Volume 3, Issue 4(1), April 2014 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] website : www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr. Victor Babu Koppula Faculty Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam -530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Vice Chancellor Department of Political Economy Indira Gandhi Institute of Development University of Vienna, Vienna & Research Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament, Mumbai Austria
Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Prof. Alexander Chumakov Director Chair of Philosophy Department Institute of Constitutional and Parlimentary Russian Philosophical Society Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Moscow, Russia Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Nagarjuna University, Patna University Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Lima Peru Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University , Rajasthan Prof. Igor Kondrashin The Member of The Russian Philosophical Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Society Department of Economics The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Andhra University - Visakhapatnam the UNESCO, Moscow, Russia
Prof. K.R.Rajani Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Department of Philosophy Rector Andhra University – Visakhapatnam St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT,U.S.A Prof. A.B.S.V.Rangarao Department of Social Work Swami Maheshwarananda Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Founder and President Shree Vishwa Deep Gurukul Prof.S.Prasanna Sree Swami Maheshwarananda Ashram Education Department of English & Research Center Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Rajasthan, India
Prof. P.Sivunnaidu Dr. Momin Mohamed Naser Department of History Department of Geography Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Institute of Arab Research and Studies Cairo University, Egypt Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Dr.K.Chaitanya Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Postdoctoral Research Fellow Indonesia Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Prof. Roger Wiemers Technology Professor of Education People’s Republic of China Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Dr.Merina Islam Prof. G.Veerraju Department of Philosophy Department of Philosophy Cachar College, Assam Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr R Dhanuja PSG College of Arts & Science Prof.G.Subhakar Coimbatore Department of Education Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Dr. Bipasha Sinha S. S. Jalan Girls’ College Dr.B.S.N.Murthy University of Calcutta Department of Mechanical Engineering Calcutta GITAM University –Visakhapatnam Dr. K. John Babu N.Suryanarayana (Dhanam) Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Department of Philosophy Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Dr. H.N. Vidya Governement Arts College Dr.Ch.Prema Kumar Hassan, Karnataka Department of Philosophy Andhra University, Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Visakhapatnam Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Dr. E.Ashok Kumar Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Department of Education Prof. Chanakya Kumar North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong University of Pune PUNE
© Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in
IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought. Volume 3 Issue 4(1) April 2014 Page S. No No 1. Nyeburin Marriage Different Citizenship in the Middle 1 of Social Changein Bali I Putu Sudarma
2. Dalits : The Autochthons of India- A Socio- 29 Cultural, Historical and Scientific Perspective Capt.Naveen Kumar Chukka
3. An Overview of Medical Education (Allopathy) and 38 Libraries in India P. Srinivasulu
4. Nutritional Status of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus 60 Women PoonamKhanna, Rachna and Rekha Kaushik
5. The Dark Continent: A Place for Living 72 Rejeti Krishna Rao
6. Gender and Development Approaches at National and 80 International Levels Nalla Sushma and Sanapala V L N Uday Kumar
7. Domestic Violence Against Women in India: A Study 95 Nareshlata Singla and Mukesh Garg
8. Health Status Among Elderly Women in India 112 P. Sailaja
9. A Study on Occupational Stress Management in 122 Selected Private Banks in Villupuram P.Arulprasad and K.Murgadoss
10. Image error Concealment Technique Using Boundary 129 Matching Algorithm & Recovery of Corrupted Image Data Based on the FEC Interpolation Vishwajit K. Barbudhe 11. Applications of Water Balance in the Assessment of 148 the Ideal Growing Period for Rain Fed Crops in Tenta District - A Case Study from Ethiopia Tesfaye Muhiye Endris and B. Hema Malini
12. Visual Translation Through Computational Generation 159 of Referring Expressions: A Lingual Survey to Cut Through The Language Barriers Challa Ramakrishna, Krishnaveer Abhishek Challa and Challa Sushmita
13. Emotional Stability and Parent-Child Relationship 169 K. C. Barmola
14. The Contribution of Christians to Indian Culture 177 K.Narasimhulu
15. Impact of Education in Women Empowerment – A 191 Study of Scheduled Tribe Women in Arukumandal of Visakhapatnam District S.Bhagyam
16. Water Quality Assessment of Kolleru Lake, Andhra 203 Pradesh Ravi Kumar Katiki,G. V. Narasimha Rao and Vasudeva Rao
17. Southern India Famine of 1876–78 213 Christopher Garnepudi
18. The Role of Indian Christians in Freedom Movement 217 D.Mercy Ratna Rani
19. Greater Participation of Young Voters for A Stronger 227 Democracy Jagadish B
20. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Construction 240 Industry D.Udayakumar,V.Raja Babu and T.Mahankali 21. Life Insurance in Rural India 258 G.Syamala Rao
22. A Study on Awareness Regarding Work Simplification 271 Among Home Maker Across Income Group Nabat Arfi and Shalini Agarwal
23. Influence of Internet Addiction on Mental Health and 276 Adjustment of College Students Neeta Sharma
24. Communication Strategy for Climate Change 296 Challa Ramakrishna and Krishnaveer Abhishek Challa
25. Maheep Singh Ke Katha Sahitya Mein Parivarik 305 Jeevan Ka Yatharth Chitran B. Laxmi
Editorial …….. Provoking fresh thinking is certainly becoming the prime purpose of International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER). The new world era we have entered with enormous contradictions is demanding a unique understanding to face challenges. IJMER’s contents are overwhelmingly contributor, distinctive and are creating the right balance for its readers with its varied knowledge. We are happy to inform you that IJMER got the high Impact Factor 2.735, Index Copernicus Value 5.16 and IJMER is listed and indexed in 34 popular indexed organizations in the world. This academic achievement of IJMER is only author’s contribution in the past issues. I hope this journey of IJMER more benefit to future academic world. In the present issue, we have taken up details of multidisciplinary issues discussed in academic circles. There are well written articles covering a wide range of issues that are thought provoking as well as significant in the contemporary research world. My thanks to the Members of the Editorial Board, to the readers, and in particular I sincerely recognize the efforts of the subscribers of articles. The journal thus receives its recognition from the rich contribution of assorted research papers presented by the experienced scholars and the implied commitment is generating the vision envisaged and that is spreading knowledge. I am happy to note that the readers are benefited. My personal thanks to one and all.
(Dr.Victor Babu Koppula) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.735; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 3, ISSUE 4(1), APRIL 2014
NYEBURIN MARRIAGE DIFFERENT CITIZENSHIP IN THE MIDDLE OF SOCIAL CHANGE IN BALI
Dr. I Putu Sudarma Government Hindu Dharma Institute Denpasar, Indonesia
I. Preface Human life in this world can not be separated from the changes. Changes in society will always exist because of the changes are in a dynamic state along with the changing times. The changes could affect progress can also setbacks. The elements can be either a change in the society of social values, social organization, social institutions , social stratification, and so on. Wilbert Moore (Lauer, 1993 : 40) reveals that social change is an important change of the social structure, ie the patterns of behavior and social interaction. She also incorporate social changes in the expression of various structures, such as norms, values, and cultural phenomena. Further social changes include a very broad field that is defined as a variation or modification in every aspect of social processes, social forms, and any modification of the established interrelationship patterns and standards of conduct. In line with the opinion of Wilbert Moore, Farley (Sztomka 2007: 5) argues that social change, ie changes in behavior patterns, social relations, institutions and social structure at any given time. Other experts say that social change is any change in the social institutions within a society influence the social system including the values, attitudes, and patterns of behavior among groups in society (Selo Sumardjan and Soelaiman Soemardi in Abdulsyani, 1994: 164). Abdulsyani (1994 : 164-166) states that social change occurs as result of public dissatisfaction against the old life circumstances, norms and social institutions, or the means of living that long are deemed
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inadequate to meet the new requirements. Social change is also caused by a heap (accumulation) and the discovery of new cultures, population growth, and conflict. The island of Bali in the eyes of the tourists are more popular than Indonesia. The island of Bali has a variety of uniqueness so that the island is becoming as one of the world tourism destination. Bali's tourism industry began to experience growth since the early 1970 and has becomes an island that opens to the outside world. The Balinese are known as friendly societies own customs and unique culture. Its uniqueness makes this island quickly developed into a tourist destination. The rapid advancement of tourism in Bali has an impact on the interaction between Balinese Hindu population with a variety of different ethnic religion. Along with the times and frequent travelers, both domestic and foreign visit and interact continuously to Bali enable them to establish a loving relationship that ends with marriage. Marriage is done not only in the usual form, but also occur in the form of nyeburin. Balinese Hindu community adopts patrilineal kiship lineage is drawn through the male (purusa) is based on the straight line. In such systems, the man holding an important position, either in family relations or public relations. In family relationships, sons as successor offspring, successor rights and obligations within the family. The boy has the right to inherit the wealth of his parents, and have a responsibility in the maintenance of objections or pemerajan (family shrine), both physically and spiritually. Physical maintenance, which maintains the family to keep it holy building is clea, safe, and pure, while the obligation to perform religious rituals on certain days. Other Liabilities is doing funeral ceremony (pitra yadnya) for his family . In connection with the community, the role of men in Bali seem more prominent, namely as a member (manners) banjar, and pakraman. They community have an obligation to maintain , and perform religious
