Oaklands School Geography Department - Iceland Trip 2019

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Part A: Where is Iceland?

Iceland is an island formerly belonging to Denmark. It has been a Republic since 1944 and is found in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean. We will fly to Keflavik and stay near Hvolsvollur in the SW of the island. The map above is an enlargement of the box drawn on the map of Iceland below left. Map area on next Clearly, we are only visiting a small section of page the island, but in this small area you will be blown away by what you will see. Perhaps your visit to the island will prompt you to come back to explore further in the future?

Part B: History of Iceland Iceland is only about 20 million years old! It was formed by a series of volcanic eruptions at the Mid- Atlantic ridge. In fact the plume of magma called the Iceland ‘Hot Spot’ is responsible for its continued existence and almost continuous volcanic activity.

Exact dates for first human occupancy is uncertain, but the accepted date is 874 for the first permanent settlers from Scandinavia. They settled near Reykjavik (which means ‘smokey cove’ – due to the Geothermal heat). Settlers continued to come from Norway, Scotland and Ireland.

The first parliament was held at Thingvellir (pictured right), where chieftains met and agreed laws and rules for the country. The country converted to Christianity in the 11th Century, but pagan worship was tolerated if it was in secret. Civil war followed and the end result was that Iceland accepted Norwegian sovereignty and were ruled by the Norwegian kings. When King Olav IV died this ended the male Norwegian King blood line, so Norway (and therefore Iceland) became part of the Kolmar Union, which incorporated Sweden and Denmark, with Denmark the dominant power.

By the middle of the 16th century, King Christian III of Denmark tried to impose Lutheranism on his subjects. Catholic bishops in Iceland opposed the Reformation, but when Bishop Arason was captured in battle all opposition attempts were lost. Most Icelanders are Lutheran to this day.

The climate deteriorated in the 18th Century – the Laki eruption of 1783/4 resulted in the death of 9,000 people and the loss of 80% of livestock. This deterioration continued into the 19th century too and consequently many people left for the New World. However, a new national consciousness was revived in Iceland at this time and a movement for independence started. In 1874, Iceland was granted home rule from Denmark. In 1918, Denmark recognised Iceland as a sovereign state, but Iceland agreed that Denmark would look after its foreign affairs.

In 1940, Nazi Germany invaded Denmark, so Iceland decided that it would sever its ties with Denmark and decided to take control of its own foreign policy. They were determined to stay neutral during the war, but the British invaded in May 1940 (not to take over, but to make sure the Germans would not get there first). In July 1941, the British handed over to the US to look after the island. Eventually, Iceland became a republic in 1944 and became truly independent.

The US maintained a military presence in Iceland until 2006 and was responsible for its defence. This agreement has now ended, but the remnants of the US military power can be seen at Keflavik air base (where you landed). Iceland is now protected under NATO.

One strange conflict the Icelandic people have been involved in were the ‘Cod Wars’ with the UK during the late 50s to the 1970s. Iceland wanted to extend the fishing rights around their coast, but

3 the UK disagreed with this. As a result, we sent ships up to challenge the Icelanders and a number of boats were rammed. The Icelandic government threatened to close the NATO Keflavik air force base and as a result the UK had to concede defeat.

Iceland is not part of the EU, but is part of the European Free Trade Association and the Schengen passport area. In fact, Iceland has very high living standards, but the suffered greatly following the collapse of their banking system in 2008.

Part C: Climate Iceland can be warm in the summer – it was about 24⁰C when I stayed there in August 2011! However, as can be seen from the climate data on the right, we can expect temperatures to be somewhere around 13⁰C.

51mm of rainfall can be expected in the month of July.

However, the weather in Iceland is very changeable, so you must prepare for virtually all conditions. Warm clothing and waterproof clothing are essential.

Part D: Travel details (draft – final details will be provided in the final arrangements letter about two weeks before we go) (23kg hold luggage and one piece of hand luggage no more than 10kg)

Flight Outbound Tuesday 23rd July 2019  Leave School at 08:30 by coach and travel to Heathrow, Terminal 2 - meet at 08:15 on the school drive.  Flight: Icelandair flight FI(fi)451 departing at 13:05 and arriving at Keflavik, Iceland at 15:10 (local time - 1 hour behind us).

Flight Inbound Saturday 27th July 2019  Flight: Icelandair flight FI450 departing Keflavik at 12:30 and arriving at Heathrow, Terminal 2 at 16:30.  Arrive at Oaklands at approximately 19:00

Travel Itinerary (order of days may change due to weather conditions) Tuesday 23rd July: Arrive at Keflavik airport. Meet coach driver and drive to ‘The Bridge Between two Continents’ at Hafnir and then on to Gunnuhver hot springs. We will visit the Blue Lagoon and then on to one more geothermal area – Krysuvik – and then on to the hotel where we will have a meal (although I would suggest that the students should try to eat something at Gatwick airport after check in as it will be a long day).

Wednesday 24th July: Breakfast at the hotel and then travel to the Kerid volcanic crater. From there, we will drive to Ljosafoss HEP station. Drive to Thingvellir – this is the best place to see the North American plates splitting from the Eurasian plate and also site of the first parliament in the World in 874AD. On to watch the geyser erupt at Geysir and then on to the waterfall at Gulfoss. On the return journey, stop at Faxofoss waterfall.

