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PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY an Existential Criterion for the Normal

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PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY an Existential Criterion for the Normal Psychology in Russia: State of the Art Volume 13, Issue 2, 2020 PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY An Existential Criterion for the Normal and Abnormal Personality in the Works of Viktor Frankl. Summary Sergey A. Kapustin* Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] Background. Tis is the last in a series of four articles scheduled for publication Keywords: in this journal. In the frst article (Kapustin, 2015a), I proposed a new “existen- human tial criterion” for the normal and abnormal personality that is implicitly present nature, human in the works of Erich Fromm. According to this criterion, normal and abnor- essence, mal personalities are determined, frst, by their position regarding existential existential dichotomies, and, second, by particular aspects of the formation of this position. dichotomy, Such dichotomies, entitatively existent in human life, are inherent, two-alterna- normal tive contradictions. In the other articles (Kapustin, 2015b, 2016a), I showed that personality, this criterion is also implicitly present in the four famous personality theories of abnormal Freud, Adler, Jung, and Rogers. personality Objectives. To provide evidence that this criterion is present in the personal- ity theory of Viktor Frankl and to present a comparative analysis of all six theo- ries of personality. Results. Te existential criterion for the normal and abnormal personality based on the works of Fromm is also implicitly present in theoretical conceptual- izations of personality, predisposed and non-predisposed to developing various psychological problems and to mental disorders, by Freud, Adler, Jung, Rogers, and Frankl, although in more particular forms, related to more specifc existen- tial dichotomies, characterizing the nature of human life. Conclusion. Te fact that the existential criterion is present in these six theo- ries of personality, developed within totally diferent approaches to psychology and psychotherapy, is evidence of a high degree of its theoretical justifcation and of the possibility of their integration. ISSN 2074-6857 (Print) / ISSN 2307-2202 (Online) © Lomonosov Moscow State University, 2020 © Russian Psychological Society, 2020 http://psychologyinrussia.com An Existential Criterion for the Normal and Abnormal Personality… 141 Introduction In the frst article in this series (Kapustin, 2015a), I described an “existential crite- rion” for the normal and abnormal personality implicitly present in the works of Erich Fromm (1942, 1947, 1964, 1977, 1991). Fromm developed his theoretical understanding of personality based on the philosophical branch of objective humanistic ethics, which proposes a certain view of how a human being should live. Te ultimate moral imperative of a person who is following what should be considered as a standard of life, involves the self-deter- mination of values that facilitate living in accordance with human nature. Based on this school of thought, Fromm proposed his own theoretical concept of human nature, which has two characteristics that Fromm considered essential. Te frst is that in human life there are so-called existential dichotomies, which are inherent, two-alternative contradictions, which appear to a person as problems requiring solution. Te second characteristic is that a human being is capable of self-determination. Te most important concepts in Fromm’s works are those of the productive and the nonproductive personality, which are characterized by particular features of the content and the formation of the personality in relation to these two characteristics. Fromm defned this position as a scheme of orientation and worship. If the position of a personality (scheme of orientation and worship) in its content and in the way it is formed facilitates implementation of these two characteristics, such a personality was defned by Fromm as productive; if not, it is nonproductive. From the point of view of objective humanistic ethics, the way of life of a productive personality is a norm of human life, because it corresponds to human nature. Tus a productive personality can be considered a normal personality; a nonproductive personality deviates from this norm and is abnormal. In my view, because Fromm considers the essence of human life to be charac- terized by existential dichotomies and self-determination, the position of a produc- tive (normal) personality is compromising in its content, matching the contradic- tory structure of human life in the form of existential dichotomies, and it is created by oneself, based on one’s life experience and reason—that is, on a rational basis. On the contrary, the nonproductive (abnormal) personality denies the contradic- tive structure of human life in the form of existential dichotomies, and is oriented toward a consistent, noncompetitive and, as a consequence, one-sided way of life. A specifc feature of this position is that it is imposed by others and based on a per- son’s wishes and feelings about them—that is, on an irrational basis. From the point of view of Fromm, the abnormality of a personality interpreted like that is one of the most important factors infuencing the development of various psychological problems and other mental disorders—primarily, neurosis. Given that the criterion for diferentiating between normal and abnormal per- sonalities involves specifc features of their position toward existential dichotomies, I identify this criterion as existential: Normality and abnormality are determined frst by special features of content and second by particular aspects of the forma- tion of a position toward existential dichotomies, which are entitatively existent in human life and are inherent, two-alternative contradictions that appear to a person as problems requiring solution. 142 S. A. Kapustin Te essential attribute of a normal personality is orientation toward the contra- dictory predetermination of life in the form of existential dichotomies and the need to search for compromise in their resolution. A distinct feature of the formation of this position is that it develops on a rational basis with the active participation of the person—that is, on the basis of knowledge, the source of which is the person’s own experience and reason. Te position of an abnormal personality subjectively denies the contradictious predetermination of life in the form of existential dichotomies and is oriented toward a consistent, noncompetitive, and, as a consequence, one- sided way of life that doesn’t include self-determination. Such a position is imposed by other people on an irrational basis: that of wishes for and feelings toward them. Te objectives of my articles were to show that the existential criterion is con- tained in a number of well-known theories of personality developed in diferent traditions of psychology and psychotherapy and regarded as incompatible with each other. In the second article in this series (Kapustin, 2015b), I showed that this criterion is implicitly present in the personality theory of Sigmund Freud (1963a, 1963b, 1964), toward the existential dichotomy of nature–culture, and in the per- sonality theory of Alfred Adler (2007, 2011) toward the existential dichotomy of superiority–community. In the third article (Kapustin, 2016a), I showed that this criterion is also implicitly present in the personality theory of Carl Jung (1914, 1969, 1971, 1972), toward the existential dichotomy of opposites, and in the person- ality theory of Carl Rogers (1959, 1965, 1995), toward the existential dichotomy of self-actualization–conditional values. Objectives Te objectives of this article are to show that the new existential criterion of normal and abnormal personality based on the works of Fromm is implicitly present in the theories of personality of Viktor Frankl, although in a rather special way, and to present a comparative analysis of all six theories of personality. Te Existential Criterion in Frankl’s Teory of Personality I begin discussing Frankl’s theory (1967, 1986, 1990, 2014) with an analysis of his general views on human nature, which he views as characterized by a pluralism of diverse forms of existence that coexist in life as an indestructible unity: Te distinguishing characteristic of human existence is the coexistence between an- thropological unity and ontological diferences, between the unifed human manner of being and the diverse constitutive elements of being of which it is a part. (Frankl, 1990, p. 48) Frankl explains this view with a geometrical analogy. Pluralism of diverse forms of human existence can be compared to an integral dimensional fgure, presented on a chart as three projections in orthogonal dimensions. Each of these projections, taken separately, characterizes some essential feature of this geometrical fgure, but only one-sidedly, because a dimensional fgure cannot be identifed as only one of its projections. Adequate and full representation of the form exists only in the unity of its diverse projections. An Existential Criterion for the Normal and Abnormal Personality… 143 According to Frankl, the main diferent forms of human existence, equivalent to three orthogonal dimensions in geometry, are the biological, social, and spiri- tual. Each of these forms is characterized by its specifc features. Te biological form of human existence characterizes human life as a living or- ganism. In Frankl’s view, this is a subject of research mostly in two sciences: biology and psychology. Te social form of human existence characterizes life in society
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