per maples may be coming into leaf in ounce). They will remain viable for 4 many areas. In the garden, the trans- to 5 years under cool, dry storage plants may be spaced, or seedlings conditions. Thus, one need purchase thinned, to stand 6 to 7 inches apart only a small quantity of seed at a in rows 24 to 36 inches apart. An al- time. ternative is to check-row the plants at Seeds may be sown in flats or indi- 15 to 18 inches apart in rows 18 inches vidual peat pots. If sown in flats, a apart, a system more likely to produce seeding rate of 8 seeds per inch of exhibition-quality plants. row is suggested. If seeded in indi- Higher quality celeriac will be pro- vidual peat pots, about 10 seeds per duced if sideshoots and withered pot should be sown, with the extra leaves are removed as they appear. seedlings later thinned to one per pot. Mulching the rows with lawngrass Celeriac seeds characteristically have clippings is sometimes practiced, es- germination percentages of 50% to pecially where no manure has been

229 used and irrigation is not available. A further quality-producing practice is to draw soil up around the plants to the level of the leaves about two weeks before harvest. This will yield a whiter product, and is called "blanching". Celeriac will generally be ready to harvest in October, or when the "bulbs" have attained diameters of 2 to 2.5 inches. The plants may be pulled or dug, depending on soil conditions. Tops are trimmed off and any branching basal roots removed. Yields of 200 bulbs per 100 feet of row are a reasonable expectation. The trimmed "bulbs" can be stored in moist sand in a cool root cellar, in a vegetable pit, or in colored plastic sacks in a refrigerator. Properly stored, they will keep about 6 months. Celeriac troubles will be similar to those afflicting celery.

Chayóte Chayóte (Sechium eduJe Swartz) is popularly known as mirliton and vegetable pear in South Louisiana where it is grown and relished. In the mild- winter regions along the Gulf Coast and in parts of California, chayóte is grown for its light-green, pear-shaped fruits that are served with salad dressing or stuffed after boiling with Milo Burnham ground meat or seafood. The fruit is considered an excellent substitute for summer squash, but is shoots are also sometimes cooked as of little nutritional value. Historically a green vegetable. chayóte dates back to the Aztecs be- In the southern United States, fore the Spanish conquest. chayóte is mostly grown as an annual Chayóte is related to all the cucum- since freezing kills the entire plant. bers, pumpkins, squash, melons and Heavy mulching may protect the roots gourds so popular with gardeners, but from freezing, and the plant will re- differs from them in having only one sprout in spring. In Northern States large seed. In Central America the the short growing season will more plant is grown as a perennial and the than likely prevent fruiting since the large tuberous roots that develop over plant is day-length sensitive and flow- a 2- to 3-year period are eaten after ers only in late summer and early fall. roasting, boiling or frying and they are sometimes candied in sugar. The roots contain about 70 percent water Chayóte hanging on vine has pear shape and 20 percent starch. The young and deeply furrowed surface.

230 Seed of chayóte is difficult to locate Dasheen since the whole fruit is used as a seed. Dasheen [Colocasia esculenta It is not marketed through retail seed Schott), also known as oriental tai;o, catalogs, and is often available only is a large perennial plant cultivated in localities where the plant is grown. for its underground corms and tubers. When all danger of frost and cold In the United States its cultivation is weather haS passed in spring and the limited to warm coastal regions. soil is warm, plant the whole fruit on Closely related to ornamental ele- a slant with the broad end down and phant's ear, caladium, calla and the the stem end slightly exposed. If the native jack-in-the-pulpit, dasheen dif- seed has sprouted before planting, fers from them in producing edible which is often the case, cut the sprout corms and tubers that contain prac- back to a length of about 2 inches. tically no calcium oxylate, a harmful The vine grows rapidly when chemical. Dasheen varieties also dif- planted in a rich, well-drained soil fer from most taros in this respect. with plenty of organic matter. Since Taro was first introduced into the the vine is large and vigorous, plant southern United States with ship- the seeds no closer than 10 feet apart ments of African slaves who used it and provide a trellis or some means of for food. The origin of taro has been support. One plant may be sufficient traced to India and following its dis- for any garden since each vine pro- persal it has served as a staple food duces 30 to 35 fruits. The plant should crop of Pacific Island dwellers for be supplied with generous amounts of thousands of years. In the early 1900's water, and fertilizer rich in potash but a superior type of oriental taro traced low in nitrogen. An oversupply of ni- to China and known as dasheen was trogen will result in excessive growth introduced into the United States. This at the expense of fruit production. type largely replaced the earlier intro- Chayóte is monoecious (male and duced, acrid, coarse African types. female flower parts in separate flow- At one time dasheen was consid- ers but on the same plant] and is de- ered as a possible substitute crop on pendent on flower-visiting insects for lands too wet to grow Irish potatoes. pollination. Bees swarm to the flowers Nutritional properties of the tubers for nectar. The fruits require about are similar to potatoes. The tubers can 30 days from pollination to mature be prepared in any way that potatoes sufficiently to harvest, and may weigh can and the flavor is described as up to 2 pounds. delicate and nutty. The type most commonly grown in Dasheen requires a frost-free grow- the southern United States produces ing period of about seven months. It light-green, pear-shaped fruit. is therefore limited to the lowland Insect and disease problems of Coastal Plains from South Carolina to chayóte are the same as for pumpkins, Texas. In Hawaii, dasheen is a very squash and other relatives. Among the common garden plant, used to make insect pests are striped and spotted the popular poi. cucumber beetles, squash bug, squash Production of tubers is greatest in vine borer and pickle worm. Disease rich, loamy, well-drained soils with an problems include powdery and downy abundance of moisture. Clay soils pro- mildews. duce low quality dasheen, as do long To save seed, allow the fruits to droughts followed by regrowth and reach full maturity on the vine but prolonged wet periods. harvest them before they sprout. Plant whole tubers weighing 2 to 5 Wrap each fruit separately and store ounces, 2 to 3 inches deep, at 2-foot it in a cool ventilated place. intervals in rows about 4 feet apart.