Thursday 25th July: Day trip to Heimaey. We will catch the ferry to the islands in the morning. We will then walk up to the ‘Pompeii of the north’, where the houses are buried under the ash form the 1973 eruption and then on to the summit of the volcano. We will have lunch at the top of the volcano – you can even toast your sandwiches due to the heat from the ground! In the afternoon, we will go on a boat trip around the island with our ‘Viking Tours’ guide. There is an excellent pool on the island, which we will visit before we catch a late ferry in the evening. Quick stop at Gluggafoss. The evening meal will be back at the hotel.

Friday 26th July: Glaciers, coasts and waterfalls. Depart the centre and drive to Seljalandsfoss waterfall. Then on to Skogafoss waterfall. Glacier walk on the Solheimajokull glacier. We will go to beach at Vik and see the basalt columns and then our final stop will be Dyrholaey to see the magnificent coastal arch and 120 metre high cliffs.

Saturday 27th July: Walk round Reykjavik in the morning. We will visit the house where Regan and Gorbachev met during the Cold War, the famous church, main shopping area, concert building and the City Hall. We will drive to Keflavik around lunchtime and return home. We should arrive at Oaklands at about approximately 19:00.

Accommodation Husid. There are excellent views of the coast and the Westmann Islands to the south and the majestic ice caps of Myrdalsjokull and Eyjafjallajokull are just to the east. We have stayed here on 7 x previous visits.

Guesthouse Húsið, Gloa Elf, Hvolsvöllur, Sudurland 861, Iceland. Tel Nº: (00354) 892-3817. Mr. Bamford (school mobile) phone number in case of emergency +447977 297946 .

Each room has bunk beds and the students can expect to be in rooms of 4-6. There are shared shower (with private cubicles) and toilet facilities. We also have use of the communal area in the accommodation with sofas, TV etc. WE ARE FULL BOARD – BREAKFAST AND EVENING MEAL PROVIDED, BUT STUDENTS WILL NEED TO MAKE THE SANDWICHES FOR THEIR LUNCH AFTER BREAKFAST EACH MORNING. I must stress that this is not a hotel, and is a purpose-built centre for youth groups. BRING TOWELS AND SOAP/SHOWER GEL.

Part E: Kit List The main thing to remember is that we will not be going away for a very long time. Therefore, you don’t need to bring huge suitcases. However, we will be visiting a range of environments so you must pack with care.

IT COULD BE COLD – GLOVES, WATERPROOF CLOTHING AND WARM JACKETS CRUCIAL. TAKE A WARM HAT TOO!!

Part F: Code of Conduct (you will have signed a detailed code of conduct

sheet – just a reminder provided here) You will all be guests in Iceland and will be representing Oaklands, Hampshire, your country and your family. Please behave well on all occasions; remember others will be judged by your actions.

For the benefit of everyone cooperate by being helpful and sensible – always show consideration to others. Some of the key rules to obey during the trip are as follows: -

1. Instructions by Teachers / Course Leaders must be obeyed without delay at all times. 2. SMOKING is not allowed 3. ALCOHOL is not allowed to be consumed by students – good luck trying to buy it too in Iceland!! 4. PUNCTUALITY is essential. Know the time and place to meet for coach etc. 5. Always stay on marked paths and obey staff instructions about where you should be and things such as single file walking 6. If you feel ill report to a member of staff. 7. You are not allowed in any bedroom other than your own. There are communal areas to socialise.

We ask all parents to remind their children that we expect the highest standard of behaviour throughout the trip. Parents will be billed for payments arising from damage caused by the actions of their son / daughter.

Muster Groups The party has been split into groups so that we account for students quickly when required. Students must remember who their muster group leader is and report to them at meet times. Muster groups will be used at the airports, but also at locations where there is a higher risk (walking near waterfalls etc.). PLEASE NOTE – MRS LUDLAM AND MRS MOSS WILL ALSO BE COMING TO HELP (29 students: 5 adults). Mr Bamford (12 times), Mr Quinn (1) and Mr Ludlam (1) have been to Iceland before.

Mr Ludlam (10) Mr Bamford (10) Mr M Quinn (9) 1 Babu, Roshini 1 Crouthers Camacho, Matthew 1 Brain, Vicki 2 Daniels, Conor 2 Alexander, Gemma 2 Breathnach, Andrea 3 Humble, Lily-May 3 Davies, Cerys 3 Coldridge, Ruby 4 Johnson, Thea 4 Hall, Abbie 4 Day, Isobel Online version has names obscured due to GDPR 5 Liddle, Isabella 5 Hancox, Lucas 5 Duckworth, Joseph 6 Livdans, Lukass 6 Knight, Charlotte 6 Duffy,James 7 Mkwananzi, Lihle 7 McQuiston, Emma 7 Evetts, Jack 8 Pope, Olivia 8 Sweetman, Sam 8 Finan, Matthew 9 Riggs, Ben 9 Toms, Lorne 9 Lethbridge, Monica 10 Webb, Jake 10 Webb, Tilly

Part G: The Geography of the trip – general information. Iceland sits on top of a hot spot where the North American Plate and the Eurasian plate are diverging. Normally, such a constructive plate boundary is found below the sea and it is rare to see an example on land. Due to the amount of eruptions in Iceland over the years the lava extruded is now above the level of the sea and has produced an island (the highest point is 2119 metres). In some locations, such as Thingvellir or Hafnir (Bridge over two continents) you can actually stand between the two great plates. The boundary between the two plates is called the Mid Atlantic Ridge.

