The Impact of Tropical Cyclone Hayan in the Philippines: Contribution of Spatial Planning to Enhance Adaptation in the City of Tacloban

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The Impact of Tropical Cyclone Hayan in the Philippines: Contribution of Spatial Planning to Enhance Adaptation in the City of Tacloban UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA FACULDADE DE CIÊNCIAS Faculdade de Ciências Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas Faculdade de Letras Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia Instituto de Ciências Sociais Instituto Superior de Agronomia Instituto Superior Técnico The impact of tropical cyclone Hayan in the Philippines: Contribution of spatial planning to enhance adaptation in the city of Tacloban Doutoramento em Alterações Climáticas e Políticas de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Especialidade em Ciências do Ambiente Carlos Tito Santos Tese orientada por: Professor Doutor Filipe Duarte Santos Professor Doutor João Ferrão Documento especialmente elaborado para a obtenção do grau de Doutor 2018 UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA FACULDADE DE CIÊNCIAS Faculdade de Ciências Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas Faculdade de Letras Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia Instituto de Ciências Sociais Instituto Superior de Agronomia Instituto Superior Técnico The impact of tropical cyclone Haiyan in the Philippines: Contribution of spatial planning to enhance adaptation in the city of Tacloban Doutoramento em Alterações Climáticas e Políticas de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Especialidade em Ciências do Ambiente Carlos Tito Santos Júri: Presidente: Doutor Rui Manuel dos Santos Malhó; Professor Catedrático Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa Vogais: Doutor Carlos Daniel Borges Coelho; Professor Auxiliar Departamento de Engenharia Civil da Universidade de Aveiro Doutor Vítor Manuel Marques Campos; Investigador Auxiliar Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil(LNEC) Doutor João Manuel Machado Ferrão; Investigador Coordenador Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa, Orientador Doutor João Pedro Teixeira de Abreu Costa; Professor Auxiliar com Agregação Faculdade de Arquitetura da Universidade de Lisboa Doutor André Filipe Fernandes; Bolseiro Pós-doutoramento Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas da Universidade Nova de Lisboa, na qualidade de especialista de reconhecido mérito Doutor Gil Pessanha Penha-Lopes; Investigador Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa Documento especialmente elaborado para a obtenção do grau de Doutor 2018 Resumo Desde o primeiro relatório de avaliação do Painel Intergovernamental sobre as Alterações Climáticas, que se têm estudado e procurado determinar uma possível influência das alterações climáticas na frequência e intensidade dos ciclones tropicais. Esta ligação potencial foi difícil de comprovar inicialmente, devido ao facto de os efeitos do aquecimento global não se fazerem sentir tão acentuadamente. Posteriormente, com os crescentes impactos dos ciclones tropicais a afectarem globalmente cada vez mais as populações locais e infraestruturas, mais estudos foram efectuados para perceber se existia uma influência das alterações climáticas na actividade dos ciclones tropicais. Apesar de existirem algumas incertezas científicas sobre a forma como as alterações climáticas afectam os ciclones tropicais, a variabilidade do clima e as alterações climáticas estão definitivamente a influenciar estes fenómenos climáticos extremos que se estão a tornar mais intensos e devastadores. Este estudo analisará a discussão científica sobre a influência das alterações climáticas nos ciclones tropicais. O Quinto Relatório de Avaliação do Painel Intergovernamental para as Alterações Climáticas de 2013 concluiu que o aquecimento do clima era inequívoco. Estudos mais recentes concluíram ainda que este facto contribuiu para que a temperatura da superfície do mar esteja a aumentar, o que faz com que mais água evapore para a atmosfera e contribua para a intensificação dos ciclones tropicais. O aquecimento global estará também a causar a subida do nível do mar, o que agravará o impacto das inundações resultantes da sobrelevação marítima dos ciclones tropicais em zonas costeiras baixas. Em 2013, foi ultrapassada pela primeira vez a média global de concentração de dióxido de carbono (CO2) na atmosfera em 400 partes por milhão, sendo que o valor máximo recomendado de concentração de CO2 é de 450 partes por milhão, de forma a limitar o aumento das temperaturas globais em 2°C. O Acordo de Paris de 2015, têm como objectivo manter o aumento da temperatura da atmosfera bastante abaixo dos 2°C e desenvolver esforços para reduzir o aumento da temperatura para i 1.5°C. O ano de 2015 foi considerado como ano mais quente de que há registo, alcançando pela primeira vez 1°C acima da temperatura da era pré-industrial. Consequentemente, o Acordo de Paris representa um apelo à acção