STATE OF NORTH ATLANTIC SALMON FOREWORD FROM HRH THE PRINCE OF WALES

NASCO is an international organization, established by an Environmental change and human impacts across the Northern inter-governmental Convention in 1984. The objective of Hemisphere are placing salmon at risk. The International Year NASCO is to conserve, restore, enhance and rationally manage of the Salmon (IYS) aims to bring people together to share and Atlantic salmon through international co-operation taking develop knowledge more effectively, raise awareness and take account of the best available scientific information. action. 2019 is the focal year of the IYS. www.nasco.int www.yearofthesalmon.org

3 FOREWORD FROM HRH THE PRINCE OF WALES INTRODUCING NORTH ATLANTIC SALMON

Salmon at sea

OCEAN

Returning Smolts adult

Parr

Fry

Spawning adult

Alevins RIVER

A SPECIAL LIFE CYCLE The North Atlantic salmon begins life in the rivers of countries that surround the Atlantic basin – from Portugal, Spain and New England (USA) in the south of its range to sub-Arctic Canada and Russia in the north. Spawning occurs in the autumn and winter, with female salmon depositing between 1,000 and 2,000 eggs (ova) per kilogram of body weight into a nest (or redd) made on the gravel bottom of rivers. Hatching occurs the following spring. The young salmon (or alevins) are nourished by the yolk sac until they emerge from the gravel as fry to commence feeding. After the first year of life, the young fish are known as parr. Following a period in fresh water, which can range from one to seven years, the parr undergo an enormous physiological, morphological and behavioural change, known as smoltification, that allows them to adapt to the salt water of the Atlantic Ocean. These smolts, as they are now known, migrate to the ocean in the spring and, after one or more years at sea, return as adult salmon to their rivers of origin to spawn. Once back in fresh water, they change colour to a mottled reddish- brown. The male fish also change shape, developing a prominent hook or kype on the lower jaw. Most salmon die after spawning, but a small proportion, mainly females, will spawn again following another trip to sea. Illustration: Jenny Proudfoot

4 5 STATUS OF WILD SALMON PRIOR TO 1990 FROM 2007 TO 2016 1,000 eggs one salmon surviving 2,000 eggs one salmon surviving = first year at sea = first year at sea

10

SALMON 8 ABUNDANCE

From 1983 to 2016, there was an alarming decline 6 in salmon numbers prior to any fishery Photograph: Nick Hawkins Photograph:

Further data on the 4 tonnage of wild salmon in Millions of Salmon Millions of specific areas of the North A SPECIES IN CRISIS Atlantic prior to 1983 highlights an even more 2 dramatic decline than SIGNIFICANT The spectacular life cycle and historic abundance of Atlantic salmon REDUCTIONS IN HARVEST shown here have embedded the species into the social, cultural and economic fabric SINCE THE MID-1970s of communities around the North Atlantic. But, despite this iconic status, wild salmon numbers are at crisis levels, with reduced numbers 0 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 of returning adults being seen in most rivers. Nick Hawkins Photograph: 3.5 MILLION Year salmon peak harvest in 1973

BETWEEN 1983 AND 2016 – a period of Despite these significant fishery just 33 years – numbers of wild Atlantic reductions, numbers of Atlantic salmon 2 MILLION salmon prior to any fishing taking place continue to decline. We know this in harvested annually until (known as the pre-fishery abundance, part through the tagging of several the late 1980s or PFA) fell by more than half. The rate million fish each year for assessment of decline was most dramatic from and research purposes. 1983 to 1990, when salmon numbers It now (since 2007) takes about double Fewer than fell from around seven million to the amount of eggs to produce one five million fish. And while the rate adult (compared to the period prior to 0.5 MILLION of decline since 1990 has slowed, a harvested annually in 1990) that will return to that same river further 33% of salmon have been lost recent years to spawn – an indication of the multiple – meaning the number in 2016 was pressures facing the species throughout estimated to be around 3.38 million. its complex life cycle.  During the same period (1983 to THESE NUMBERS 2016), there was a marked reduction REPRESENT ALL FISHERIES, in exploitation. Prior to the 1960s, These are challenging times for wild NOT JUST ‘AT SEA’ countries made their own rules about salmon harvest with no international Atlantic salmon. Abundance remains discussions. In October 1983, the Convention for the Conservation of low, or even critically low in some areas. Salmon in the North Atlantic Ocean – A special fish (clockwise from main): a magnificent male Atlantic salmon; a clutch of salmon eggs; fine the birth of the North Atlantic Salmon In these circumstances, our focus must salmon habitat in Atlantic Canada; fin tags are a key research tool

Conservation Organization (NASCO) – Nick Hawkins Photograph: created a large protected zone free of be on those factors which we are able targeted fisheries for Atlantic salmon in most areas beyond 12 nautical miles to control. from the coasts. JÓANNES HANSEN, PRESIDENT, NASCO. This resulted in an immediate reduction in the commercial salmon fishery which, at its peak in 1973, harvested some 3.5 million salmon. 2.7 million Prusov Sergey Photograph: FISH TAGGED OR MARKED ANNUALLY for assessment and research purposes 6 7 STATUS OF WILD SALMON

BARENTS SEA

NORWEGIAN SEA

Sweden

Note: as Iceland is not currently a Party to the NASCO Convention, Greenland Iceland’s rivers are not included in the rivers map.