The volcanic zones in Iceland Some of the famous volcanoes in Iceland include: Hekla, Katla, Eldfell, Eyjafjallajokull, Grimsvotn, Laki, Krafla, Surtsey and Bardabunga. Grimsvotn was the last large eruption to occur in 2011 that burst through the Vatnajokull ice cap. This was followed by a more effusive eruption in 2015 at the Bardarbunga volcanic system, which erupted for a number of months. The eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in 2010 caused widespread flight disruption. The volcano probably causing most concern is Katla as it is restless and hasn’t erupted since 1918. Normally, it erupts every 80 years or so, so it is ‘due’ an eruption soon. If it does, the effects could be devastating

However, there are distinct volcanic zones in iceland: the Neo Volcanic Zone (NVZ), the Western Volcanic Zone (WVZ) and the Eastern Volcanic Zone (EVZ). These are shown on the map on the previous page. We will visit areas of the East and West volcanic zones. http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Iceland/description_iceland_volcanics.html is an excellent website if you want to find out about the volcanoes of Iceland.

Volcanic eruptions in Iceland can be particularly bad. In 1783/4, the Laki eruption (near the ‘Z’ of EVZ on the map on the previous page) erupted 3.4 cubic miles of lava during the eight month eruption and in doing so killed 50% of livestock and 25% of Iceland’s human population as a result. This was mainly due to the gases that the volcano emitted. Global temperatures dropped too following the eruption and some believe that 6 million people died around the World as a result due to crop failures etc. Hopefully, no such thing will take place whilst we are there!

Geothermal fields Due to the presence of magma below the surface, Iceland also has a large amount of Geothermal fields. Rainwater and snowmelt seep underground through cracks and fissures and can down to depth of 2-4 km. Clearly, the groundwater down there is heated to boiling point due to the presence of magma, and this hot and less dense water begins to rise back towards the ground surface. This naturally heated water and steam produce the Geothermal areas.

There are two types of Geothermal area:

 High temperature geothermal areas- the water is at temperatures of 200⁰C at depths of 1km  Low temperature geothermal areas-the water is less than 150⁰C at depths of 1km

In high temperature fields the hot water has a pH of less than 7 – i.e. acidic. Due to these two factors, it can dissolve large amounts of bedrock through which it is passing. Gases are also dissolved out of the rocks. When the water, charged with all the minerals and gases, reaches the surface of the ground the minerals are re-deposited producing various coloured landscapes. A summary of these colours and the minerals responsible are found on the next page in the table.

Mineral present Colour Sulphur Yellow Silica White Iron Oxide Red Iron Sulphate Dark grey

The mineral deposits at Krysuvik

Volcanic features of high temperature Geothermal fields include:  Smelly fumeroles due to escaping hydrogen sulphide – it smells like rotten eggs. You can see the gases escaping in the picture above. It really does stink there!  Bubbling mud puddles/ pools as the geothermal steam and water mix with soil.  Gushing geysers (pictures on the previous page) - Superheated rushes upwards at great pressure and ejects itself at great heights. We will see the Strokkur Geyser erupt at Geysir. The silica also ejected accumulates around the geyser’s emission hole and this is called ‘sinter’.

Volcanic features of low temperature fields include: Water temperatures are much lower, below 150⁰C. The water rends to have a ph >pH7, so is more alkaline. There are fewer dissolved minerals in the rising water as a result.

 Silica deposits are found as silica can be dissolved at lower temperatures  Hydrogen sulphide gas (rotten eggs) can still be present

How does Iceland use the Geothermal heat/ volcanic landscape?

Horticulture Greenhouse cultivation and horticulture are important parts of the modern Icelandic economy. By growing foods in this way, Iceland is almost self-sufficient in certain products throughout the year. Around 1,500 people work in greenhouse cultivation and it generates about £30 million a year. This is due to the ‘free’ hot water.

There are about 135 horticultural holdings in Iceland amounting to roughly 190,00m² of greenhouses. Most are found within the high temperature geothermal areas in SW Iceland. We will drive through Hveragerdi (population approx. 2,500), which is one of the main towns involved in this industry. The ‘free’ heat is fine, but unfortunately, Iceland lacks sunlight in the Winter, so artificial lighting has to take place which does cost in terms of electricity.

Tourism Not strictly just to do with the geothermal heat, as the landscape includes glaciers and coastal scenery, but Iceland relies heavily on tourism. The main attraction that draws people there is the volcanic landscape. In fact, approximately 13% of foreign earnings comes from the tourist industry, which is second only to the fishing industry. Roughly 7,000 people are employed through tourism and this number is growing as more people come to the island.