231 Begin planting about April 1 or earlier, Magnifico gJobe artichoke with large up to 2 weeks before the average date terminal buds. of the last killing frost in spring. It is also possible to start plants indoors Globe Artichoke and set them in the garden when frost Globe artichoke (Cynara scolymus danger is past. L.) plants look like large thistles and With adequate moisture and fertil- may reach 3 to 4 feet in height and izer the plants will reach 4 to 5 feet cover several square feet with their in height. Apply a preplant applica- large, prickly deep-cut leaves. Arti- tion of fertilizer and an equal amount chokes are not for the gardener with before the plants reach 2 feet in limited space. Climate requirements height. restrict their culture even more. Dasheen is shallow rooted so a Globe artichokes grow best in frost- heavy mulch will help prevent loss free areas with cool, foggy summers. of soil moisture in dry periods. No wonder their commercial produc- The corms and cormels (tubers) are tion in the United States is limited to mature enough to harvest when the one small area in coastal California! tops have completely died down in However, home gardeners with less fall [October-November). Dig the than ideal growing conditions can plants in dry weather if at all possible successfully produce artichokes. A to avoid injury to the corms. The crop variety known as Creole grows in may be stored in the ground and dug southern Louisiana, and a few arti- as needed where the soil is well chokes have been grown in Michigan. drained. The most familiar artichoke—and Each plant when dug should have at least one large central corm surrounded by smaller tubers with a Vincent E Rubalzky combined weight of 2V2 to 8 pounds. The tubers are reported to be of better eating quality and will store longer than the large corm. Tubers will keep for several months at 50° F when they are provided with good air circulation. Young unrolling leaves can be eaten as a table green. They are a rich source of vitamins A and C and when properly prepared are free of the harmful calcium oxylate. Leaves should be boiled with a large pinch of baking soda for 15 minutes and then boiled in fresh water till tender. The stored corms and tubers can be forced to sprout in the dark and the blanched shoots prepared and eaten. A major disease of dasheen is root- knot nematodes. Plant only tubers free of evidence of nematodes. Stor- age rots occur if the tubers are dug before they are fully mature or if proper temperature and adequate ventilation are not provided in storage.