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ceremonies at the temple three (place of worship of the manifestation of God as creator , preserver and destroyer) (Budiana , 2009: 10 ). With the appointment of the status of women as child male child ( purusa ), gave rise to the existence of institutions rajeg cemetery, which is patrilineal kinship system in Bali is no longer a purely patrilineal, but patrilineal switch-over. Through institutions rajeg cemetery, the family that does not have a male heir, if the marriage can hold a girl raised as a cemetery rajeg. The appointment is intended to prevent extinction (keputungan) bride family (Diputra , 2003: 92 ) Changes in marital nyeburin, both consequences of the marriage ceremony, the position of the husband, as well as their offspring. If regular marriage, the marriage ceremony was held at the groom's family, while the marriage nyeburin held at the bride's parents' house. The wife who was given the status of purusa has the right to inherit the family environment. All children are the result of couples in marriage nyeburin follow the purusa is clan mother. Nyeburin marriage is not merely an act establish marriage (uniting a husband and wife become husband and wife), but also included therein cemetery rajeg status determination (confirmation status of girls into boys) and the adjustment process caste respectively. In the tradition of marriage endogamy nyeburin applied in a manner pepadan dynasty. This marriage was also performed in the family who does not have a son. However, in the midst of social change seem nyeburin form of marriage tend to be more open than ever before. That is, marriage can nyeburin is done cross caste, interfaith even with foreign nationality. Thus, nyeburin marriage have shown a strong tendency towards emancipation movement and anti-discrimination. This phenomenon is reinforced by a social system that is based on equality in a multicultural society frame.
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II . FORMS OF MARRIAGE NYEBURIN IN DIFFERENT CITIZENSHIP 2.1 Families Only Blessed Daughter Nyeburin marriage with foreigners in Bali for families who have a relatively small number of daughter. The marriage only in the Bengkel Village, District of Kediri, Tabanan regency between Ni Komang Dwi Eka Yuliati David Francis West. Ni Komang Eka Yuliati Dwi is the third of three children born between the marriage of I Ketut Sudarya and Ni Ketut Sariani, while their other daughter are also famale, namely Ni Ni Putu and Kadek Widyastuti Tri Agustini. Among the three children only one is not married, that is Ni Putu Widyastuti. Although there she is not married yet, but her parents still worry because it is difficult to predict that among their daughter willing to mate nyeburin. Finally families should be grateful and happy for Ni Komang Eka Dwi Yuliati has got a boy friend willing to perform the marriage in the form of nyeburin. The bride's parents did not discuss the differences of religion, ethnicity and nationality as the most prospective husband gets his principle that is based on mutual love and willing to perform the marriage nyeburin. After the prospective bridegroom agreed to nyeburin marriage, the bride's parents invite her family for consultation immediately. In the consultation, the bride's parents deliver their objectives nyeburin way in marriage. The family may respond well and agreed. The response was given because the family understand the conditions of the bride's parents do not have a son as successor to the family. In addition, the various obligations of both the family and society must bear. With the support of family, marriage nyeburin done with memadik procedures. This way both parties pursued because the bride's family well and groom approve of the marriage. Family support shown during pepadikan, namely bridegroom,s parents welling to come to Bali and blessed the marriage. Pepadikan done by borrowing a place at the
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bride's parents' house and went smoothly (Merta in Sudarma, 2012 : 175). After papadikan, brides parents and families begin to prepare a variety of equipment for the marriage ceremony. Community members participate to help the success of the ceremony. Bride and groom wedding ceremony was held at the bride's parents' home on 15 September 2010. At the ceremony, the parents and the groom's family came back to Bali to witness the ceremony. A process series of ceremonies that may include sudhiwidhani, mepamit, nyambutin, ngotonin ritual, metatah, mekalan-kalan and widhiwidana (the ceremonial processes from birth to marriage). Nyambutin is part of a ceremony to human yadnya. This ceremony is unique because it is performed only once during life . The ceremony was held at the bride's place and led by the priest. For the bridegroom ceremony is considered very unique because the first time be able to watch over their lifetime. Nyambutin ceremony can be seen in the following figure
Figure 2.1 Ceremony Nyambutin ( Doc : Putu Sudarma 2010) Figure 2.1 shows the ceremonial procession nyambutin. Both bride and groom standing next to the swing and accompanied by the bride family. This looks for the couple smiling as a sign of happiness.
