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Hidden Dangers? an Investigation of Volcanic and Environmental Impacts on Human Health and Life in Historical Iceland

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Hidden Dangers? an Investigation of Volcanic and Environmental Impacts on Human Health and Life in Historical Iceland Hidden dangers? An investigation of volcanic and environmental impacts on human health and life in historical Iceland Joe Wallace Walser III Dissertation towards the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of History and Philosophy School of Humanities University of Iceland Reykjavík, 2021 Sagnfræði og heimspekideild Háskóla Íslands hefur metið ritgerð þessa hæfa til varnar við doktorspróf í fornleifafræði Reykjavík, 16. mars 2021 Sverrir Jakobsson varadeildarforseti Faculty of History and Philosophy at the University of Iceland has declared this dissertation eligible for a defence leading to a Ph.D. degree in Archaeology Doctoral Committee: Professor Steinunn Kristjánsdóttir, supervisor Professor Agnar Helgason, University of Iceland and deCODE Genetics Professor Rebecca Gowland, Durham University Hidden dangers? An investigation of volcanic and environmental impacts on human health and life in historical Iceland © Joe W. Walser III Reyjavík 2021 Dissertation submitted toward the fulfillment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the author. Licenses from the publishing journals were obtained for the reproduction of the articles included here. All images copyright © Joe W. Walser III (National Museum of Iceland) unless otherwise indicated. ISBN: 978-9935-9563-0-9 ORCID iD: 0000-0001-9329-579X 2 Abstract Volcanic eruptions can cause significant human health and environmental threats both during and after their event due to the hazardous materials and gases that are actively or passively released into the surrounding environment. Historical records suggest that severe historic eruptions in Iceland caused mass mortality to livestock, famine, altered weather and led to the contamination of water and air, all of which significantly impacted the health and living condition of people in the past. The aim of the project was to investigate the effects of volcanic eruptions on human health across Icelandic history, as well as the impacts of the anthropogenic use of heavy metals (e.g., Hg, As, Pb) and climate change (e.g., cooling weather during the Little Ice Age). The study used a range of different methods but mainly analyses on human and animal bones and soil samples. Standard osteological analyses were conducted on skeletal individuals (n=186) from archaeological sites (n=7) across Iceland dated between the 10th and the 19th century. Samples were then collected for further analyses: human bone (n=36) and teeth samples (n=31), as well as animal bone samples (n=23) and soil samples (n=13), which were selected from the monastic-hospital site of Skriðuklaustur (AD 1493-1554). In addition to previously published comparative data, bone samples (n=14) and soil samples (n=9) were selected from a farm site, called Skeljastaðir, which was abandoned during the AD 1104 eruption of the nearby volcano Hekla. Standard osteological and palaeopathological methods were used for the skeletal analysis and anthropological descriptions. Microscopy, radiography, endoscopy, and other specialized techniques were used where necessary. Isotope (δ18O, 87Sr/86Sr, δ13C) and trace element (Hg, Pb, Cd, As, Zn, Sb, Ba, Sr) analysis of dental enamel was undertaken to investigate geographic provenance and possible exposure to toxic emissions during childhood. At the same time, isotope ratio mass spectometry of bone collagen samples (δ13C, δ15N, δ34S) from humans and animals was used to reconstruct palaeodiet and provide indications about overall nutrition. Trace element analysis (ICP-MS and ISE) was also used on bone samples to investigate ante-mortem exposure to toxic elements of volcanogenic origins (F, Hg, Pb, Cd, As). Isotope analyses conducted for the reconstruction of geographic provenance of the people buried at Skriðuklaustur showed a local population born in Iceland that came to the monastery seeking treatment, hospice, trade, or religious activity from throughout the south-eastern quarter of the country. Dietary reconstruction showed a mixed marine and terrestrial diet with freshwater fish input at the monastic-hospital Skriðuklaustur, while a primarily terrestrial protein diet with freshwater fish input at the inland farm site Skeljastaðir. Overall, the results indicated that the burden of skeletal fluorosis on the human population was low, perhaps because people, unlike the livestock, quickly fled from areas directly impacted by volcanic fallout. The skeletal burden of most other volcanogenic pollutants was also low, indicating that any slight elevations were the result of natural, passive background emissions or limited anthropogenic exposure. However, mercury was elevated in these skeletal assemblages, due to both anthropogenic uses (e.g., as a medicine) and volcanogenic exposure. The impacts of volcanic hazards in the past cannot be dismissed and they certainly caused complicated, life-threatening, and long-term effects upon the living conditions and health of people in the past. On the other hand, it seems that the immediate dangers (e.g., volcanic smoke, lava flow) were mostly circumvented, unlike previously hypothesized. People likely mitigated against volcanic disasters by temporarily moving away from areas undergoing eruptions. 