232 available in the seed trade—is Green since its bud bracts naturally point Globe. out. As each stalk is finished, remove Historically, artichokes originated it completely from the plant. in southern Europe where they were In northern gardens, most attempts cultivated since Roman times. They to produce globe artichokes are un- were brought to California by Span- successful. Frost and freezing tem- ish explorers. Artichokes are grown peratures kill the plants, and heavy for the soft fleshy receptacle and mulches used for protection often re- thickened bases of the bracts of the sult in the crowns rotting. In many flower heads. Each plant produces instances the plants freeze before be- several stalks and each stalk bears coming large enough to flower. several flower heads. The plant is an herbaceous peren- Horseradish nial that grows best in a rich, well- Horseradish [Armoracia rusticana drained soil supplied with plenty of Gaertn., B. Mey. & Scherb.) is a mem- organic matter and having a pH of ber of the Mustard Family (Cruciferae about 6.0. It lives for several years or Brassicaceae). It is believed to be and increases in production provided native in southeastern Europe, but is it doesn't freeze grown in cool temperate climates over Seed of the Green Globe variety is much of the world and has frequently advertised in several home garden escaped from cultivation. The "rad- seed and plant catalogs, but germina- ish" part of the common name de- tion is apt to be low and the plants rives from the latin, radix, for root, produced quite variable to type. Seed while the "horse" part may allude to germination is improved by storing it the strong flavor of the root, or to for 2 weeks in the refrigerator in the plant's coarse texture. moist peat moss. Plant the seeds in Although condiments derived from individual cups or pots 4 to 6 weeks roots of the horseradish are now quite before you want to set the plants out. familiar, primary use of the plant This will give you an early start and before the 16th Century was for avoid the shock of transplanting. its alleged medicinal properties. Globe artichokes are best propa- However, both leaves and roots were gated by crown divisions or rooted eaten in Germany during medieval suckers or sprouts from the base of times. Today, peeled roots are either the plant. Space the plants 4 to 6 feet grated and prepared with diluted apart and supply them with adequate vinegar, or boiled, pureed, and used fertilizer and water during the grow- in preparing various sauces. The pun- ing season. The plants grow best at gent flavor is due to the presence of temperatures from the mid-60's to the the glucoside sinigrin. mid-70's (degrees Fahrenheit). At Horseradish is a hardy perennial higher temperatures the buds open that produces a whorl of large, coarse- rapidly and the bracts become fibrous textured leaves. The seeds mature but and tough. rarely, and are not used in propa- Stalks and buds appear in late gating the crop, which is raised from summer or early fall. In frost-free root cuttings. areas, flower bud production con- A deep, rich, moist loamy soil is tinues through winter into early best for horseradish. It has also been spring. Cut artichokes while the buds grown successfully on organic soils. are still tight. In overmature arti- On hard, shallow, stony soils the chokes the green bracts loosen and roots tend to be malformed and yields point out and purple flowers show. are reduced. Unless the soil is already The Creole variety is an exception fertile and in good tilth, it should be

233 manured the autumn prior to plant- will depend on the popularity of ing at the rate of 55 to 92 pounds of horseradish preparations with the fresh manure per hundred square family, but one or two dozen plants feet, and plowed or spaded to a depth should be enough for the average of at least 10 inches. Where no family. manure is available, grow soil-improv- In planting, make furrows 3 to 5 ing crops for plowing down in the inches deep. Plant the cuttings with the autumn of the year preceding that the tops all in one direction in the in which the crop will be planted. In row, dropping a cutting every 24 mild cHmates, a winter-grown soil- inches. As the cutting is dropped, improving crop may be spring-plowed. draw a little soil over the lower end Phosphate and potash mineral fer- with your foot and tamp firmly. tilizers should be roto-tilled or spaded After all cuttings are dropped, they into the soil before planting. Manure are covered with soil to slightly should not be spring-applied in the above ground level (to allow for soil year of planting, but nitrogenous fer- settling], being sure that the soil is tilizers may be applied broadcast and firmly in contact with the cutting. the ground reworked at that season. Cultivation for weed control in Amounts of commercial fertilizers to horseradish (and other garden crops] be used should be guided by the re- is especially important early in the sults of soil tests. season when the plants are relatively Horseradish is best grown from small. If mechanical cultivation is root cuttings, sometimes called "sets". practiced, it is best to cultivate in the Sets are small or slender roots, 8 to same direction that the cuttings were 14 inches long, that are trimmed dropped—toward the top end. from the main roots at autumn har- To grow high quality horseradish, vest. As these cuttings are removed remove all top and side roots, leaving from the main root, it is wise to make only those at the bottom of the set. a square cut at the top and a slanting This is done twice during the growing cut at the bottom as an aid to sub- season, first when the largest leaves sequent proper planting procedure. are 8 to 10 inches long, and again The sets are cleaned, bundled, pack- about 6 weeks later. aged and held under refrigeration or To remove top and side roots from in a vegetable pit or root cellar until the sets, first carefully remove the planting time the following spring. soil around the top end of the main An alternative procedure is to leave root, leaving roots at the lower end a few plants in the garden over win- of the set undisturbed. Raise the ter for spring digging and taking of crown and remove all but the best cuttings at or near planting time. sprout or crown of leaves. Rub off In spring, the fall-plowed soil any small roots that have started from should be well worked, including in- the top or sides of the set, leaving corporation of any spring-applied only those at the bottom. Return the mineral fertilizers, especially nitro- set to its original position and replace genous ones. It is a good idea to let the soil. This procedure is called lift- the worked-up soil settle a few days ing and produces a relatively smooth before planting. root, free from side roots. Horseradish is commonly grown in Horseradish makes its greatest rows spaced 30 inches apart, with growth during late summer and early the plants spaced 24 inches apart in autumn. For this reason, harvest the rows. Yield estimates vary from usually is delayed until October or 15 to 35 pounds of roots per 50 feet early November, or just before the of row. Size of the horseradish plot ground freezes. In digging, it may