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Nyambutin ceremony is also called by the name " Nelubulanin ". The ceremony is performed in order soul of baby united with his body. In addition, the ceremony of cleansing and nyambutin a baby name. The series is also accompanied by nyambutin ceremony is a ceremony to touch the ground. This ceremony aims to please waranugraha into the presence of God in its manifestation as bless Mother Earth Sanghayang because the child will be the first time to set foot on the ground . Place the baby down in front of the studio sought Kemulan (Putra, 1994: 37- 39 ) . After the ceremony nyambutin, the next series is ngotonin. Ngotonin ritual is the anniversary of the birth just in time for the arrival of the (Sapta Wara), five wara, and pawukon same in the calculation of arrival of Bali/Java 210 days. Birth day for Hindus in Bali that comes once every six months religiously celebrated. Ngotonin ritual also usually is followed the hair cutting ceremony of the first times (megundul) to clean " siwadwara " (fontanel). The ceremony is commonly done when the baby was three oton. instead, metatah (tooth filling) is a part of the ceremony to human yadnya implemented to reduce the "sad ripu , " the six human nature is less well as the enemy within oneself. Sixth enemies include greedy, deceitful, love to be complimented, like angry, hurt fellow creatures and gossipy. Sixth posed by the nature of the mind rajas and tamas favor. Any effect caused by the mind rajas and tamas mind regarded as animalistic traits controlling ourselves as human beings its effects need to mind satwam balanced (Nala and Wiratmadja 1991: 206-207). Metatah ceremony bridegroom as shown in the following figure.
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Figure 2.2 Ceremony metatah / cutting teeth ( Doc : Putu Sudarma 2010)
Figure 2.2 sangging is coordinating with serati offerings (artisan offerings) regarding completeness tooth filling ceremony. Once deemed complete, the ceremony metatah implemented. While waiting for further instructions, the bridegroom sleep on her back and looked up. The next circuit is mekalan-kalan. This ceremony is started with the bridal couple in shower bath symbolically beji local temple. Furthermore, they do worship at the temple of Pura Desa, Puseh and the local population. The ceremony was followed by a ceremony maprayascita pabyakawonan in the kitchen stove and in wells belonging to the bride's family. The ceremony is intended to be a manifestation of God's to place in the kitchen and may well eliminate any leteh or dirt that is on the bride and groom. Pabyakawonan maprayascita ceremony can be seen in the following figure.
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Figure 2.3 Prayascita ceremony pabyakaonan ( Doc : Putu Sudarma 2010) Figure 2.3 shows the bride and groom following the ceremony procession meprayascita pabyakawonan. The pair was accompanied by the bride's family and serati offerings. The ceremony was led by pinandita. The ceremony continued with the ceremony maprayascita pabyakawonan, mekalan-kalan and widhiwidana. The ceremony was led by priests and witnessed by the public, the prajuru customs and duty, as well as both the bride family. In a ceremony mekalan-kalan, for the couple to sit face to face with mekalan-kalan offerings are placed in front of sanggah kamulan. After natab offerings mekalan- kalan, followed by a ceremony widhiwidana. Implementation ceremony mekalan-kalan in the marriage ceremony can be seen in the following figure .