Tourist Country of Origin (%)

2.8 1.8 3 Nordic Nations 2 6 27.2 UK USA/Canada 11 Others Germany 14 17.1 France Benelux 15.1 Italy Switz/Austria Spain/Portugal

A problem with tourism is the seasonality of it. Iceland is dark for large parts of the year due to the latitude the country is located at. In fact, over half of the tourists come during just two months: July and August. The authorities are keen to extend this season, offerings short breaks, ice holidays etc.

People love to visit the Geothermal areas to experience the colours of the mineral deposits, the erupting geysers, the bubbling mud, boiling water and the terrible smells! We will visit the Haukadalur Geothermal area, where the Strokkur Geyser is located, which erupts 30 metres into the air every 5 minutes or so.

Another famous place is the Blue Lagoon. The Blue Lagoon is one of Iceland’s most visited sites with more than 400,000 visitors annually. The bathing lagoon is 5,000 m2. At each time the lagoon holds six million litres of geothermal seawater all of which is renewed every 40 hours. The Blue Lagoon’s guests actually bathe between two continents as the Eurasian and American tectonic plates diverge at the Blue Lagoon.

Energy and Hot Water Hot water is used in the Svartsengi Geothermal power station to produce electricity and then is pumped in to the Blue Lagoon (discussed previously). Five major geothermal power plants exist in Iceland, which produce approximately 26.2% (2010) of the nation's energy. In addition, geothermal heating meets the heating and hot water requirements of approximately 87% of all buildings in Iceland. Apart from geothermal energy, 73.8% of the nation’s electricity was generated by hydro power and 0.1% from fossil fuels.

Iceland’s River Systems Iceland has high precipitation all year and thus rivers are abundant. However, Iceland’s rivers are ‘youthful’ in that they have only been present for the last 10-14,000 years following the melting of the ice caps after the last Ice Age. There are three types of river in Iceland:

1. Spring fed rivers 2. Run-off rivers 3. Glacial meltwater rivers

 Spring fed rivers These flow fairly uniformly during the year with little variation in discharge. They are found where the bedrock is porous/ pervious.

 Run-off rivers These fluctuate dramatically during the year. They occur where the rocks are non- permeable/impervious where rainfall cannot percolate into the groundwater. Any rainfall therefore flows as overland flow and reaches the river. Rivers such as these tend to have braided channels due to the vast variations in discharge. These rivers are also very ‘flashy’ in terms of their response to a rainfall event.

 Glacial meltwater rivers At the snout of the glacier, the ice melts and feeds these rivers. The water is milky-grey due to amount of rock flour (ground away by the glacier) carried in suspension. These also tend to have braided channels due to high volume of sediment and the variations in discharge. The discharge of these rivers also alters daily in response to the sunlight and the melting of the glacier.

The changing nature of the rivers in Iceland poses problems to bridge builders and also to people constructing dams for hydro-electric power (HEP) as the size of the rivers change dramatically. Nevertheless, the rivers are a great asset to Iceland. As has been mentioned previously, 73.8% of electricity is created through HEP.

Glaciers of Iceland The glaciers and ice caps of Iceland cover approximately 11% of the total land surface area and have a considerable impact on the landscape and weather of the country.

The largest glaciers in Iceland are shown on the map on the right. The Vatnajokull ice cap is the largest, but you will walk on the Myrdalsjokull ice cap, which is to the east of where we stay at Hvolsvollur.

What is a glacier? When snow accumulates, the weight of the snow compresses the air out of the snow below and this causes snow to turn into a ‘névé’ of ‘firn’ and eventually after about 20 years the névé will turn into ice. Think of what happens when you make a snow ball; when you compact the snow together it becomes more dense and becomes more ice-like. Ice that is resting on slopes will move due to gravity; when the ice begins to move it is called a glacier.

What does a glacier do? A glacier behaves rather like this digger; it can push sediment in front of the advancing glacier (bulldozing) and rip rock from the bedrock (plucking). They also have the ability to act like a giant piece of sandpaper wearing away the rock (abrasion).

Glaciers produce very distinctive landforms. There is not room to go through them in this booklet, but a summary of the depositional landforms you will see is shown below. If you interested in what happens in upland regions, see Mr. Bamford and he will be happy to discuss it with you! Remember, glacier erode, transport and then deposit.

It is not just about the ice as beyond the ice the meltwater in the rivers take over. Consequently, there are huge expanses of ‘outwash plain’ otherwise known as ‘sandur’ where the rivers move and deposit beyond the extent of the glacier.

What are the issues associated with the glaciers in Iceland? Iceland’s glaciers are under threat. Most of the Icelandic glaciers retreated rapidly during the warm decades from 1930 to 1960, slowing down as the climate cooled during the following decade, and started to advance after 1970. The rate of advance peaked in the 1980s, after which it slowed down until about 1990. As a consequence of rapid warming of the climate that has taken place since the mid-1980s, most glaciers in Iceland began to retreat after 1990, and by 2000 all monitored non- surge type glaciers in Iceland were retreating. Continued global warming will reduce their size, but warmer conditions could result in more precipitation on the ice caps, which could result in further growth. It is a complex situation!