Finland

Faroe Islands

Russian Norway Federation LABRADOR SEA

Denmark

341 RIVERS THE STATUS OF SALMON STOCKS IN NORTH ATLANTIC RIVERS Ireland currently sustainable

Canada United Kingdom Each circle or dot on this map of the of Europe, Iceland, Norway and the North Atlantic represents a river, while Russian Federation migrate to the Germany 1014 RIVERS the colour of the dot shows the status Norwegian and Barents Seas. The dashed currently at risk of the population (or stock) of salmon migration lines on the map highlight how NORTH ATLANTIC in each river. a small proportion of Atlantic salmon travel even greater distances across the The arrows on this map indicate the North Atlantic to feed. migration routes of Atlantic salmon from 174 RIVERS Note: The NASCO Rivers Database classifications of stock no longer have salmon rivers of origin to marine feeding areas. status have been consolidated for the purposes of this Salmon spend at least one winter at sea document. Rivers identified in the NASCO database as ‘Not at Migration routes before making the return journey to Risk’ and ‘Low Risk’ are shown here as ‘currently sustainable’. France Rivers identified in the NASCO database as ‘Moderate Risk’, spawn. The majority of salmon from the ‘High Risk’ and ‘Artificially Sustained’ are shown here as Currently sustainable ‘currently at risk’. The full NASCO Rivers Database can be western Atlantic migrate to the Labrador found at www.nasco.int Currently at risk 830 RIVERS no data available Sea, while most salmon from the rivers No longer have salmon No data available 8 United States 10 of America Portugal Spain STOCK STATUS FOR VALUE OF SALMON 2,359 RIVERS IN: Canada, Denmark, England, Finland, France, Greenland, Germany, Ireland, Northern Ireland, Norway, Portugal, Russian Federation, Scotland, Spain, SALMON IN RIVERS Sweden, USA, Wales. While no two rivers are exactly alike, the same can also be said for INDIGENOUS CONNECTIONS salmon populations. After their ocean migration, Atlantic salmon 14% currently sustainable For centuries, fjords and rivers along As with the Sámi, the Mi’kmaq fear the return to their rivers of origin, even to the same part of the river the North Atlantic coastline have loss of traditional food and cultural in which they hatched, to spawn. This has enabled the formation of sustained indigenous communities with values as a result of the declining salmon genetically distinct populations among and within rivers, adapted 43% currently at risk returning salmon, making the species populations and the conservative – CNSS Emmanuel Lerbret Photograph: to the local conditions. an integral part of their culture, identity, harvest regulations imposed upon the diet, economy, social relations and fishery. This situation can be found with spiritual practices. indigenous communities across the IN THE EARLY STAGES of their life cycle, North Atlantic to create NASCO’s Rivers no longer have salmon 7% range of Atlantic salmon from the Inuit Salmon stories: the salmon has long been an important Atlantic salmon spend between one and Database. In total, 2,359 rivers have been One of the world’s most productive in northern Canada and Greenland to the part of cultural life for the Mi’kmaq people in Canada’s seven years in the rivers that they hatch reported on. Atlantic salmon rivers is the Tana / Atlantic provinces (main); an outline of a giant salmon Penobscot in the USA.  marked on the banks of the Loire-Allier River during a in. When they eventually venture to no data available Tenojoki / Deatnu (in the Sámi language), Of these, 174 rivers (or 7%) no longer 36% leg of the 2017 Tour de France (above) sea, they travel thousands of kilometres a river that forms part of the border have their once unique populations of to feeding grounds in the Norwegian between Norway and Finland in Sápmi (a spawning salmon. This is largely due to or Barents Seas or to the coasts of cultural region in the northern parts of human activities. A further 1,014 rivers Greenland and the Labrador Sea. 341 Norway, Finland, Sweden, and the Kola (43%) have stocks that are considered Following one or multiple winters at sea, rivers Peninsula in Russia, and traditionally either to be at risk, threatened in some the salmon return to their rivers of origin 830 inhabited by Sámi people). While the way, or declining in numbers. Only 341 to spawn and the life cycle begins again. rivers fishery no longer provides the same rivers (14%) are considered to have level of livelihood sustenance it once did, NASCO’s contracting Parties have sustainable salmon populations. The MORE THAN A FISH the salmon remains highly valued for worked to assess the status of the remaining 830 rivers have not been 1,014 Throughout their range, wild Atlantic salmon provide society with a its contribution to quality of life, social population, or stock, of the salmon assessed, so the status of salmon stocks rivers 174 host of values, benefits and ecosystem services that, together, touch us relations, and continuity of traditions. in each river around the whole of the in these rivers is unknown.  rivers Photograph: Nick Hawkins Photograph: economically, socially and culturally. For several years, however, biological assessments of Tana / Tenojoki / Deatnu salmon stocks have evaluated most of them to be of poor status, and