Figure 2.4 Ceremony Widhiwidana ( Doc : Putu Sudarma 2010)
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Figure 2.4 shows the bride and groom, accompanied by the parents of the bridegroom and the bride to follow a series of ceremonies and pawidhiwidana, makalan-kalan. The ceremony was held at the bride kemulan corrected pages and led by priests. After this ceremony, the bride and groom carry prayers. Worship led by priests and witnessed also by both the groom's family. Worship activities undertaken in the second couple nyeburin marriage ceremony can be seen in the following figure.
Figure 2.5 worship activities ( Doc : Putu Sudarma 2010)
Figure 2.5 shows the bride and groom were conducting prayers in front of the bride kemulan corrected. This activity begins with the sputtering tirtha pengelukatan to the bride and groom. Activity was also witnessed by praying parents of the bridegroom. The ceremony ended with prayers nunas tirtha. After sprinkled various tirtha by pinandita, a whole series of wedding ceremony is considered complete.
2. 2 Families are Imbued with Boys Unlike in the village shop, village nyeburin marriage Abiantuwung, District of Kediri , Tabanan regency precisely in Pakraman Suralaga performed on a family that has been blessed with a
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son. The marriage of Ni Luh Putu conducted by Ekayanti and I Wata Yuki Japanese nationals. Ni Luh Putu Ekayanti is the first child of three children born by married couples between I Ketut Sukarata and Ni Made Werni. Both of the other brothers, namely Ni Made Yuliantari and I Nyoman Gede Arimbawa. The bride has a Japanese nationality lovers. Before the relationship continued, the Hindu religion professed by the bride's wedding is one of the criteria can be implemented. The bride would carry out a marriage with a foreign national if the candidate is willing to follow the religion of her husband. That is, the prospective husband should faith with his Hindu religion. Thus, Hinduism be the priority for the bride to mate. If these criteria are not met, the relationship need not be continuous. All met the criteria offered by the prospective bridegroom so that the marriage can be implemented (Sukarata in Sudarma , 2012: 184). I Wata Yuki (Sudarma , 2012:185) declare that it has been acted out with his wife for four years. Since courtship , every visit to Bali she never stayed in hotels , but staying at the bride's home. This is done with the intention that her husband to understand more closely the customs of Bali especially Pakraman Suralaga shelter his future wife. Other purpose which is to enable to hang out with family and community members. During his stay at his future wife, he was blessed by the candidate -in-law may treat them as their own. Instead, local communities can receive community members like yourself. He is also frequently invited to watch the ritual activities including Balinese Hindu-style wedding ceremony. He ended up getting a lot of new experiences wich are not known in advance. Indonesian with a good mastery, he is able to interact with either so it is not difficult to understand the local traditions. Among the new knowledge obtained in the form of Balinese Hindu form of marriage. Balinese Hindu form of
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marriage, ie common marriage and nyeburin marriage. In ordinary marriage, the bride invited to the house of the bridegroom and his parents entered the family grove. In contrast, in nyeburin marriage, the bridegroom parents are invited at the bride's home and his parents in the family. Both forms of marriage they were not difficult because the information can be accessed via the internet . After the bridegroom meets the various criteria and states are willing to mate nyeburin, parents memepelai women and their families began designing pepadikan. Pepadikan bridegroom carried out in Bali by borrowing a place in a hotel in Sanur area of Bali. In papadikan, parents groom their children do not prohibit nyeburin marriage. Everything returned to her because they have grown up and able to take a stand (Werni in Sudarma, 2012:186). After pepadikan implemented, the bride's parents prepare various things about the marriage in accordance with the circuit. Place ceremony held at the bride's parents' house with the circuit, ie sudhiwidhani, mepamit, nyambutin , ngotonin ritual, metatah ( cutting teeth ), makalan-kalan and widhiwidana. All series of ceremonies led by pendita except makalan-kalan led by pinandita. The series begins with a ritual ceremony sudhiwidhani, mapamit and nyambutin ceremony. Of the three the ceremony, the priest sprinkled various tirtha looked to both the bride and her family appear in the image below.