The second issue relates to the presence of volcanoes under many of the glaciers. When a volcano erupts under a glacier (e.g. Eyjafjallajokull in 2010, Grimsvotn in 2011, 2004 and 1996) the sudden decrease in temperature as the magma comes in contact with the ice causes the volcano to erupt explosively. This caused very fine ash to drift away from Eyjafjallajokull in 2010 and caused disruption to air travel. Ash is not the only problem as the heat from the volcanoes melts the ice and the water can escape suddenly from the glacier in what is known as a Jokulhlaup (Glacial leap/burst).

The picture above and below shows what happened after the jokulhlaup at Eyjafjallajokull – there used to be a bridge in the middle of the pictures and it has now been rebuilt (and not to worry you, but we use this bridge!!).

Part H: Geographical Information for each of the Days

Day 1: Arrival and Blue Lagoon

Reykjanes Peninsula We arrive at Keflavik airport, which was an important NATO air base (hence the disproportionate size) run by the American Air Force. As we fly in you will be able to see the rifting and stretching of the crust in the Reykjanes Peninsula – these are called fissure swarms and they aligned in a NE to SW direction. The Reykjanes peninsula is situated in the Western Volcanic Zone (WVZ), the western extension of the Mid Atlantic Ridge.

Lava has poured from these fissures over the years to build up the peninsula. However, when the land was under ice (glaciers) palagonite lava was erupted and when it was clear of ice, basalt poured out. The most significant eruption in this area in historic time was in 1226; the locals called the eruption Illahraun or ‘Evil Lava’. These different horizontal layers of lavas has enabled Geothermal power to be extracted.

The Reykjanes peninsula is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean and the layers (produced by the different lava flows) allows sea water to enter the rocks at depth where it is superheated by the hot magma. Additionally, rain water/ snow melt percolates down through the fissures and rest above the high temperature sea water.

The hot, high pressure steam can then be extracted at the surface for geothermal power and hot water. Unfortunately it does smell as the hot water can dissolve the rocks and minerals in its way up to the surface – the hydrogen sulphide smells like rotten eggs!

Sudurnes Heating Company The Sudurnes Regional heating company has harnessed this water/ energy and sells hot water, electricity, drinking water and steam. They have 400 hectares of water reservoir underground at a depth of 600 metres and use between 6 and 7 million tonnes of steam/hot water each year. The company was lucky in that they have high temperature sea water and cooler fresh water in the same location. The seawater is used for geothermal power and the hot seawater is used to heat the cold fresh water for central heating purposes (you can’t have salty water in radiators- can you think why not?). You will see these red pipes above ground used to distribute the hot water as we drive around Iceland.

Blue Lagoon (Bláa Lónid) This is simply a pool of industrial waste! The Sudurnes heating company pumps excess seawater used during the geothermal energy

16 production into a lake and is kept at 36-39⁰C – about body temperature! On the floor are deposits of silica – a great exfoliant, and the water itself has a blue-green algae living it giving the amazing colour to the water. This also softens the skin. They had hoped the excess water would drain away back into the lava, but the rate of percolation was so slow that it formed the lagoon.

Local Icelanders noticed the slowly forming artificial lake in 1978 and started to bathe in it in secret! Some people noticed that it seemed to cure skin conditions such as psoriasis and this has now been well documented.

The Blue Lagoon was moved to the current site in 1999 and now has been developed to include things such as a restaurant, cafe, sauna suites, massage rooms and a gift shop.

The Bridge between two continents at Hafnir On arrival, you can see a great fissure as the Eurasian and North American plates are diverging at a rate of about 1cm per year. Look at for some amazing lava field here where you will see ‘ropey’ lava.

Thingvellir This is a more impressive version of what is happening at Hafnir. Thingvellir is also important in the human history of Iceland, discussed earlier – we will try and squeeze in a visit here, probably on the second day.

Day 2: The Golden Circle We will drive west towards Selfoss and then drive north along route 35 towards the interior of the country. We will be visiting places in the ‘Golden Circle’ – so called as it includes some of the most famous tourist attractions in Iceland. We will see geysers, waterfalls and volcanic craters during the day.

Kerid Volcano Kerið (anglicised as Kerid) is a volcanic crater lake located in the Grímsnes area. The caldera, like the other volcanic rock in the area, is composed of a red (rather than black) volcanic rock. The caldera itself is approximately 55 m deep, 170 m wide, and 270 m across. Kerið’s caldera is one of the three most recognizable volcanic craters because at approximately 3,000 years old, it is only half the age of most of the surrounding volcanic features. The other two are Seyðishólar and Kerhóll. While most of the crater is steep-walled with little vegetation, one wall is sloped more gently and blanketed with a deep moss, and can be descended fairly easily. The lake itself is fairly shallow (7– 14 metres, depending on rainfall.

It is believed that Kerið was a cone volcano which erupted and emptied its magma reserve (rather than there being a giant explosion. Once the magma was depleted, the weight of the cone collapsed into the empty magma chamber. Click http://www.icelandvirtualtour.com/kerid-crater.html for a virtual tour.