IT IS FAIR TO SAY THAT pinpointing the it is possible to swim with salmon as The Salmon of Llyn Llyw carries knights of King Arthur Resources Natural of Institute Unama’ki Photograph: exact value of wild Atlantic salmon to part of guided salmon ‘safaris’, while up the Severn Estuary. Illustration from ‘The Mabinogion’ the increasingly strict regulations on translated from the Welsh by Lady Charlotte Guest. the length of the fishing season and people is fraught with difficulty. After in many countries salmon can be seen Bernard Quaritch, London, 1877 all, value can mean different things leaping at dams and waterfalls – a permitted fishing gear have caused to different people – and particularly natural attraction that draws visitors strong local (including Sámi) opposition. so when relating to a species that is and photographers alike. As the reductions in fishing are found by not only economically important, but Atlantic salmon have a long association some to erode Sámi practices and ways of that also has deep cultural and social with spiritual and religious experiences. living, locals are calling for a management connections with humans. The species appears in folk tales, such regime that is compatible with the Fishing is perhaps the most obvious as the Mabinogion in Wales, and as the maintenance and continued development example of salmon bringing value to Salmon of Wisdom in Ireland. of Sámi fishing traditions and knowledge. people. In this regard, salmon contribute Similarly, salmon have provided A similar situation can be found in to the quality of life of many people inspiration for many forms of artistic Canada, where declining salmon stocks around the North Atlantic both materially expression, and are often included have prompted conservation measures – as food and an economic driver – and in heraldry, coats of arms and place that, to Western eyes, are widely non-materially, through the experiences names. In Scotland, the arms of the regarded as the appropriate management gained from different forms of fishing. Royal Burgh of Peebles feature three response to any declining resource base. Salmon fisheries themselves contribute salmon on a red field and the motto However, the very meaning of on both counts. While net and trap Contra Nando Incrementum – Latin for conservation has caused a concern fisheries provide high quality food for ‘There is growth by swimming against with the Mi’kmaq, an indigenous First subsistence in local and indigenous the stream’, which refers to migrating Nations people from the Atlantic communities, and through now limited salmon in the nearby River Tweed. provinces of Canada. Salmon, or plamu commercial activity, many also have More recently, during a leg of the Tour as it is known to the Mi’kmaq, are one a significant non-material side that de France in 2017, researchers and co- of many animals that contributed to contributes to quality of life. This is workers from the National Conservatory their self-sufficiency historically. seen in the indigenous food, social and of Wild Salmon used GPS co-ordinates, ceremonial fisheries of Eastern Canada, A staple food, salmon were dependable, sticks and football chalk to mark the and in heritage fisheries elsewhere that predictable, and could be found in most outline of an almost 280-metre-long involve unique local fishing methods. coastal rivers in eastern Canada. Today, salmon. Created to raise awareness because of concern over numbers, the Other salmon-related activities also around the preservation of the Loire- amount of wild salmon available for contribute to people’s quality of life. Allier river and its salmon population, it is community food is at an all-time low Photograph: Nick Hawkins Photograph: On the River Suldalslågen in Norway, also indicative of how salmon are valued and, in some areas, the eating of wild as symbols of good environmental quality. salmon is now reserved for ceremonies 11 12 and other special occasions. 13 14 VALUE OF numbers eachyear. salmon now returning inincreasing over thepast decade, withAtlantic century, theAker hasbeenrestored from heavy pollutionfor more thana centre of Oslo, Norway. Having suffered the River Aker whichflows through the what are termed‘non-use’ values, ason population have beendriven by often attempts torestore aself-sustaining in EnglandortheSkjernDenmark, valuable fisheries,suchasthe Tyne although somerivers now support been lost orheavily reduced. And rivers from whichtheyhadpreviously As aresult, salmonhave returned to rivers insome countries. andaccessibilitywater quality of many brought major improvements inthe rivers,with limingof impacted have reduced combined acidicrainfall, often of heavily pollutingindustries, and Public investment, the reduction ecologically andeconomically. salmon inrivers bevaluable can both showing thatrestoration of wildAtlantic biodiversity, withavariety of studies increasing focus and onconservation In recent there decades, hasbeenan other reasons unrelated tofisheries. Salmon are alsohighly valued for many placed ontheutilisationof thatsurplus. the surplusandindirectly onthevalues Atlantic salmondependsdirectly on Similarly, theeconomic significance of continued abundantpresence of salmon. be practiced,whichinturnrelies onthe are tosurvive,thentraditions needto knowledgefisheries. Iflocal andculture reality thathasconsequences for all be nosustainable harvest–abiological Without apopulationsurplus,there can the populations. jeopardising thelong-term of viability levelallow acertain of harvest without there are enoughreturning adultsto benefit of peopleistoensure that in managingAtlantic salmonfor the short-term challengeThe primary VALUE OF SALMON CONSERVATION indicator ofindicator environmental quality. salmon linked toitssignificance asan with muchof thepublic’s valuation of of Atlantic salmoninsomecountries – ‘total economic value’ (seefigure below) non-use values may now dominatethe As farasthewiderpublicisconcerned, (fishing for salmon, salmon for food) that dependson or for aspecies Actual use USE VALUE THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF TOTALECONOMIC VALUE of deferring use Option value (i.e. thevalue of aresource until later) TOTAL ECONOMIC VALUE generation) (for current Altruism

flows throughof Oslo theheart An anglerenjoying therejuvenated River Aker which For others NON-USE VALUE Bequest value generations) (for future Existence value

(Redrawn from Parkkila et al. 2010)

Photograph: Oddgeir Andersen fishing rightsare largely private. in areas, includingacross Europe, where excluded, ithasnow become widespread take inareas where anglerscould notbe as amanagement methodtominimise andreleasecatch First angling. used studiedthe decade isanincrease in One of thekey changes over observed to €500million. is estimated tobeintherange of €300 Atlanticanglers across theNorth in2017 Overall, thetotalexpenditure of salmon in thatperiod. ofcatch approximately 25,000 salmon have seenadecline–andreduction in from 2007 to2017, may thoughNorway general indicate stability in participation with timeseriesof rod licence sales about 380,000 salmon.Somecountries days (or roughly aweek each)tocatch anglers fishing for more than1,600,000 that there are around 220,000 salmon of thescale activity.to indicate Itseems 2017 compared with2007, itispossible Atlantic across theNorth foractivity inthedatafor angling uncertainties Meanwhile, although there are economic value of thecatch. relevance toestimate theoverall commercial purpose, soitisof little cultural benefits rather than for clear and are most likely upheldfor their are considered subsistence fisheries nets andtraps. Today, themajority to fish for wild Atlantic salmonwith Still, atleast 5,400 peoplecontinue Ireland).ended altogether (Northern have plummeted(Scotland, Russia),or overcatches thedecade, whileothers and Norway, have hadlargely stable salmon. Somecountries, suchasCanada fisheries tobeapproximately 185,000 estimate of thetotalcatch netandtrap Atlantic in2017 compared with2007 comparing around catches theNorth economic value of salmon.Studies are theultimatemanifestations of the Commercial andrecreational fisheries FISHERIES SNAPSHOT for Nature Research. 1668. Institute Norwegian NINA Report an assessmentof changes in values. literature for theperiod2009-2019 and of wild Atlantic salmon.Areview of Social, Economic and Cultural values G.W., Andersen,O. &Aas,Ø.2019. The Mawle, K.M., a recentMyrvold, report. The ‘Value of salmon’ isbasedon section a rapidly changingworld. hope isthatsalmonwillpersist even in many voicesitscase,the supporting withsalmon.And connections todocumentpeople’s itiscritical point, abundant salmon.Inreaching that healthy ecosystems whichprovide In theend,we allwantthesame: difficult andknowledge islost. as timepassesitbecomes ever more afew failedseasons,butachieved after be thatdependonsalmoncan conduct Restoringcritical. cultures andsocial may change, butensuringcontinuityis Along theway, values andperceptions than maintainingexisting ones. bemore can connections challenging knew, whichmeansthatrestoring all, we donotmisswhatwe never cultural values thatflow from it. After as well asthesocial,economic,and continued existence of the species withsalmonisvitaltotheconnection It isclearthatmaintainingour angling differently. anglers thatvalue salmonand therecruitmentindicate of neworyoung to newregions andrivers. This could ago,a decade thetrend hasspread andreleasecatch wasalready prevalent just reflective of low stocks. Even though of changingvaluesandnot insociety may alsobeinterpreted asan outcome The increase andrelease incatch angling FURTHER INFORMATION MAINTAINING CONNECTIONS  catch (above)catch Vital young connections: Mi’kmaqfishers(below); afine 15 Photography: Unama’ki Institute of Natural Resources LIFE CYCLE THREATS

PREDATORS Predation occurs both in fresh water and at sea with a variety of birds, other fish and mammals all feeding on salmon during different life stages. Predation is a naturally occurring phenomenon, but issues may arise when predator numbers are unnaturally high due to human intervention or shifting ecosystem conditions.