Figure 2.6
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Pandita led the ceremony nyambutin ( Doc : Putu Sudarma 2011)
Figure 2.6 illustrates a male pastor is leading a ceremonial procession from the pamiyosan nyambutan (worship). The ceremony was followed by a sprinkle tirtha pangelukatan the bridegroom. After the ceremony nyambutin and implemented ngotonin tooth filling ceremony (metatah). The ceremony was attended by four people, namely the bridal couple and two younger bride. Tooth filling ceremony can be seen in the following figure.
Figure 2.7 Sharpen Teeth Sangging Bride ( Doc : Putu Sudarma 2011)
Figure 2.7 shows a procession of ceremonial tooth filling. During the ceremony, the groom lying on the back and looked up with an open mouth. Figure proficiency level also seemed a symbolic sangging was sharpening teeth bridegroom with miserly. Teeth are cut six pieces, four pieces incisors and two canines. Teeth cutting ceremony followed by a ceremony makalan-kalan. The ceremony was held at the bride's parents holy. The ceremony was led by pinandita directly. In this ceremony the bride and groom sit
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facing objections kamulan and accompanied by the bride's family members and witnessed by members of the local community. Makalan- kalan ceremony the bridal couple can be seen in the following figure.
Figure 2.8 Ceremony mekalan - Kalan ( Doc : Putu Sudarma 2011)
Figure 2.8 looks the bride and groom at the procession ceremony makalan-kalan. The ceremony was led by pinandita and attended by the community and members of the bride family. They helped the success of the ceremony makalan-kalan to complete. Mekalan-kalan ceremony continued with the ceremony widhiwidana. The ceremony was led by priests and witnessed by prajuru pakraman , prajuru customs, and duty. After the ceremony and widhiwidana, makalan-kalan, the bride and groom sit together in front of prajuru to listen to advice relating to the importance of marriage and the various rights and obligations held by the bridal couple . By prajuru custom advisory and services can be seen in the picture below.
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Figure 2.9 The bride and groom sit face to face with prajuru ( Doc : Putu Sudarma 2011) Figure 2.9 shows the groom and bride sitting cross-legged sitting cross-legged, accompanied by his family together to listen to advice from prajuru customs and duty. Bridal couple can follow and listen to their good advice. With the end of the ceremony mekalan-kalan and widhiwidhana, all series nyeburin marriage ceremony is considered complete.
III . FACTORS PROMOTING NYEBURIN MARRIAGE WITH FOREIGN NATIONALITY 3.1 Obtaining Successor Descendants In Indonesia customs regarding marriage, nuclear family, extended family, indigenous and tribal peoples, social status, and personal issues. For kinship groups such as clan sections, marriage is a means to continue the continuity part of the society because marriage is basically to get offspring. In addition, marriage also determine how to draw the line of descent (Soekanto , 1980: 14). How to draw lineage in Balinese Hindu communities based on forms of marriage . In the usual form of marriage, lineage drawn from the husband. In contrast, in nyeburin marriage, lineage drawn from the wife. In the book of Manawa Dharma Sastra stated that marriage carried out with the aim of dharma sampati (husband and wife jointly realize the implementation of dharma), civil (produce offspring), and
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rati (enjoy sexual life and satisfaction of the other). The third purpose of the marriage, civil occupies an important position in the family due to give birth to children who suputra can save the ancestors from hell. Furthermore, the family will be blessed with good offspring carry ancestors in better condition, that his ancestors will be able to reach heaven or moksha (Suja , 1999: 4-57). Marriage is not merely a biological relationship, but identica with yadnya samkara, namely marriage and the consequences worth cleanse or purify the sacred especially sukla swanita (seed) the bride and groom. In addition, marriage is not only about the physical/outward, but also inward/spiritual. Physically and spiritually meaningful bond of oneness between here and noetic . God uses marriage to create humans in the book Bhagawadgita III . 10 is expressed as follows. " Sahaj ah praja sriwa temple waca pr japatih Anena prasa isya dhi am one sti ia wa k maduk " Translation: Indeed since the first is said that God created man through yadnya the (way) is you will develop , as the fresh cow milking them for your own free will (Pudja , 1985: 76). The quotation above shows that God has created man in order to thrive. Humans can develop only through marriage. The marriage bond will bear children suputra (good) . In chapter 45 of the Vedas Smriti IX seloka confirmed that perfect family consisting of his wife, father , and offspring . In addition, there was no difference between the goddess series (goddess of prosperity) and wife at home who marry with the intention of producing children who bring happiness and worthy of worship as a household lamp. Book Adiparwa 74 . 52-57 , and 61-63 in the Mahabharata shows the importance of the birth of a child is described as follows.