234 prove wise to dig a trench 12 to 24 The most common way of prepar- inches deep along one side of the row. ing horseradish for table use is by Then, working from the opposite side peeling or scraping the roots and re- of the row with a shovel or spading moving all defects. Then, grate the fork, dig the roots, using the tops as root directly into white wine vinegar a handle for pulling laterally from or distilled vinegar. Avoid using cider the loosened soil. The tops should be vinegar, as it causes discoloration in trimmed from the roots to within one the grated horseradish within a rather inch of the crown. Side and bottom short time. roots are trimmed off, reserving the Depending on your preference, the laterals for the succeeding season's vinegar may be sHghtly diluted be- crop. fore use. Bottle the horseradish and If you wish to store horseradish cap the containers as soon as possible roots for frequent fresh grinding, they after grating. Refrigerate the prepared may be cleaned, washed, and stored product at all times to preserve the in plastic wrapping in a refrigerator, pungent flavor. It will keep for a few vegetable pit or root cellar. When weeks. Then prepare a fresh supply. stored in the refrigerator, protect Horseradish may also be dried, horseradish roots from light to pre- ground to a powder and put up in vent their turning green. For this pur- bottles in a dry form. So prepared, pose, recycle the colored plastic bags horseradish will keep much longer in which potatoes often are marketed. than the freshly grated product, but In relatively mild climates where is not generally as high quality. frost penetration of the soil is not extensive, the roots may be stored in Husk Tomato an 8- to 10-inch deep trench lined Husk tomato or ground cherry with clean straw. Place roots on the [Physalis spp.) is a member of the straw and cover with a 6-inch layer Nightshade Family (Solanaceae]. The of clean straw. As the weather be- generic name is from the Greek for a comes colder, cover the straw with bladder, in allusion to the charactis- 6 inches or more of soil before the tically inflated calyx ("husk"). Most ground freezes. This will protect the Physalis species occur naturally in roots from freezing injury. the Western Hemisphere. The forms Occasionally, horseradish may suf- of husk tomatoes in cultivation are fer from attacks of root rot. To avoid usually ascribed to Physalis pruinosa this, select only disease-free root cut- L or P. pubescens L., but these spe- tings for planting stock, and rotate cies may be confused in gardens, and the planting site so that horseradish other species also may be involved. is not grown on the same piece of Husk tomato plants are annuals ground more often than every 3 to 4 growing 18 to 40 inches in height. years. They often inhabit sandy soils in Leafhoppers, flea beetles and grass- nature. The fruit, which is the edible hoppers may attack horseradish fo- portion of the plant, is a berry com- liage. Leafhoppers spread the virus pletely enclosed in the thin, inflated disease known in the inland North- calyx or husk. west as "curly top", which can have The fruit may be eaten fresh-ripe, devastating effects on this and many or prepared in a number of ways, in- other vegetables. There is no cure. cluding fried, baked, stewed, in meat Apply approved insecticides as soon dishes, soups or salads, or as dessert as the insects appear. Consult your sauces and preserves. It is a common county Extension agent for current ingredient in Latin American cuisine. information on pesticides. Seeds are infrequently listed in

235 catalogs. An improved form, devel- Mushrooms oped from Guatemalan material by Edible mushrooms [Agaricus his- the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Sta- poTus] are not easily produced in the tion, was introduced some years aqo. home because of the exacting condi- Plant growing and general culture tions required. Even so, mushroom are much the same as for the tomato. spawn and culture kits are offered In cool climates, starting the plants for sale by several retail plant and indoors or in a greenhouse and trans- seed suppliers. However, a recently planting 6-week-old seedlings to the described method for small scale cul- garden about 5 days after the average tivation of mushrooms used for date of the last spring freeze should demonstration and class study pro- help in attaining a good crop. Like vides a more certain way for the tomatoes, husk tomatoes will respond serious home gardener to grow mush- to favorable levels of soil fertility rooms. and ample irrigation. The reference to the article describ- The fruits begin to mature from ing the method is: San Antonio, James mid-summer to late summer, turning P. 1975. "Commercial and small scale from green to yellow and becoming cultivation of the mushroom, Agaricus somewhat soft during ripening. They hisporus [Lange] Sing." HortScience. are not adapted for long-term storage Vol. 10(5) :451—458. Your library may and should be used or processed have the article, or you can obtain a shortly after harvest. Yields as much copy from the Vegetable Laboratory, as 2.5 pounds per plant have been Agricultural Research Center, Belts- achieved. Ten plants should produce ville, Md. 20705. enough husk tomatoes to supply the average family. Peanuts Troubles will be similar to those Peanuts [Arachis hypogaea L.), a afflicting tomatoes. popular home garden crop in the Southeast and Southwest, are unique Martynia among garden plants. Showy yellow Martynia [Prohoscidea ¡ouisianica flowers are borne above ground but [Miller] Thellung) is native to the the ripened ovary and seeds (pea- Southwest but gardeners throughout nuts) develop below the ground. the Nation who are interested in un- The peanut originated in South usual plants grow it. The dried seed America, was carried to Africa and pod has an unusual appearance which Europe by Old World navigators and accounts for the popular name "Uni- explorers, and was shipped to Amer- corn Plant" and for the fact that ica as on-board food for slaves. Pea- several retail seed and plant catalogs nuts are now grown along the East offer seed. Dried pods are used in Coast from Virginia to Florida, and floral arrangements and as novelty along the Gulf Coast to Texas and in items. Young immature seed pods can all adjoining inland States. Gardeners be pickled sweet like cucumbers. hold the peanut with the same high Plant the seed V2 inch deep at 18- regard as Southern peas, okra and to 24-inch intervals in rows 3 feet butter beans. apart. In Northern States start the "Chock full" describes the nutri- plants indoors and set them out in the tional and energy value of peanuts. garden after frost danger is past. The They can be eaten raw, boiled, plants grow about 18 inches tall and steamed or roasted. Raw, cured pea- have a spread of some 30 inches. nuts are rich in vegetable protein and General cultural requirements are oil and contain 564 calories per 100 about the same as for okra. grams.