MIGRATION BARRIERS An arduous migration from river to sea and back again is a key part of the salmon’s life cycle, but it is a journey made even more challenging by the many weirs, PRESSURE POINTS locks, hydro-electric projects, culverts and tidal barrages that block their path. Wild Atlantic salmon face a whole range of different and, often, Even with fishways in place to help salmon move around these barriers, combined or interconnected pressures during their life cycle – there can still be a negative impact on

with the actions of humankind very much a common thread. Ness District Salmon FisheryPhotograph: Board access to important areas of habitat.

POLLUTION Water pollution is a major BROWSING THE FISH AISLES in stores CLIMATE CHANGE INVASIVE SPECIES cause of the decline in stocks and supermarkets, the counters lined Complex and far-reaching, Evidence exists of negative of Atlantic salmon, with all with pack after pack of Atlantic salmon, climate change impacts both effects of invasive species life stages of fish affected both directly it is easy to imagine that stocks have the marine and freshwater on wild salmon populations, (through exposure to chemicals and never been healthier. But the truth is phases of the Atlantic salmon’s life cycle with general worldwide increases in acidified waters) and indirectly (through rather different as almost all Atlantic through changes in water temperature, the introduction and spread of non- runoff causing eutrophication of aquatic salmon available on supermarket habitat quality and survival at sea. native and invasive plants and animals habitats) in fresh water and the ocean. shelves is farmed. Additionally, increasing freshwater (e.g. non-native fish species, Japanese temperatures affect how far south knotweed, and Gyrodactylus salaris). OVER-EXPLOITATION Today, there exists what Over-exploitation occurs conservationists in the United States salmon populations can exist. This pressure might become even more important in the future through when too many fish are refer to as a ‘grocery store problem’, removed from a population with a huge discrepancy between DISEASES / PARASITES climate change increasing competition, predation and disease. in freshwater or marine environments, the availability of farmed salmon in Of the 80 or so diseases and leading to that population falling supermarkets and the declines in parasites that affect Atlantic HABITAT DEGRADATION below a sustainable level. Ultimately, wild salmon throughout much of the salmon, only a few have been this results in fewer returning adult North Atlantic. Even in areas where documented to have significant impacts Activities such as intensive agriculture, gravel females laying fewer eggs and a far wild salmon populations are at risk of on wild populations. Furunculosis less resilient population. extinction, the ease with which salmon (a bacterial disease), Gyrodactylus extraction, commercial can be bought in supermarkets means salaris (a type of parasitic flatworm) forestry and substrate removal for drainage schemes can alter a river’s AQUACULTURE that the general public is often unaware and Ulcerative Dermal Necrosis (a skin (SEA LICE, ESCAPES that wild salmon stocks are so fragile. disease) are three that have decimated structure, increase sedimentation and populations in specific areas. reduce the quality of salmon habitat. AND DISEASES) As the diagram opposite illustrates, Additionally, water extraction and Aquaculture impacts wild salmon populations face a raft of hydro-regulation can greatly alter a Atlantic salmon stocks through the STOCKING challenges throughout their complex river’s hydrology, with the changes in genetic effects of farmed salmon When done with careful life cycle. river flow, temperature and quality escaping into wild populations, planning to consider genetic having a negative impact on the and mortality from sea lice and impacts, stocking hatchery productivity of salmon populations. diseases spreading to wild salmon. salmon can be a critical restoration Containment, proper siting and sea-lice tool. However, without careful control are important considerations consideration, stocking can be harmful for aquaculture operations.  to wild populations. Stocking is also not a replacement for addressing other pressures in rivers and oceans. 16 17 RESTORATION AND RECOVERY Photograph: River Dee River Photograph: and Fishery Board Trust

Completed in 2015, and now widely Habitat restoration has also taken place considered one of the most innovative on a far grander scale. In Denmark, More trees please: the use of large woody debris on the River Dee in Scotland (above); tree planting on river restoration initiatives in the United the lower section of the Skjern River the River Gairn in the upper Dee catchment (below) States, the project has improved access – the country’s most important river to more than 3,000 kilometres of rivers for Atlantic salmon – is the site of and streams, not just for Atlantic salmon the largest river restoration project but for a whole variety of native sea-run in Northern Europe. The work was fish. It has also rebalanced hydropower to carried out to reverse the ill-effects of maintain pre-project levels of production, a government initiative to bolster the plus brought benefits to many other country’s agricultural economy in the species along the river catchment. late-1960s that involved channelising the main stem of the river and draining its floodplain to create a large area of HABITAT RESTORATION arable land. While migration barriers can affect However, disconnecting the Skjern both the amount and quality of habitat from its floodplain had a variety of available to salmon, they are by no unintended negative consequences means the only cause of habitat which resulted in plans to restore the degradation and destruction. Gravel river in the late 1980s. The restoration extraction, agricultural activities, road A HELPING HAND was finally carried out between construction, forestry and other land 2000 and 2002, with the habitat While Atlantic salmon continue to face significant challenges, there are uses can all reduce habitat quality – improvements resulting in a substantial with often considerable impact on the examples of restoration and recovery efforts that demonstrate what increase in numbers of Atlantic salmon vulnerable early stages of the salmon’s positive steps can be made for the species. Nick Hawkins Photograph: in the river.  life cycle. Photograph: Sarah Robinson Sarah Photograph: But again, recovery actions can make

Before and after: the Veazie Dam was one of two a big difference – and be relatively MAKE NO MISTAKE, the Atlantic salmon preventing them from spawning and major barriers removed as part of the Penobscot River straightforward. In response to CARRIED OUT BETWEEN is a species under severe pressure, with growing the population. Even those Restoration Project in Maine recommendations from NASCO, the an urgent need for a collective effort to barriers that are partially passable can River Dee Trust and Fishery Board in 2000 AND 2002 reverse population declines throughout have a major effect on river flow and Scotland has undertaken a range of THE RETORATION OF THE its range. Thankfully, there are glimmers temperature, sediments and water habitat restoration work, including a KJERN RIVER INCLUDED: of hope, with efforts – large and small – chemistry – all of which are key to the L programme of tree planting in areas of E N being made to improve the fortunes of health of Atlantic salmon at different N the upper Dee catchment. A H salmon around the North Atlantic. stages in their lives. C