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" It is said that a child is a strap fastener that is a very strong love in the family , it is the center of the union of the love of parents . Is that exceeds the love of parents towards their children, teach them, lap, embracing her dusty and dirty (for playing around). Similarly, the soft smell of sandalwood powder or soft touch of her hand or coolness of the water , not so much fun as well as a touch of the baby itself . It's not in this world such a happy , except a child. Someone who obtained a child who is his own, but did not maintain her well, did not achieve a higher level of life. The ancestral states that a child's descendants continued friendship and support. Therefore, gave birth to a child is the best of all kinds of noble deeds " (Titib , 2003 : 30). Astiti (Diputra , 2003: 45) states that the importance of heredity in the Hindu Mahabharata stories contained in particular in the meeting story Jagatkaru with ancestral spirits (father) called the Wiku Wara Bhrata. The story is told in the Wiku Wara Bhrata almost falling down as a result of his son nyukla hell brahmacari (unmarried) The meeting was told that the ancestral spirits to say the following . “Nahan ta lêtu manin pêgat sakng pitraloka, mêgantungan pêtung saluwih, kangkên tibng narakaloka; tattwanikang pêtung saluwih, hana wanga mani sasiki Jaratkaru ngaranya, ndan moka wihta ya, mahyun lêputng sarwa janma bandhana, tatan pastri, ya sukla brahmacri” Translation: Here's why I lost contact with the world atman, is now dependent on a bamboo splinter , almost about to fall into hell . The existence of a bamboo splinter shows that I still have a descendant named Jaratkaru , but the desire to achieve moksha , break away from the life of humanity. He did not want to get married , he runs sukla brahmacari.
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The words of his ancestors is answered by the following Jaratkaru. " ...... Hana pwa marganta, mulihang swarga, lan sangaya rahadyansangnghulun kabela, marya nghulun brahmacarya, am tanakbi panakani nghulun . " Translation: There is a way for gentlemen to go to heaven. Do not hesitate and fearful master. Servant will stop running brahmacari. Servant will marry and have children ( Oka , 1992: 7-8 ) . Seloka above shows that marriage must be implemented in order to have children. Through heredity, it is believed that ancestral spirits free from suffering. The birth of a child in a very desirable marriage the more the child is a child suputra. The characteristics of children in the book Sarasamuscaya suputra 228 stated as follows . Nihan sinanggah anak, ikang arananing anatha, Tumulung kadang kalaran doning saktinya, Danakena donya antuknya angarjana, Panganếning daridra donyan pasuruhan, Ikang mangkana yartiknak ngaranya Translation: That is considered child is the one who became the patron who need help and to help the stricken relatives sadness, to wherewithal goal, will all of the crops, the point he cooks provide food for poor people, the true son of such a name (Kajeng , 2003 : 178). According to the Hindu doctrine of marriage is a yadnya. As a prelude to marriage to the future grehasta is the most important period in human life. Any person who will carry out the marriage must be aware of the meaning and essence. In the grehasta, there are three behaviors that must be implemented, namely dharma, artha, and
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kama. Dharma is the rules relating to the dharma of religion and state. Artha is married life needs to get welfare in the form of material and knowledge and kama is a sense of family enjoyment obtained in accordance with religious teachings. In addition, the nature of marriage for men is twofold. First, as a teenager became the led, subsequently became the lead as the father or mother of the household. Second, one as a teenager just ask and receive, turned into ones that produce the necessities of life (Artayasa , et al , 1998: 4-5) . Marriage is done not merely to have sex, but also in order to produce offspring that can be invited to work together to implement the state dharma and dharma religion . In the book of Manawa Dharma Sastra explained that marriage is sacred and obligator. Marriage is not honored because it can provide opportunities or opportunities for children/descendants to merge the sins of his ancestors in order to incarnate or dripping back into the world (Pudja and Sudharta , 1985 : 137) . Gave birth to a child is one of the goals of a marriage. With childbearing families may continue descent Descendants coveted in marriage is suputra child. The characteristics of children suputra by Raka Mas (2002 : 98-106), which is respect for parents, virtuous, following good education, save the spirit of ancestors from hell, controlling the thoughts, words, and deeds, and believe in God. The presence of children in the marriage of the religious aspect of the debt is based on the principle of reciprocity between parent and child. Debt payment made to carry out the obligations in the form of yadnya. Yadnya parents of children has done since the baby still in the womb by performing ceremonies magedong-gedongan when the content of a seven -month-old. After birth, the parents perform various religious ceremonies for babies, among others, quarterly ceremony called oton ceremony ceremony and reception when the baby is 210
