Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School 1988 Landscape Changes on the Mescalero Apache Reservation: Eastern Apache Adaptation to Federal Indian Policy. Martha L. Henderson Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_disstheses Recommended Citation Henderson, Martha L., "Landscape Changes on the Mescalero Apache Reservation: Eastern Apache Adaptation to Federal Indian Policy." (1988). LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses. 4643. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_disstheses/4643 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at LSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses by an authorized administrator of LSU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. 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Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Order Number 8917822 Landscape changes on the Mescalero Apache Reservation: Eastern Apache adaptation to federal Indian policy Henderson, Martha L., Ph.D. The Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical Col., 1988 Copyright ©1989 by Henderson, M artha L. All rights reserved. UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LANDSCAPE CHANGES ON THE MESCALERO APACHE RESERVATION; EASTERN APACHE ADAPTATION TO FEDERAL INDIAN POLICY A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University ai.d Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in The Department of Geography and Anthropology by Martha L. Henderson B.S., Western Oregon State College M.A., Indiana State University December, 1988 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The process of proposing, researching, writing, and editing this dissertation has only been successful with the assistance of a number of individuals, all who have contributed with their own unique set of gifts, talents, and support. Their assistance has allowed me, in the words of Miles Richardson, "to symbolize experience, to dream of what might be and then to act as if dreams are real," and I am indebted to each individual. The support and commitment of Charles Orser throughout all stages of my work at Louisiana State University are gratefully appreciated. His course on Native Americans led me to ask questions as to the geographic nature of Native American land use since reservation settlement. The research and production of this project was made possible by his support of my interest in this topic. I would also like to thank the other members of my committee, William Davidson, Miles Richardson, Kam-biu Liu, and Paul Burns, who provided guidance and critical analysis of the final paper. Their assistance challenged me to express the geographic nature of the topic to the fullest extent. Their support during the entire process is gratefully appreciated. Along with the members of my committee are several geographers who I would like to recognize for their 11 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. interest and encourgement in my choice to study Native Americans. Milton Newton and Jesse McKee first introduced me to the geographic aspects of Native American studies. Their encouragement led me to the Native American Specialty Group of the Association of American Geographers whose members, particularly James Goodman, Douglas Richardson, Stephen Jett, and Dick Winchell, were equally supportive of this research topic. A number of organizations and individuals in New Mexico made the research and writing aspects of this project possible. They include the Bureau of Indian Affairs at Apache Summit, U. S. Forest Service at Ruidoso and Alamogordo, and the Earth Sciences Department at New Mexico State University at Las Cruces. I would like to express my thanks to Marsha Gale, Thom Heller, David Johnson, William Gribb, John Harrington, Robert Cernaz, William Garner, and Chris Wilson. Technical production of the dissertation was possible with use of equipment and media services at New Mexico State University, Louisiana State University, and the Delaware Division of Parks and Recreation. I am especially indebted to Peter Mires for his cartographic assistance. Lastly, I am indebted to many who have provided friendship and support over the course of the last fifteen years. Friends in Oregon who have provided encouragement since I first dreamed of completing a Ph.D include James Gallagher, Carolyn Stastny, Joe Walicki, Michael Rice, Mary iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reed, and Jerry and Joan Tanquist. In Louisiana, I gratefully thank Andrea Smith and her daughters Chalin and Hilary, Carolyn Prorok, and Lary Dilsaver for their constant support. IV Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This volume is thankfully dedicated to Gale Masters and Mary Henkel Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................ ii TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................... vi LIST OF T A B L E S ......................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES. ...................................... ix ABSTRACT ............................................... xii CHAPTER I; EASTERN APACHE LANDSCAPES AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION ............................. 1 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................ 14 Introduction..................................... 14 Sutton's interlocking Themes.................. 16 Human Ecology as a Cross-Disciplinary Topic . 19 The Process of Culture Change and Cultural Adaptation................................ 23 Federal Administration and Indian Lands .... 26 Eastern Apache Geography and Culture........ 29 CHAPTER III: PRE-RESERVATION GEOGRAPHY OF THE EASTERN APACHE...................... 32 Introduction....................................... 32 A p a c h e r i a ........................................ 32 Pre-Reservation Subsistence Patterns........ 37 Band Organization and Political Leadership. 42 K i n s h i p ........................................... 44 Sacred Places ....................................... 44 Common Places ....................................... 45 Places Avoided................................... 46 CHAPTER IV: RESERVATION OCCUPATION AND SPATIAL ORGANIZATION, 1883-1952 .............. 48 Introduction...................................... 48 Reservation Assignment.......................... 49 Environmental Setting ...................... 49 Cultural Setting ............................. 59 The Allotment Act of 1887 ........................ 60 From Rations to Resource Management... 65 The Beginnings of a Livestock Industry . 69 Chiricahua Settlement on the Reservation . 81 Use of the Forest R e s e r v e ............. 86 Livestock Operations in 1930 .............. 91 VI Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTINUED PAGE Reservation Settlement and Agricultural Patterns, 1880-1930 94 Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 ............... 103 Mescalero Apache Agriculture in 1935