Faxi Waterfall This is often missed as you drive along the road and is not deemed impressive enough to even have a sign post telling people to turn off the road! It really is quite a sight and we will be able to walk down to the base of the waterfall next to the salmon ladder seen on the left of the photo.

The glacial fed Tungufljót river flows over the basalt rock at this location and it has cut a gorge of recession as the waterfall has retreated.

Gulfoss Waterfall Gulfoss, which translates as ‘golden waterfall’ due to the way the sun turns the water a golden colour. The powerful glacier-fed Hvítá river has a huge amount of meltwater in the summer and consequently produces an extremely powerful river. About a kilometre above the falls it turns sharply to the left and flows down into a wide curved three- step "staircase" and then plunges abruptly in two stages (11 m and 21 m) into a crevice 32 m (105 ft) deep. The crevice (gorge of recession) is about 20 m wide and 2.5 km in length. The average amount of water running over this waterfall is 140 m³/s in the summertime and 80 m³/s in the wintertime.

The Hvita river and Gulfoss itself was earmarked as a potential location to produce hydro electricity, but it was saved for the nation and now is one of Iceland’s most popular tourist locations. Sigríður Tómasdóttir was determined to preserve the waterfall's condition and even threatened to throw

18 herself into the waterfall when people suggested it could be used for HEP. A stone memorial to Sigriður, located above the falls, depicts her profile.

Haukadalur Geothermal Field (Strokkur Geyser) The geysers and other geothermal features which have developed on Laugarfjall rhyolitic dome are major tourist attractions. The biggest geysers of Haukadalur are Strokkur and Geysir itself, which gave others their name. Strokkur is very dependable and erupts every 5 to 10 minutes, whereas the bigger Great Geysir only erupts 4 to 5 times a day. There are also more than 40 other little hot springs, mud pots and fumaroles nearby. Haukadalur geothermal area was first mentioned in written sources in 1294, when the local hot springs were activated by earthquake. Earthquakes are known to activate

19 local geysers also in the recent past, including 17th and 21st July 2000 earthquake. Due to the geysers the valley has been the prime tourist attraction of Iceland since the 18th century.

Strokkur (pictured erupting below) is Icelandic for ‘churn’ – you will see why this name is given when you watch it erupt. It was first mentioned in 1789, after an earthquake unblocked the conduit of the geyser. Activity fluctuated in the 19th century; in 1815 its height was estimated to be as much as 60 metres. It continued to erupt until the turn of the 20th century, when another earthquake blocked the conduit again. In 1963, upon the advice of the Geysir Committee, locals cleaned out the blocked conduit through the bottom of the basin, and the geyser has been regularly erupting ever since.

The water at a depth of 23 metres is around 120 °C, but cannot boil because of the weight of the water pushing down on it from above. When this water is forced up to around 16 metres, some of the water may be above boiling point, which sets off the chain reaction: the pressure decrease allows more water to boil and flash boil into steam, which drives the unboiled water further up the conduit. As this happens closer and closer to the surface, with increasing velocity, the water and steam is forced out, and it is this mixture of water and steam that forms the eruption.

If we are lucky we might see the Great Geysir erupt – it erupts rarely, but is larger than Strokkur (pictured right).

Day 3: Volcanic Disaster on Heimaey The volcanic islands lying 10km off the South coast of Iceland are called the Westmann Islands. We will spend a whole day visiting the islands to see what impact the 1973 eruption of the Eldfell volcano had on the island.

Introduction The Westmann Islands is an archipelago consisting of 15 islands, 30 islets and skerries. Despite their relatively inaccessible location, the islands are home to approximately 4,000 people. Almost everyone lives within the settlement of Vestmannaeyjar on the island of Heimaey. Almost all work directly or indirectly in the fishing industry, which is made possible by the sheltered harbour found on Heimaey. This is a rare commodity on the south coast of Iceland as most of the coast consists of exposed sandy shores.

Huge tonnages of fish are landed on Heimaey, which include cod, haddock and capelin (a type of salmon). There is flat ground next to the harbour which is used for the processing factories used to clean and freeze this precious commodity and it is this, combined with the sheltered harbour, that makes Vestmannaeyjar such a thriving place.

The eruption Although the islanders have been lucky in terms of the harbour etc, they are unlucky in the sense that their island is essentially an area that could erupt at any time. This is exactly what happened on 1:55am on January 23rd 1973 when an eruption started. The eruption lasted for over five months.

The Westmann islands sit along the Eastern Volcanic Zone (EVZ) and were made famous before the 1973 eruption by the appearance of the island of Surtsey that erupted out of the Atlantic Ocean just to the SW in 1963. They are all volcanic in their origin, with most formed about 10,000- 12,000 years ago- this is very young!

The eruption in 1973 was just another episode of the development of the island of Heimaey. The diagram Ian Hardie (right) shows the stages of development.

Ian Hardie

As can be seen on the map above, the 1973 erupted added significantly to the island, but crucially it also threatened the harbour and therefore the fishing industry on the island.