236 Peanuts are divided into four gen- A shortage of water when the eral categories: Virginia, Runner, plants are flowering vigorously and Spanish and Valencia. Virginia and when the pegs are entering the soil Runner types are large-seeded and will reduce the yield of peanuts. As contain 2 seeds per pod. Spanish and harvest draws near, do not water Valencia are small-seeded with the peanuts. Any excess water at this Spanish having 2 to 3 seeds and the time may break dormancy and cause Valencia 3 to 6 seeds per pod. the mature peanuts to sprout. Peanuts require a long, warm grow- To prevent development of "pops" ing season (110 to 120 days). They (empty pods) the soil must have a flower 6 to 8 weeks after planting. good supply of available calcium. On Following self-pollination and wilting soils known to be low in calcium, of the flower, the ovary (peg) emerges sprinkle about 2V2 pounds of gypsum and grows downward until it enters per 100 feet of row over the plants the soil and the nut begins to form. when they begin to bloom. Best soils for peanuts are coarse tex- Cultivate the soil to control weeds tured (sandy loams) adequately sup- and to keep the soil loose so the pegs plied with calcium and with a pH of can penetrate the surface. Once the 5.8 to 6.2. Add lime to soils with a pods are developing in the soil, cul- pH below 5.8. Spanish types grow tivation without damaging the plants in both fine and coarse textured soils, is almost impossible. Do not throw but the Virginia types should be or pull soil to the plants while cul- limited to coarse soils. tivating. Peanut plants are low grow- Plant Spanish types with a spacing ing; covering branches and leaves of 4 to 6 inches in rows 24 inches with soil kills leaves and interferes apart. Virginia types need more room with flowering. so plant them 6 to 8 inches apart in As peanuts mature the leaves will rows 36 inches apart. Plant only begin to turn yellow. Since flowers shelled seed. One-half pound of seed appear for several weeks, all the pea- will plant 100 feet of row. Plant the nuts do not mature at the same time. seed iy2 to 2 inches deep in coarse If you delay harvest until the last soils but only 1 inch deep in fine soils. formed pods are mature, the first- Planting can begin about 2 weeks formed pods may rot or sprout or be after the average date of the last kill- left in the ground when the plants are ing frost in spring. dug. Prepare the garden soil completely Dig the entire plant and turn it before planting. All crop residues over in the row with the peanuts should be turned under in fall to facing up. Pull peanuts for boiling at permit decomposition. Do not plant digging time when they contain 40 to peanuts in the same location 2 years 50 percent water (the peanut inside in a row, to prevent build-up of of the shell will rattle). After several diseases. days under good drying conditions, A soil test is the best means of moisture content of the exposed pods determining fertilizer needs. Where drops to about 15 percent and the the garden has been heavily fertilized plants can be moved to a warm, airy for previous crops, you may not need place and stacked for 2 to 3 weeks to to apply additional fertilizer since complete curing before the peanuts peanuts are good foragers. The young are stripped from the plants. Some peanut plant is sensitive to fertilizer gardeners stack the plants around burn, so spread any fertilizer applied poles out in the open until the pea- over the entire planting area rather nuts are cured. than putting it in the row. Several insects and diseases attack