no que diz respeito ao aumento das emissões dos gases com efeito estufa e através deste acordo a comunidade internacional iniciou medidas importantes com vista à sua redução. Nas regiões afectadas pela passagem de ciclones tropicais, as zonas costeiras estão cada vez mais expostas à intensidade destes fenómenos extremos, influenciados por factores naturais e antropogénicos. Os impactos têm sido devastadores, não só em termos de números de vítimas bem como de prejuízos avultados, afectando cidades que frequentemente levam anos a recuperar economicamente. Estes desastres naturais afectam em especial os mais pobres, que normalmente são os que sofrem mais vítimas e danos materiais. Comunidades, ecossistemas e infraestruturas são particularmente vulneráveis aos impactos destes fenómenos climáticos extremos, por se encontrarem em zonas sujeitas a riscos. As cidades afectadas por ciclones tropicais demoram frequentemente tempo a recuperar, por não terem podido antecipar e investir em medidas preventivas e por terem falta de planos de adaptação e de medidas resilientes ao clima, não só para as infraestruturas bem como para os diferentes sectores e serviços. Muitas das cidades costeiras densamente povoadas, necessitam antecipar e adaptar regularmente o ordenamento do território de forma a poderem reduzir as vulnerabilidades aos ciclones tropicais. Como tal, o ordenamento do território pode desempenhar um papel fundamental através da integração das medidas de adaptação às alterações climáticas e redução do risco de catástrofes, nomeadamente através de instrumentos de política de ordenamento de território, como o zonamento e os códigos de construção. Incentivos financeiros para a redução de risco, tais como incentivos fiscais e desincentivos ou seguros, podem também ser ferramentas muito eficazes para reduzir os riscos e melhorar a resiliência das pessoas e infraestruturas. Neste contexto, o ordenamento do território deve ser determinante na protecção das comunidades e do ambiente, ao evitar o desenvolvimento em zonas vulneráveis. Os impactos das alterações climáticas representam novos desafios para reforçar a ii capacidade de adaptação, através da integração de novas abordagens tecnológicas e arquitectónicas mais integradas com o ecossistema. O ordenamento do território tem um papel importante na redução dos impactos da variabilidade do clima e as alterações climáticas, promovendo o desenvolvimento sustentável e alinhando-se com o Quadro de Acção de Sendai, para a Redução do Risco de Catástrofes e os Objectivos de Desenvolvimento Sustentável das Nações Unidas. Neste século XXI, uma série de ciclones tropicais extremamente intensos como o Katrina e o Sandy, nos Estados Unidos, o Haiyan nas Filipinas e o Morakot em Taiwan tiveram consequências devastadoras, que causaram perdas humanas e danos significativos às infraestruturas. Os países em vias de desenvolvimento são particularmente afectados por estes fenómenos climáticos extremos e têm bastantes dificuldades em lidar com os seus impactos. A intensidade destes desastres climáticos tem demonstrado uma falta de preparação da parte dos governos, das comunidades e do sector privado em lidar com os impactos. Nos Estados Unidos, a inadequação de muitas infraestruturas e o planeamento desactualizado contribuiu para agravar os impactos dos ciclones tropicais Katrina e Sandy. Neste contexto, este estudo examina os papéis e responsabilidades dos governos central e local na realização de investimentos e estratégias necessárias à melhoria das infraestruturas resistentes ao clima. Este estudo analisa a dimensão do impacto do ciclone tropical Haiyan e da sua sobrelevação marítima, que representou um ponto de viragem nas Filipinas devido à potencial influência das alterações climáticas nos ciclones tropicais, tendo revelado até que ponto as populações costeiras estão expostas aos riscos destes fenómenos climáticos e de como as suas vulnerabilidades podem ser diminuidas através do ordenamento do território. O ciclone tropical Haiyan foi responsável por um elevado número de vítimas e avultados prejuízos, em particular na cidade costeira de Tacloban. O Haiyan veio também mostrar a grande vulnerabilidade aos impactos destes fenómenos climáticos extremos numa região que está habituada à passagem anual de ciclones tropicais. Como consequência destes impactos, eram necessárias medidas de redução de riscos iii integradas no ordenamento do território, bem como zonamento baseado na análise de risco, códigos de construção resilientes ao clima e modernização de infraestruturas. O processo de reconstrução das infraestruturas públicas, nas áreas afectadas pelo Haiyan, seria feito através do principio de “reconstruir melhor” que teria de ter em consideração cartas de risco e normas de resiliência às alterações climáticas. Em Tacloban, logo após o impacto do Haiyan, foi implementada a política de zonas de construção interdita numa faixa de 40 metros a partir da linha da água, o que consequentemente originou um processo de realojamento forçado
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