What actually happened? Hjalmar Gudnason was walking with friends next to the harbour and saw lava bombs and smoke being ejected to the south of the island on the eastern edge of the dormant volcano Helgafell. Once Hjalmar alerted people, the 5,000 population were evacuated within 5 hours to the mainland. In fact, this evacuation was made possible due to severe weather preceding the eruption, which meant that the fishing fleet had taken shelter in the harbour. 70 boats were therefore on hand to complete the task.

Some 200 earthquakes had been recorded two days before, but the focus of these were quite deep and were not felt at the surface. However, on the 23rd January and 1.6km fissure opened up across the island (pictured above right). The lava flowed towards the sea and strong winds also blew the tephra and bombs in the same direction, thus sparing the town.

After two days the fissure centralised around a central vent and a cinder cone was created. This was called ‘Eldfell’ which translates as ‘Fire Mountain’. 250 people were left on the island and did the following jobs:

 Salvage peoples’ belongings and household goods  Shovelling and brushing off the tephra from flat roofed buildings to try to reduce the risk of collapse  Nailed corrugated sheets over windows to prevent the fire bombs from setting fire to properties

By the 15th February Eldfell had reached 220 metres in height (in just three weeks!) and houses were buried in 2 to 6 metres of tephra.

Tephra was not the only problem as lava continued to flow. Lava flowed north from the volcano and advanced towards peoples’ properties. The route was fairly predictable so people had time to move things out, but it must have been a painful experience seeing their houses consumed by the lava. Things became critical when on the 19th February the western rim of the crater gave way, allowing more lava to flow northwards towards the harbour.

Faced with impending disaster (they could ill afford to lose the harbour), the islanders tried to cool the lava to solidify it and thus divert the lava away to the east to the sea. The Fire Brigade did this using hoses to spray the lava, but things improved when powerful pumps were brought in from the USA. The islanders had won by pumping an estimated 6.2 million tonnes of cold seawater onto the lava! The eruption was declared over on the 4th July 1973.

Effects of the eruption  1,500,000 tonnes of tephra fell on Vestmannaeyjar  250 million m³ of lava extruded  A brand new volcano was created 220m high!  Heimaey grew by 2.2km²  400 building were lost  1 death due to asphyxiation

Effects: not all bad?  Tourism: This developed and allowed the islanders to diversify in terms of their economic activities.  Hot Water: A heat exchanger was placed in the lava field and cold water from the mainland was pumped into it. The water was heated to 80⁰C and then piped into homes and the local swimming pool!  Geothermal energy: this lasted for 12 years before the lava cooled too much!  Sheltered harbour: The harbour entrance was even more sheltered as a result of the lava flow and is now protected from easterly gales.  Tephra: This was thrown into the sea and created new land – golf course! The tephra was used for the runway at the airport.

What we will do on the island We will catch the ferry to the island in the morning. We will then walk to the ‘Pompeii of the North’, where they have excavated a number of houses from the tephra and then we will go on to climb to the top of the volcano.

In the afternoon, we will go on a boat trip around the island and hopefully see rare birds and whales (search Viking Tours Heimaey on the internet) and then spend time in the swimming pool in the late afternoon.

Day 4: Waterfalls, coasts and Glaciers During the day we will drive east along the south coast of Iceland to Vik and then return in the evening.

Waterfalls We will see two huge waterfalls today. They have been formed as a result of isostacy. This is when the land level changes relative to the sea. During the last Ice Age, a huge ice sheet would have covered Iceland and the sheer weight of this would have depressed the land and consequently the land at the base of the waterfalls would actually have been under the sea. The steep rock faces would actually have been sea cliffs at that time.

However, once the ice had melted away the land would ‘rebound’ upwards and in doing so lift the sea cliffs high above the level of the sea. This is called ‘isostatic rebound’. The waterfalls now cascade over the former sea cliffs. The diagram above explains how isostacy occurs.

Seljalandsfoss This is the first waterfall we will visit and is 65m high. We can actually walk behind the waterfall (bring your waterproofs!). The reason this is possible is due to the way waterfalls develop over time.

Abrasion and hydraulic action in the plunge pool, combined with frost- Basalt shattering of the rock face, results in the retreat of the waterfall. This is Basalt called headward erosion.

Softer Basalt

Seljalandsfoss can be dangerous if you are not prepared. Walk in single file across the wet rocks and make sure you have suitable footwear and waterproof clothing.

These are views of Seljalandsfoss from the front and also behind the water!

Skogafoss This is a ‘curtain’ style waterfall and tumbles 60 metres over the ancient basalt cliffs. The formation is the same as Seljalandsfoss – and so are the risks. We won’t walk behind this waterfall as it is too powerful. We will walk to the top of the waterfall too to see the series of waterfalls above the main one.

Coastal landforms We will also be able to see spectacular coastal scenery too along our journey.

Dyrholaey To reach Dyrholaey we travel along a ridge of shingle that connects the headland to the mainland (this is called a tombolo). The headland itself is about 100-120m high and can be dangerous if you don’t follow my instructions!

Reynisdrangar At this stop we will walk onto the beach and observe the columnar basalt in the cliffs. Basalt is the most common rock on Earth and it is extruded during volcanic eruptions.