Planting trees can help fish in many R E Such work is happening in part because Salmon ladders and other solutions V ways: they provide shade, so lowering I people recognise the importance of for aiding upward and downward water temperatures; stabilise riverbanks R doing so to help the wider environment. migration help to an extent. However, G and prevent erosion; improve the IN R But it is also about what salmon as it is when barriers are removed retention of rain water on land, so E D a species means to them. For many, altogether – a major undertaking when reducing flooding; help create new N m OF CHA A salmon are a symbol of a healthy, it comes to larger constructions – that areas of habitat and input nutrients into k NN E ER EL F M thriving aquatic environment – with salmon populations have the greatest the water by providing leaf litter and LOW ISE O RE E D S m TURNING TH S ECT k benefits for all. chance of recovery. L ION TO  larger woody debris. E N N A A prime example can be seen in the The use of large woody debris has H E C CLEARING THE WAY United States where the Penobscot become increasingly recognised as ID F S River Restoration Project in Maine has an important management tool for km O An arduous migration from river to sea NG  brought dramatic change to the second ENI speeding up the rehabilitation of OP A and back again is a key part of a wild RE largest river system in New England. N salmon’s life cycle, and just one reason degraded watercourses. As part of a A collaborative effort to balance recent year-long trial on the River Dee, D why the species is so special. But it is a 2 fisheries restoration and hydropower T the Trust has added large tree branches R G A 5km LAK journey made even more challenging I IN E production, the project included the B AT by the many obstacles – from weirs, and other woody structures to upper U RE T C removal of two dams that had blocked catchment areas in order to create A shipping locks and fish traps to hydro R fish migrations for more than a century, IE dams and tidal barrages – that block diverse habitat for juvenile fish. The S and the construction of a river-like their path. trial has proved so positive that the bypass around a third major dam that Trust now plans to add more structures The problem is that when barriers are fish now use to access areas of habitat elsewhere on the river system. impassable, large areas of a watershed that are critical for their reproduction  AND A km D become inaccessible to migrating fish, and recovery. AN AREA OF WETL

18 19 Photography: Josh Royte/The Nature Conservancy Nature Josh Royte/The Photography: RESTORATION AND RECOVERY

WATER QUALITY SUSTAINABLE HARVEST Water pollution is widely reported as Recolonisation of salmon has taken Great strides have also been made in REDUCED EXPLOITATION IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC one of the main causes of the decline place in a number of these rivers. other areas. Overexploitation of salmon The big fish in the illustration (below) represent the proportion of multi- in stocks of Atlantic salmon. Some For example, following liming in 1997, stocks was once another major factor in sea-winter salmon (salmon that have spent multiple winters at sea before rivers in parts of eastern Nova Scotia the Mandal River in Agder county population decline – with the salmon’s life they return to their rivers of origin to spawn). The small fish represent the and Norway have been so chronically recorded its first yearlings of salmon cycle adding a further layer of complexity. proportion of one-sea-winter salmon (salmon that have spent only one affected by ‘acid rain’ – rainfall made just 12 months later. Today, catches have Given a migration that takes salmon from winter at sea before they return to their rivers of origin to spawn). The red acidic by atmospheric pollution – that increased to between 2,100 and 3,700 their rivers of origin to feeding grounds colour shows the different proportions harvested in each time period. populations of Atlantic salmon have salmon, although numbers remain in the sub-Arctic and into the fisheries been all but lost. far below the yearly catch records of zones of other countries, reducing overexploitation was a matter that In southern Norway, acidified rivers around 10,000 salmon experienced prior to acidification. required international co-operation. have been mitigated with lime to help NORTH AMERICA improve water quality and restore fish Elsewhere, in the north of England, the Despite some measures relating to Pre 1990s populations. This direct local action is River Don has seen a step change in distant-water fisheries (when vessels fish 1990-1999 NORTH AMERICA 2000-2009 coupled with European nations making water quality over the past 30 years. well beyond their national waters) being 2010-2017 Pre 1990s agreements to reduce atmospheric Once little more than an open sewer, agreed in the 1970s, salmon catches in or Pre 1990s 1990-1999 NORTHERN EUROPE NORTHERN EUROPE emissions of acidifying compounds. this Yorkshire river has benefited from near to rivers of origin continued to decline. 1990 - 1999 2000-2009

Pre 1990s a multi-million-pound programme of This prompted calls for an international 2010-2017 In Norway, a total of 23 acidified rivers 2000 - 2009 1990-1999 sewage treatment improvements, while convention devoted to Atlantic salmon 2000-2009 that were virtually without salmon have NORTHERN EUROPE 2010 - 2017 – a forum for countries to co-operate on 2010-2017 been successfully restored through the industrial pollution is now largely a Pre 1990s

thing of the past. salmon conservation, restoration, rational 1990-1999 National Liming Programme. Between SOUTHERN EUROPE management and enhancement. 2000-2009

them, they now support fisheries with a Pre 1990s As a result, the river has a thriving 2010-2017

catch in recent years of between 13,000 population of salmon and other The subsequent formation of NASCO 1990-1999 SOUTHERNSOUTHERN EUROPE EUROPE and 19,000 salmon. Each year, the freshwater fish and a rich diversity of saw the immediate banning of fishing for 2000-2009 2010-2017 Norwegian government spends more than wildlife. In 2015, a fish survey team salmon in most parts of the North Atlantic Pre 1990s €5 million for the liming programme. found a juvenile salmon in the River beyond 12 nautical miles from the coast – 1990-1999 2000-2009

Dearne, a tributary of the Don – the first a move that created a large protected zone, 2010-2017

evidence of successful spawning in the free of targeted fisheries. NORTHNORTH AMERICA river for more than 150 years. This and other regulatory measures Pre 1990s established by NASCO and its contracting 1990-1999 2000-2009 Photograph: Roy M. Langåker Roy Photograph: Parties greatly reduced harvests of 2010-2017 salmon around the North Atlantic (see River restoration: limestone powder being dispensed via infographic, Reduced exploitation in the NORTHERN EUROPE Pre 1990s pipeline into Norway’s River Modalselva (above); the liming North Atlantic). strategy has a special focus on water quality during the critical 1990-1999

period in spring when young salmon change to smolts (below); 2000-2009 a clutch of salmon eggs (opposite) Today, Atlantic salmon fisheries are 2010-2017 managed to promote and protect diversity and abundance of salmon stocks. Fishing SOUTHERN EUROPE on stocks below their conservation Pre 1990s limit should not be permitted. If socio- 1990-1999 economic factors override conservation, 2000-2009 2010-2017 management actions should limit fishing to ensure stock recovery within a stated timeframe. NASCO and its Parties remain committed to rational management of stocks to support the conservation of the species alongside addressing the many other pressures they face.  Photograph: Nick Hawkins Photograph:

20 21 Photograph: Roy M. Langåker Roy Photograph: RESTORATION AND RECOVERY

AQUACULTURE While fish farming, or aquaculture, has OUR CHANGING CLIMATE resulted in an abundance of salmon on Climate change is perhaps the most complex, and far-reaching, supermarket shelves, it has not come challenge of all for wild Atlantic salmon. Although the mechanisms are without cost to wild populations. One not entirely understood, it is highly likely that climate change is a major impact of salmon farming is that it factor in decreased survival of salmon at sea. increases the abundance of sea lice in the marine environment, to the extent The increase in mortality at sea may be a result of altered marine that it has a negative impact on wild conditions, with salmon prey items no longer available, as abundant, or salmon populations. as nutrient rich as they once were. And timing can be everything, with Worryingly, the hand of climate change is also now reaching further salmon particularly vulnerable when inland. Increases in water temperature and fluctuating levels of rainfall they first leave their home rivers and are predicted to impact all elements of global river systems, with just head to sea. In an already challenging one likely outcome for Atlantic salmon: loss of habitat and increased marine environment, the additional mortality in freshwater environments. burden of a sea-lice infestation But while it is tempting to feel powerless when faced with something so can greatly reduce the chances of all-encompassing as climate change, restorative action can still make a survival. It is also recognised that large positive difference. In Canada, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans numbers of domesticated salmon has conducted Recovery Potential Assessments that provide scientific escape from fish farms each year, information and advice on population viability, recovery potential, plus with escapees observed in rivers in information on threats to persistence and recovery. all regions where salmon farming occurs. For wild salmon, this causes Such detailed assessments are hugely valuable in determining the increased competition for resources extinction risk, and recovery potential, of salmon populations under and may result in a wild fish spawning different environmental scenarios. This, in turn, allows pre-project with a farmed one, compromising the analysis of the most likely outcomes of recovery and restoration actions, genetic ‘fitness’ of wild populations. with efforts directed to where populations are most vulnerable, or The latter is important because where success is most realistic. salmon populations need good genetic diversity to ensure that they are as Additionally, habitats that are expected to be the most climate-resilient resilient as possible to any future can be identified and efforts made to remove barriers that delay or pressures they may experience. prevent Atlantic salmon from accessing them, while also working to protect or restore the quality of these habitats. So, what to do? Careful siting of fish farms away from wild salmon migration routes, state-of-the-art containment at sea, use of sterile fish, sea lice and disease management systems can all help. A further option is the development of closed- containment salmon production systems at sea or on land as an alternative method of fish farming. Such a system of aquaculture would give fish farmers complete control of the rearing environment and minimise the environmental impact of their activities on wild fish. It is just this kind of innovative thinking, together with a range of ongoing restoration and recovery efforts, that can make a real difference to a species that needs all the support it can get. 

Creative thinking: The Freshwater Institute in the United States – a programme of The Conservation

Fund – has worked with the Atlantic Salmon Nick Hawkins Photograph: Federation on land-based, closed-containment aquaculture solutions (left); climate change is 22 predicted to impact all elements of global river 23

Photograph: Sam Levitan/The Freshwater Institute Freshwater Sam Levitan/The Photograph: systems (right) CONNECTIONS WITH PEOPLE

MEMORIES OF THE RHINE Jörg Schneider explores the cultural and economic significance of the extinct Rhine salmon.

FIRST RECOGNISED as an important river As a young boy in the late-1940s, for salmon in Roman times, for centuries Manfred took part in salmon fishing on the Rhine has supplied the people who the Elzbach, a minor tributary of the lived along it with an abundance of fish Moselle which feeds into the Rhine at

– with salmon both a main commercial Koblenz. ‘When the salmon returned Steinmann Frank Photography: catch and a staple food. As late as the in November, we would be sent out to 18th century, a river referred to with walk along the creek to look for them reverence as ‘Father Rhine’ was thought in the deep pools,’ he recalls. ‘When we to hold a population of several million saw the salmon, the fishing tenant was returning adults per year. notified. Then the spectacle began.’ Fishing methods varied greatly. In As Manfred explains, the stream was large rivers, salmon were fished both closed off above and below where the from the shore and from boats using salmon lay using nets attached to willow MAINTAINING TRADITION salmon forks and towed nets. At sticks. The salmon were then caught by Peter Walsh reflects on his experience of a centuries-old form of some weirs, the leaping salmon were local men with nets – with the fish often caught with landing nets, while at the driven out of their shelters with poles. salmon fishing that he hopes will make a return to Irish rivers. spawning grounds themselves, they Waiting on the shore with large were captured with traps, nets, spears,