3 Útdráttur Eldgos geta ógnað heilsufari fólks og haft alvarleg áhrif á náttúruna, bæði meðan á þeim stendur og til langs tíma, sökum hættulegra efna og eitraðra lofttegunda sem þau losa út í umhverfið. Stór eldgos á Íslandi hafa áður verið talin hafa valdið stórfelldum búfjárdauða, hungri, breytingum á veðurfari og vatns- og loftmengun, sem hafði í kjölfarið mikil áhrif á heilsu og lífsskilyrði íbúa landsins fyrr á tíð. Markmið þessarar rannsóknar var að kanna hversu mikil áhrif eldsumbrotin höfðu á heilsufar fólks í gegnum aldirnar á Íslandi en um leið að skoða í sama skyni önnur mengunaráhrif í umhverfinu, til dæmis af mannavöldum (s.s. með notkun kvikasilfurs, arseniks og blýs) og vegna loftslagsbreytinga (s.s. kólnandi hitastigs á Litlu ísöld). Í rannsókninni var margvíslegum aðferðum beitt en einkum stuðst við greiningar á beinum manna og dýra, auk jarðvegssýna. Í úrtaki hennar voru bein 186 einstaklinga frá sjö mismunandi stöðum á Íslandi sem voru í byggð allt frá 10. öld til 19. aldar. Þá voru sértækar greiningar gerðar á gögnum frá Skriðuklaustri í Fljótsdal, þar sem var klaustur og spítali á árabilinu 1493-1554, og frá Skeljastöðum í Þjórsárdal, sem lögðust í eyði í kjölfar Heklugoss árið 1104. Alls voru 36 sýni úr mannabeinum og 31 tannsýni, sem og 23 dýrabeinasýni og 13 jarðvegssýni valin til rannsóknarinnar frá Skriðuklaustri. Til samanburðar voru valin 14 beinasýni og níu jarðvegssýni frá Skeljastöðum. Hefðbundnum beina- og meinafræðilegum aðferðum var beitt við greiningar á beinunum. Smásjárskoðanir, röntgenmyndatökur, speglanir og aðrar sérhæfðar aðferðir voru nýttar til frekari rannsókna þegar þess þurfti. Ísótópagreiningar (δ18O, 87Sr/86Sr, δ13C) og snefilefnarannsóknir (Hg, Pb, Cd, As, Zn, Sb, Ba, Sr) á tannglerungi voru framkvæmdar til að kanna landfræðilegan uppruna einstaklinga og mögulega útsetningu fyrir eitrun í æsku. Samhliða voru gerðar massagreiningar á samsætum úr kollagensýnum (δ13C, δ15N, δ34S) sem tekin voru úr beinum manna og dýra til að afla vísbendinga um mataræði og almenna næringu einstaklinganna. Snefilefnarannsóknir (ICP-MS og ISE) voru jafnframt gerðar á beinasýnum til að kanna útsetningu fyrir eiturefnum úr eldgosum (F, Hg, Pb, Cd, As) fyrir andlát. Niðurstöður ístópagreininga sýna að þau sem leituðu til Skriðuklausturs, til að sækja sér læknismeðferð, í viðskiptalegum erindagerðum eða af trúarlegum ástæðum, voru fædd á Íslandi og virðast hafa komið hvaðanæva að af suðausturhorni landsins. Niðurstöður rannsókna á mataræði íbúa þar leiddu ennfremur í ljós að meginuppistaða fæðuvals þeirra var blanda af sjávar- og landdýrum, auk þess sem merki voru um neyslu á ferskvatnsfiski. Íbúar Skeljastaða hafa hins vegar fyrst og fremst nærst á prótínríkri fæðu úr landdýrum, auk nokkurs ferskvatnsfisks. Helstu niðurstöður rannsóknarinnar eru þær að tíðni flúoreitrunar í sýnaúrtakinu er almennt lág, hugsanlega sökum þess að fólk, ólíkt búfé, flúði svæðin fljótt í kjölfar eldsumbrota. Eituráhrif vegna flestra annarra gosefna mældust sömuleiðis lág, sem gefur til kynna að smávægileg eiturfrávik séu til komin vegna óbeinna, náttúrulegra orsaka eða takmarkaðra útsetninga af mannavöldum. Þó mældust gildin hærri þegar kom að útsetningu fyrir kvikasilfurseitrunum, bæði af völdum eldgosa og manna. Á meðan ekki verður horft fram hjá þeirri hættu sem eldgos ollu á Íslandi á fyrri tíð, virðist sem að beinir áhættuvaldar (s.s. gosgufur og gjóska) hafi haft takmarkaðri áhrif á heilsufar en áður hefur verið talið. Engu að síður hafa eldgos vissulega valdið flóknum, lífshættulegum langtímaáhrifum á framfærslu-, búsetu- og veðurfarsleg skilyrði sem síðan geta haft óbein áhrif á lifnaðarhætti og heilsu fólks. Líklegt er að fólk hafi komist hjá slíkum hamförum með tímabundnum búferlaflutningum frá gossvæðum. Í framtíðinni gæti verið mikilvægt að beina sjónum að viðbúnaði landsvæða á virkum gossvæðum gegn langtímaáhrifum félagslegra, pólitískra, umhverfislegra og efnahagslegra þátta fremur en að horfa til alvarleika skammtímaáhrifa sem eldsumbrot kunna að valda. 4 List of Publications This doctoral thesis is based upon the following articles: I. Walser III, J.W., Kristjánsdóttir, S., Gowland, R., and Desnica, N. 2019. Volcanoes, medicine and monasticism: investigating mercury exposure in medieval Iceland.
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