It can flow long distances before it cools and is very fine grained. The most striking features are the basalt columns that are produced. The formation is shown below:

Ian Hardie

Vik Despite its small size (291 inhabitants as of January 2011) it is the largest settlement for some 70 km around and is an important staging post, thus it is indicated on road signs from a long distance away. It is an important service centre for the inhabitants and visitors to the coastal strip between Skógar

and the west edge of the Mýrdalssandur glacial outwash plain. It is the wettest town in Iceland, in receipt of 2,275mm a year!

Vík lies directly beneath the Mýrdalsjökull glacier, which itself is on top of the Katla volcano. Katla has not erupted since 1918 and this longer than typical repose period has led to speculation that an eruption may occur soon. An eruption of Katla could melt enough ice to trigger an enormous flash flood, potentially large enough to obliterate the entire town. The town's church, located high on a hill, is believed to be the only building that would survive such a flood. Thus, the people of Vík practice periodic drills and are trained to rush to the church at the first sign of an eruption.

I went there in 2011 following a glacial flood caused by Katla which wiped out the bridge to the east of the town (above left). The replacement was built within a week (above right). There would be plenty of warning for people to evacuate though if Katla erupted violently.

Solheimajokull Glacier This formation of glaciers has been discussed earlier in this booklet, so in this section I will outline the features that you are likely to see on the glacier walk.

The Solheimajokull glacier cascades down from the Myrdalsjokull ice cap and is classified as a valley glacier.

The highest point of the Myrdalsjokull is 1450m and given the latitude of 63⁰35’ North means that it is very cold up there.

The glacier appears clear close up, but can in fact appear blue/turquoise. This is because the ice absorbs all colours of the light spectrum apart from the blue part, which is reflected back.

It is worth remembering that a glacier is a system in that it has inputs, processes and outputs. At the top of the ice cap will be a zone of accumulation where snow falls and eventually turns into ice. The glaciers then moves down the valley towards lower altitudes (eroding the landscape in the process through abrasion, plucking and bulldozing and aided by freeze-thaw weathering). At the snout (end) of the glacier there is a zone of melting (ablation). We will experience the landscape at the snout where the ice is melting.

Solheimajokull has had periods of surge (advance) and retreat. It actually grew in the 1600s during the ‘Little Ice Age’ when global temperatures reduced. It is now retreating.

Katla: The Katla volcano is under the Myrdalsjokull ice cap and if you smell hydrogen sulphide (rotten eggs) it is time to evacuate as this is a sign that Katla is stirring! In reality, our guides have a direct radio link with the Iceland Meteorological Service and are the first to know if there is a problem. If the smell suddenly becomes strong, it is important to move higher up the valley sides.

Dirt Cones: Shown on the right. These are formed when moraine (sediment carried by a glacier) is more than 3cm thick covers an area of ice. This insulates the ice and prevents it from being melted by the Sun Consequently, these cones of ice are left as the ice around it melts (it probably had less than

3cm of moraine, which actually speeds up melting). These are not simply mounds of rock and ash – there is ice under there!

Kettle Hole lakes: At the front of the glacier you will find small lakes. These are formed when blocks of ice break off the glacier at the snout as it melts (or if deposited there by a jokulhlaup). The ice is buried by moraine and eventually the ice melts over time. The moraine collapses and the hollow is filled up by river/rain water. We have these in our own country – there are examples of them in my home town, Shrewsbury.

Erratics & Moraines: Refer back to the diagram earlier in the booklet to see how they are created.

Crevasses: Be very careful on the ice as the ice has been stretched and squeezed and as a result cracks have opened up. If you get a Mars bar and bend it you get the idea. The chocolate breaks up and this is exactly like what occurs on a glacier. Some are hidden by snow – hence why we have a guide.

Moulin: A moulin is a roughly circular, vertical to nearly vertical well-like shaft within a glacier through which water enters from the surface. The term is derived from the French word for mill. It is believed that the water that flows englacially can help lubricate the glacier and help it to move. This is not entirely understood though. Keep an eye out for these as they can be very deep – 60 metres or so on the Solheimajokull. NEVER APPROACH THE GLACIER FROM THE FRONT AS THE SEDIMENT CAN ACT LIKE QUICK SAND. FOLLOW THE INSTRUCTIONS OF MR. BAMFORD AT ALL TIMES AND ONCE ON THE ICE DO EXACTLY AS THE MOUNTAIN GUIDES TELL YOU.

Day 5: Reykjavik (Smokey Cove) and return home We will visit:

 City Hall  Perlan Centre  Concert Hall  Docks  Gorbachev/Reagan meeting house  The main church  Visit the shops

Reykjavik (continued) We will fly into Keflavik airport, which is much larger than you would expect given the size of Iceland’s population. Its size is because it was a former NATO air base and was an important strategic location between the USSR and the USA. From there, we will drive to Reykjavik. We will visit:

Main shopping area

Gorbachev/ Reagan meeting

house

Concert Hall and harbour

Hallgrimskirkja (famous church)

City Hall (and

‘Old Reykjavik’) Catholic Church