Photography: Patrick Browne Patrick Photography: containers was the master fish farmer. pitchforks and clubs. ‘The salmon were collected in the Large, shore-operated lift nets, known containers and spawned on the spot,’ SNAP NET FISHING is a historic type of Meanwhile, the ropes used for snap as ‘woogs’, were particularly productive. explains Manfred. ‘Only then were they salmon fishing, believed to be over 1,000 net fishing were originally made of From the 14th century, these salmon traps slaughtered. The eggs were taken to the years old. This fishing method is thought horse tail hair and were spun by hand. were controlled mostly by nobles or the fish farm where they were hatched and to have begun on the Barrow, Nore and Unsurprisingly, the ropes rotted after each church and were leased to fishers, often reared for stocking the following spring.’ at great expense, as salmon became an Suir estuaries in Ireland around the season and had to be re-made every year. The salmon belonged to the fishing twelfth century when the Normans came increasingly coveted commodity. According to local folklore, not a single tenant, and only the catchers got a to the area from Wales. person from the area died during the However, through a combination of cut. It is perhaps no surprise then Totally dependent on tide, snap net great famine of the 1840s thanks to their poor water quality, overfishing, habitat that Ferdinand Perscheid, an 86-year- fishing uses a short net, about 10 m in ability to capture salmon from the Suir degradation and an increasing number old neighbour of Manfred’s, adds: length, stretched between two cots using snap nets. Soon afterwards, and of obstacles, a significant decline in ‘Some salmon were also poached once (small boats). The snap net fishes on armed with the necessary boat and fishing salmon numbers was noted as early in a while.’ as the 19th century. Extensive stocking the river bed and when a salmon hits skills, many snap net fishers emigrated to Not long after, in 1951, the closure of the measures and an international salmon the net, the fishers in each cot ‘snap’ Newfoundland to fish for cod. Moselle barrage at Koblenz saw the river Past and present (from top): Manfred with his souvenir the net shut to trap the fish. treaty in 1886 could not prevent the album; some wonderful vintage images of salmon effectively blocked to salmon. ‘It was all caught on local rivers; Manfred shows author Jörg For conservation reasons, snap net fishing collapse of Europe’s largest salmon over then,’ explains Manfred. ‘Many fish Schneider the river where salmon have now returned Salmon are not meshed in a snap net, has not taken place on the Suir since 2013. stock. By the 1960s, salmon had species suffered, not just salmon.’ so it is a highly skilled fishing technique. However, with signs of stock recovery disappeared from the Rhine altogether. Today, the only other location where in recent years – the river reached its Fast forward almost 70 years and One man who remembers well the snap net fishing takes place is in Wales conservation limit for the 2019 season salmon are now being reintroduced, importance of salmon to the local where salmon and sea trout are targeted. with a small surplus – I’m optimistic that a with young salmon hatched in the creek small snap net fishery can begin again on community is Manfred Ruckschatt. I began snap net fishing in 1959 when already swimming in the river in front the Suir for future generations. salmon were much more abundant than Now aged 76, he is one of the last of Manfred’s house. ‘It is something that they are now. The largest salmon I have Now a historic heritage fishery rather Standing proud: Peter Walsh snap net fishing contemporary witnesses of salmon pleases all of us older residents who together with a friend on the River Suir, Ireland heard of being taken in a snap net was than a commercial enterprise, it is fishing in the lower Moselle region of remember salmon being here,’ he says.  56 lbs in the 1890s. critically important that the tradition Germany. He even keeps a few souvenir and skills associated with this type of photos from those times. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Today, I’m one of just a trio of men left fishing are not lost.  Dr Jörg Schneider is a Senior Chief at on the Barrow, Nore and Suir who can BFS (Office for Fisheries and Freshwater make the traditional cot used for snap net ABOUT THE AUTHOR Studies), Frankfurt. fishing. The construction is based on the Peter Walsh is a traditional snap net same centuries-old design. Originally, a fisher based in Co. Kilkenny, Ireland. cot was a dug-out boat but was later built of larch planks.

24 25

CONNECTIONS WITH PEOPLE Photograph: James Hawkes/NOAA James Hawkes/NOAA Photograph: Service, USA Fisheries TAKING STOCK SHARING THE GIFT OF SALMON Tim Sheehan outlines the work of a long-running international sampling Martin Lee Mueller and Aage Solbakk explore the deep cultural programme in West Greenland. connections between indigenous peoples and salmon.

THE WATERS OFF the west coast of Salmon are also scanned for fin clips SINCE TIME IMMEMORIAL, the warm Salmon have long been celebrated in Along the Tana River – the longest Greenland are home to an important or tags, which would identify their waters of earth’s equatorial belt have yoik, a traditional form of song in Sámi salmon-rich watercourse in Europe – mixed-stock Atlantic salmon fishery. exact origin. Starting in the late 1990s, formed a boundary that no Atlantic or music. A recreation of a song that first salmon fishing and Sámi culture have The salmon are of North American fin-tissue samples have also been Pacific salmon ever cross. These cold- appeared in a book by Otto Donner become so closely interwoven that it is and European origin; most are one- collected to support genetic-based loving fish represent a decidedly northern in 1876, the following yoik text is a embedded in a wide range of spiritual sea-winter salmon – having spent one stock identification. expression of life, with their migration testimony to the importance of salmon in and material aspects of daily life. In winter at sea – and are destined to Fisheries RoryPhotograph: Saunders/NOAA Service, USA drawing coastal and river peoples across the Tana Valley – a core area of Sámi river various ways, the connection is revealed This is crucial work. For effective return to their rivers of origin as two- the Northern Hemisphere into experiences culture in Finnmark (northern Norway): in the Sámi terms for salmon: at sacred management of this fishery, annual sea-winter spawning adults. Sea change: ready for sampling (top); a sampling of wonder, awe and gratitude. sites, or sieidier, where sacrifices were landings data, biological characteristics station in Greenland (above); unloading a catch on the ‘The Salmon, that strong and made for good luck at fishing, and Atlantic salmon were first officially data, and origin information are all quayside (below) From the West Pacific’s volcanic islands precious fish in legends about the importance of documented off the coast of Greenland needed to accurately assess the impact to the dark-blue rivers that branch swimming along the bottom. salmon fishing along the river. in 1780, although anecdotal records of the fishery on contributing stocks. through Russia’s taiga, from Scandinavia’s have them there prior. Fishing for great Arctic streams to the foothills of It will follow the Tana River through As widely unique and place-specific as The International Council for the approaches and techniques are salmon has evolved from animal tendon the Alps, and from the storm-beaten indigenous salmon peoples are on both Exploration of the Sea uses the data developed. This time series can also the earth fabricated lines with bone hooks to Newfoundland coast to Pacific America’s sides of the North Atlantic, we dare say collected by this programme in their support studies to retrospectively if that is the course to follow. today’s local inshore gill net fishery. temperate rainforests, inquisitive that they all share an alertness to the assessment models to predict pre- assess the impacts of a changing humans everywhere bore witness to, and Once again, it swims the long way to ways in which salmon not only feed During the 1960s, the fishery became fishery abundance of North American climate on Atlantic salmon to then celebrated, the annual return of the fish reach the source, the flesh of our bodies, and of so many international, with vessels from Norway, and European stocks. This information forecast the impacts based on future as the world rejuvenating itself as gift. other non-human lives, but also feed the Denmark, Sweden and the Faroe Islands is then used to provide NASCO with climate scenarios. turns black and stops eating. flesh of the mind – the landscape of the participating in the offshore mixed- catch options to inform negotiations for For millennia, indigenous cultures have This vitally important work would not Once again, it turns back to where it imagination. They are united in having stock drift gill net fishery. harvest regulations. lived attentively alongside salmon, each be possible without the support of the came from, carried the salmon’s original gift into crafting their unique responses to the At the height of the fishery in 1971, Results from long-term sampling fishers of Greenland who provide access to the great ocean where salmon story, ritual, technologies of participation experience of living in the gift. The Sámi around 2,700 tonnes of salmon were programmes like this also provide to their fish. (rather than extraction), as well as a word bivdit describes the strangely abound. harvested. Due to concerns that this a metre stick by which researchers moral universe honouring interbeing. reciprocal ties between fisher and fish; it fishery was having a negative impact on can measure, compare and contrast ABOUT THE AUTHOR Once again, it glistens in the water means ‘to fish’, but also to entreat the fish And for as long as salmon are granted contributing stocks, a quota system was population trends and dynamics. when it returns to its own seas. Tim Sheehan is Research Fisheries to give themselves. the chance to journey out to sea, and agreed and implemented in 1976. Since Continued data and sample collection Biologist at NOAA Fisheries Service, which There it will find herring to feed on, to return, they will ask us humans to 1984, the setting of catch regulations has will continue the five-decade-long time co-ordinates the Greenland sampling To the Sámi, the fish are not an ‘It’ as grow fat again, join the reciprocal dance of becoming been facilitated by discussions at NASCO. series and may provide yet unknown much as a ‘Thou’ – a sentient being that programme. His organization is based in through the gift and through sharing.  benefits as new sample processing Woods Hole, Massachusetts, USA. must be treated with respect. and again look like its old self.’ An international sampling programme for the fishery has been in place since ABOUT THE AUTHORS the late 1960s. Generally speaking, Martin Lee Mueller is a philosopher, the sampling methodologies have writer and storyteller based in Oslo. Aage varied over time as the fishery evolved: Solbakk is a historian and Sámi fisher samples were collected from research from Finnmark. vessels using commercial gill nets during the 1970s; from commercial fish processing factories during the 1980s and ‘90s; and from local markets, vendors, and factories when landings were permitted since 2002. The programme has been supported to As it always was: traditional salmon fishing on the Tana River using a drift net (left) and weir net (below)