237 peanuts and reduce yields or kill the Jerusalem artichoke, for HeJianthus plants. Corn earworm, cutworms, fall tuberosus L. is really a misnomer, armyworms and velvetbean caterpil- and the plant might better be known lars feed on the foliage while the as sunchoke. The plant has no bio- whitefringed beetle feeds on under- logical association with Biblical lands, ground plant parts. Leafspots and being native in North America east southern stem blight are among the of the 20-inch precipitation line, most serious diseases. ranging from Kansas and Minnesota Leaves infected with leafspots drop east and north to Nova Scotia. from the plants and result in "false" The "Jerusalem" part of the com- maturity and low yields and poor mon name is thought to be a corrup- quality. Leafspot diseases can be con- tion of "girasole", the Italian name trolled by spraying with recom- for the sunflower (HeJianthus annuus mended fungicides and changing the L.], to which the sunchoke is closely location of peanuts in the garden related. The literal meaning of "gira- every year. sole" is "turning to the sun". Further, Southern stem blight [stem rot) the sunchoke is not really an arti- attacks stems, roots, pods and pod choke, since that common name stems. This disease is best controlled should be reserved for Cynara scoly- by turning under plant residues in mus L., the globe artichoke. All these fall so they have time to decompose, plants are members of the Composite and by moving the location of pea- Family (Compositae or Asteraceae). nuts in the garden every year.

Sunchoke [Jerusalem Artichoke] Mature and immature peanut pods, The frequently used common name. showing fruiting habit of the plant.

238 Early adventurers and colonists Thin-skinned, often knobby subterra- found the sunchoke being used as a nean stem tubers are edible portions of food crop by Amerinds along the sunchoke plant f/erusaJem artichoke]. Atlantic coast. It was taken to Europe early in the 17th Century. The sunchoke is now cultivated and natural- may be alternate. The flowering heads ized extensively on well-drained soils terminate the branched stems, look- throughout the cool-temperature cli- ing much like small sunflowers, with matic regions of the world. yellow ray and disk florets. Sunchokes are grown for the edi- In choosing a site for sunchokes in ble tubers produced on the ends and the garden, keep in mind their poten- branches of underground stems. The tial height and vigor. Although sun- tubers may reach 4 inches in length chokes will grow on soils too dry or and 2 to 2.75 inches in diameter. infertile for potatoes or beets, they They are of special interest because will respond readily to better growing the principal storage carbohydrate in conditions. If they can be planted on them is inulin, a substance reputed to sandy or loamy soils, the task of be of value in the diet of diabetics digging the tubers will be much as a substitute for ordinary starch. easier. It is wise to plant them where Sunchoke tubers may be prepared for they will be more or less out of the the table in the same ways that pota- way and not shade other sun-loving toes are used. plants. The sunchoke plant is a rather Sunchokes are sensitive to borate coarse, rough-surfaced perennial that herbicides, so areas that have been grows 6 to 9 feet tall. The leaves are treated with them should be avoided. large, 4 to 8 inches long, oblong and Cultural practices for sunchoke are toothed. At the base of the plant they generally similar to those for the may appear to be opposite each other, potato. Although sunchoke is a peren- but in the upper part of the plant they nial plant, it is usually treated as an

239 annual in the garden. Planting may tubers may be stored successfully up be done either in autumn at harvest to 5 months. It should be possible to time, or in spring as soon as the soil store an adequate supply in damp can be worked readily. Both white- sand in a root cellar or vegetable pit, and red-skinned forms are known, but or in colored plastic bags in a refrig- the red is quite rare. erator. For planting stock, either whole Sunchokes are seldom bothered by tubers or tuber-pieces of about 2- insects or diseases. ounce weight are suggested. These should be planted about 4 inches deep Vegetable Soybeans and spaced about 24 inches apart in Soybeans are members of the genus the row, the rows being spaced 36 to Glycine L., which consists of 10 spe- 40 inches apart. If the soil is very cies of mostly viny perennial legumes fertile, spacing may be increased. native primarily in tropical and warm Very little information about fer- temperate parts of Africa and Asia. tilizer requirements for sunchokes is The cultivated soybean, Glyine max available, but European experiments (L.) Merrill, is the only member of suggest the potash requirement may the genus having an erect bushy be high. Hence it is probable that plant with an annual growth habit. fertilizer and irrigation regimes pro- Not known in the wild state, it is ducing good yields of potatoes will thought to be derived, at least in part, give favorable results with sunchokes. from the viny North Asiatic species, Established plants require relatively Glycine ussuriensis Regel & Maack. little care beyond weed control. The Soybeans first appeared as a cul- average gardeners may expect to har- tivated crop in northern China about vest about 3 bushels of tubers per 100 3,000 years ago. Although apparently feet of row. imported to North America at various Since sunchoke tubers are hardy, times during the Colonial era and the harvest may be delayed until the tops early days of the Republic, they did have frozen down in autumn or even not become a major crop in the be deferred until early spring. Spring- U.S. much before World War II. dug tubers will taste somewhat For human consumption, soybeans sweeter than autumn-dug ones. may be eaten either in the immature Digging will be easier if the tops or mature stages of growth, or in are first removed. Using a spading various processed forms. fork or potato hook, a thorough search Adding a dry soybean product to for tubers should be undertaken, ex- small grain cereals substantially im- tending some distance from the plant. proves protein utilization over the Missed tubers can lead to a weedy components consumed individually. growth of sunchokes the succeeding Since fresh, immature soybeans are year. seldom found in either canned or Because sunchoke tubers are thin- frozen forms on supermarket shelves, skinned and do not store nearly as they are an excellent vegetable for well as potato tubers, dig them only home gardeners, who may expect as needed so long as the soil remains yields of 2 bushels of green pods per workable in autumn. When freeze-up 100 feet or row. Soybeans have a is at hand, enough tubers to supply relatively high protein content for a winter needs should be dug, cleaned, vegetable and are a good source of washed, and prepared for storage. vitamin A. Sunchoke tubers store best at 32° F Vegetable soybeans grow best and 90% to 95% relative humidity. where nights are warm and days not If these conditions can be provided, too long. Only very early varieties