varying degrees by numerous countries Denise Deschamps Photograph: and institutions with vested interests from across the North Atlantic. For each sampled salmon, length / weight data and scale samples are collected to determine the age and life history (e.g. years spent in fresh water and at sea, continent of origin etc.).

26 Canada et des Parcs, de la Faune des Forêts, Denise Deschamps/Ministère Photograph: Anders Foldvik Photography: 27 SOME SALMON STOCKS FUN FACTS – REFERRED TO AS SOME MALE PARR (USUALLY JUVENILE SALMON) ‘LANDLOCKED’ SALMON MATURE EARLY AND ARE THEN REFERRED TO AS – SPEND THEIR WHOLE ‘SNEAKER’ OR ‘PRECOCIOUS’ MALES BECAUSE OF LIVES IN FRESH WATER, THE WAY THEY SNEAK UP TO SPAWNING ADULTS SOME MIGRATING TO AND DART OVER REDD SITES TO FERTILISE EGGS FRESHWATER LAKES RATHER THAN OUT TO SEA

Sámi The word salmon translates into many different languages Kalaallisut LUOSSA and scripts... (Greenlandic) DIDDI KAPISILLIT Icelandic (small salmon) LAX Faroese LAKSUR Finnish Norwegian LOHI LAKS Scottish Russian Swedish (Gaelic) Estonian Лосось LAX Labrador Inuit BRADAN LÕHE Danish Latvian Innu KAVISILIK English Lithuanian Irish LAKS LASIS SALMON LAŠIŠA UTSHASHUMEK (Gaelic) Cree Dutch German Polish BRADÁN Welsh MISIWÂPAMEK ZALM LACHS ŁOSOŚ EOG Czech SÔSÂSIW LOSOS Mi’kmaq French MISTAMEK Hungarian SALMON EXTRAS… PLAMU Basque SAUMON Passamaquoddy-Maliseet IZOKIN LAZAC Think you now know all about Atlantic salmon? From surprising behaviour POLAM Penobscot ARRUNTA Italian W W Spanish SALMONE to incredible physiology, here are some other amazing facts about this SK ÀMEK Portuguese (Castilian) Greek remarkable species. Nick Hawkins All salmon photography: SALMÃO SALMÓN Σολομός

AN ATLANTIC SALMON’S SENSE OF SMELL IS ESTIMATED TO BE AN ADULT TERRITORIAL JUST PRIOR TO MALE WILL AGGRESSIVELY SPAWNING, ADULT DEFEND A POTENTIAL REDD MALES BECOME VERY SITE AGAINST OTHER MALES 1,000 COLOURFUL IN ORDER – OFTEN KILLING SNEAKER TIMES GREATER THAN TO ATTRACT A FEMALE MALES IN THE PROCESS THAT OF A DOG

4m ONCE SALMON BEGIN THEIR MIGRATION BACK UPSTREAM TO SPAWN, THEY DO NOT EAT AND LIVE INSTEAD OFF THEIR BODY FAT 3m

SALMON HAVE BEEN Dugan Jason HenryPhotograph: (Marine Scotland)/Sean Scotland) Management (Fisheries

Photograph: National Museums Scotland Photograph: KNOWN TO LEAP ALMOST AS HIGH TALE OF THE SCALE  CARVED IN STONE  AS FOUR METRES 2m THE HEAVIEST ATLANTIC It is possible to determine the age Atlantic salmon have been celebrated in all sorts of ways, including Pictish rock carvings TO NEGOTIATE OBSTACLES WHEN SALMON RECORDED of a salmon from the widely-spaced found in Scotland. To the ancient Picts, and hunter-gatherers before them, the salmon rings on individual scales, much RETURNING TO WEIGHED IN AT A SERIOUSLY was revered as a kind of god. like ageing a tree using its growth SPAWNING GROUNDS rings. The scale shown here is from HEFTY 45 KG a sampling programme run by 1m (ALMOST 100 LBS) the International Council for the 28 Exploration of the Sea. 29 Cover Photography: Nick Hawkins Nick Hawkins Photography: Cover

North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization Organisation pour la Conservation du Saumon de l’Atlantique Nord 11 Rutland Square Edinburgh EH1 2AS UK

Tel: Int +44 131 228 2551 [email protected] www.nasco.int

ISBN: 978-0-9514129-8-5 December 2019

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