240 Toasted soybeans make a tasty snack. should be attempted at higher lati- If soybeans have never been grown tudes. They are unlikely to succeed on the soil, it may prove wise to in areas having frost-free growing inoculate the seeds with nitrogen- seasons of less than 130 to 135 days. fixing bacteria. Rhizobium japonicum Seeds of vegetable soybeans are is said to be specific for soybeans, usually larger than those grown as a and should be available in commer- field crop, and only a limited number cial preparations. of varieties, such as Fiskeby V and Weed control will be more con- Kanrich, are offered currently by venient if the plants are spaced 4 to 6 seedsmen. Most vegetable soybeans inches apart, or in hills spaced about have yellow seeds, but other colors 8 inches apart with the rows 30 are known, such as green, black and inches apart. When seeds of varieties green, and black and yellow. differing in maturity are available, Land on which edible soybeans are better results will ensue if a single to be grown should be well prepared planting of these is made—rather than before planting. Soybeans do not successive plantings of a single vari- thrive on strongly acid soils, and ety. liming may be desirable if indicated Under favorable conditions, edible by soil tests. Because they are leg- soybeans will be ready for harvest umes, nitrogenous fertilizers are sel- as immature beans from early vari- dom used, but on many soils they will eties about 2 months after planting, benefit from application of phos- while 100 or more days of favorable phorus and potassium fertilizers weather will be needed to mature dry [again the gardener should be guided beans. by soil tests). Soybeans are self-fertile and have

241 mostly self-pollinated flowers. The Cabbage looper, a major vegetable pesi, beans are borne in pods that are pro- feeds on soybean ¡eaf. duced in clusters of 3 to 15. The pods are slightly curved and hairy, and will average 2 to 3 seeds per pod. In pods are turning brown and wind- the Orient, the immature pods and rowed or placed on a rack under seed are eaten together, but this has shelter until fully matured, when the seldom been done in the United seeds may be beaten out. This pre- States. When eaten in the immature vents loss through shattering in the stage, vegetable soybeans are har- garden. Following shelling, dry the vested at about the same maturity as seeds thoroughly before storage. immature lima beans. Another way of using edible soy- If vegetable soybeans are to be beans is as sprouts [in the same man- eaten as green beans, the pods will ner as the sprouts of mung beans]. shell much easier if they are plunged Soybeans can be sprouted in any con- into boiling water for about 2 min- tainer that has holes in the bottom utes, after which the beans can be for drainage and can be covered. squeezed from the pods without any In preparing the sprouts, soak the difficulty. soybeans overnight and then place If dry mature soybeans are desired, them in a container large enough for the plants should be cut when the the beans to swell at least six times

242 their original bulk as they sprout. Watercress grows naturally in clear, Cover container to keep out light. cold, shallow, slow-moving creeks. It Moisten the beans at least 3 times may grow either as a floating plant, a day in summer and twice in winter. become rooted in the bottom, or In winter add warm water and keep creep along wet stream margins. the beans in a warm place. Watercress grows well on rich, Time to maturity for soybean sUghtly acid to slightly alkaline gar- sprouts is 3 to 5 days in summer and den soils (pH not lower than 6.0), for 10 to 15 days in winter. The sprouts which ample irrigation is available. are fully grown and ready to be used Plantings can be established readily when 2 to 3 inches long. Once har- by means of stem cuttings, or by vested, sprouts should be kept in a raising plants from seeds. cool, humid place. Home gardeners may adopt either At least 25 parasitic diseases are the trench or surface culture systems common on soybeans in various parts for watercress. of the United States, variously caused For those particularly fond of high by bacteria, fungi and viruses. In quality watercress, the trench system most cases, the best defense is the of culture may be well worth the planting of resistant varieties, or in effort involved. In this system a the case of seed-borne viruses, of trench is dug 2 feet deep and 2 to 3 virus-free seeds. feet wide. A 9-inch layer of well- In various parts of the United rotted compost or manure is placed States, soybeans may be attacked by in the bottom of the trench and al- the green clover worm, the thistle lowed to settle for about 2 weeks. caterpillar, the army worm, by leaf- Irrigate daily at the rate of 3 to 4 hoppers, mites, grasshoppers and blis- gallons of water per yard of trench ter beetles. length. At the end of the period, put 4 inches of good topsoil over the Watercress organic mass and press it down firmly. Watercress [Rorippa nasturtium- The prepared trench may be planted aquaticm [L.] Schinz & Thell.] is a either with seeds or stem cuttings. popular cool-season salad vegetable. If seeds are used, the gardener will Like collards, broccoli, turnips and find them to be quite small—about their relatives, watercress is a mem- 150,000 per ounce—and to have a ber of the Mustard Family (Cruciferae rather low germination standard, or Brassicaceae). The generic name is about 40% to 50%. The trench should thought to be derived from rorippen, be marked off in a grid of 8-inch the ancient Saxon common name for squares, and several seeds planted at watercress. This perennial plant has each intersection in the grid. its natural distribution in Europe and Cover the seeds with about l/16th western Asia, but has become nat- inch of fine sand. Mist the planting uralized extensively throughout the frequently, so that it never dries out, cool-temperate climatic areas of the and keep the trench dark by covering world. with some material that will exclude Portions of the plant commonly light, laid over a supporting frame- eaten are the upper 4 to 6 inches of work. the vegetative stems and associated After germination is complete, re- leaves. Watercress gives a pungent move the opaque covering and thin flavor to salads, makes a novelty the seedlings to 1 per intersection. sandwich filling, is sometimes used Give the trench a good flooding after as a flavoring in soups, and serves as thinning. an attractive garnish. If stem cuttings are to be used as

243 planting stock, they may be collected as the first true leaves appear, the from the wild. Or bunched watercress seedlings may be thinned to stand 8 from the supermarket may be used. to 10 inches apart in the row. Main- Plant one cutting at each intersection tain constantly high soil moisture on the 8x8 inch grid, and water levels for best results. thoroughly. An alternative to direct seeding in With either starting method, keep the garden is starting the seed in the soil free from weeds by hand small peat pots under a mist propa- weeding until the watercress plants gation system, provided you have a grow large enough to provide strong greenhouse equipped for this. Sow competition for them. Never allow the several seeds in each pot, thinning soil to dry out. The plants will bene- to one seedling after the first true fit from being irrigated daily with a leaves have appeared. fine mist nozzle, except in rainy Well-started seedlings may be trans- weather. planted to the prepared bed in the As soon as the plants have reached garden, pot and all, or possibly main- about 6 inches in height, pinch the tained under mist in the greenhouse leading shoot to encourage branch- for nearly year-around harvest. Due ing. The plants should not be per- to leaching effects of the mist, oc- mitted to flower. As soon as signs casional application of liquid ferti- of flower buds are observed, cut the lizer is advised to maintain vigorous plants back. growth. It takes 60 to 70 days for water- Apart from the above, cultural prac- cress to reach harvest maturity from tices for surface culture are similar seeds, somewhat less from cuttings. to those for the trench system. Hence, in mild climatic areas it may In harvesting watercress, take a be a good plan to start a succession sharp knife and cut about 6 inches of trench cultures about a month of the leading shoots or side shoots. apart to assure continuity of quality Tie the cut pieces into bunches and harvests. trim the butt ends so the finished In the surface culture system, pre- bunch is about 4 inches long. The pare the soil with a high level of harvested bunches may be kept in organic matter from manure or com- water, or possibly in plastic wrap- post. A bed of several short rows will ping in the refrigerator for limited be easier to handle than a single long periods. The home gardener can ex- row. Rows in the bed may be placed pect to harvest one bunch of water- 12 to 18 inches apart. Sow the seeds cress per foot of row. very shallowly at the rate of 0.5 ounce Watercress in the United States per 100 feet of row. Even distribution has not been found to be damaged of the seeds will be readily achieved seriously by diseases. Aphids, leaf if they are first mixed with a very beetles, leafhoppers and sowbugs fine-textured dry sand. sometimes attack watercress. For cur- The planting should be kept wet rently recommended control mea- throughout germination, emergence, sures, consult your county Extension and seedling establishment. As soon agent.

244 U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1977 O - 245-559