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days old. Once the child becomes an adult and puberty ceremony held tooth filing ceremony. Astiti (2004: 234-235) suggests that parents of children debt shall be considered expired if the parent has executed yadnya cutting teeth, and marry her. For services that have been provided, a child shall reciprocate with respect and delight parents during his lifetime. Liability was based on the existence of the debt as a child to a parent or teacher rupaka their teachers who have given birth. Debt child to parents stated in the book of Manawa Dharma Sastra. II.227 as follows. Yan matapitaramklecam Sêkêtê shabaw rnam Na tasya nisktih cakya Kartum arsa cairapi Translation: Difficulties and pain experienced by the parents at the time of childbirth can not be paid even in a hundred years (Pudja , Sidhartha : 1985 : 124) . Obligation of children to parents happy also stated in the book Sarasamuccaya as follows. ”Ikang wwang pinasingun gawayang dharmasdhana pwa ya ta, mapa ta kramanikan enak turunya, pati mara hêlêtnikang nara kalokan kabhutya denya. Kunang ikang wwang wawh nasi, tan antukning kasakitan, ring hawan asungsung, anghl tan kawruhnya ngong ikang ubhakarmaphala katêmu dnya ring dlaha”. Translation: People who had never made a virtue (dharma), why only his tasty, while the death of a separator with workshops hell would have been welcome to him (of his current). As for the rice donated by ignoring effortlessly to those encountered on the
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road in an unfamiliar and weary, tear the fruits of his good deeds will be obtained later (Kajeng et al , 2003: 170-171). In addition to get happiness in life, after a parent dies, the child shall hold a ceremony pitra yadnya cremation ceremony and ceremony atma district officer. Cremation ceremony is to restore the five elements mahabhuta (solid, liquid, air, light, and ether) to its origin. Instead, the district officer is atma ceremony to purify the souls who have been cremated. After the ceremony atma spirits cleansed through the district officer, the spirits symbolically placed in the corrected/pamrajan kamulan. In addition, on an ongoing basis offspring shall perform the ceremony as ancestral worship and adore. According to Hindu belief, the spirits of ancestors who have been sanctified sometimes born into the world through his descendants. Related to this, a baby in the family has an important role, which is to provide opportunities for ancestors born again to atone for his sins.
3.2 Hinduism as Adhesives Hinduism is followed by the bride's become one of the considerations made nyeburin marriage made even gluing nyeburin marriage with foreign nationals. Raka Mas (2002 : 1-3 ) it asks for that belief, faith (sraddha) Widhi presented to Ida Hyang, which is a basic principle for Hindus. In addition, the Hindus also have sraddha others, believe that the existence of the atman, karmaphala, punarbhawa and moksha. It is hard to imagine if Hindus do not believe in the greatness of God. Someone who does not believe in the greatness of God can be overbearing , arrogant and so forth . Large house that they live in , and say that the work of his labors. Fruits like apples, bananas, durian, rambutan and so are eaten comes from money spent on working hard and all the luxuries that include life not because begging, but as smart managing life. Instead they forget what is enjoyed by either air, water,
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food was delicious and so forth, all come from the earth and the universe in Atharvaveda 61.3 VI stated as follows . Aham jajana prthivim uta dyam Aham rtum ajanayam Sapta sindhum Translation: I god almighty to create heaven and earth I created the seasons and seven rivers Based on the above sloka, it is fitting we are always grateful for the gift given by God because everything in the world belongs to him . They are steadfast in sraddha positive impact on them, which is not a human being overbearing. Every human being who believes in the greatness of God, will do virtue and a lot of sacrifice for the good of virtue is the nature of God as a very noble. This trait will spread in the deep humanity along with sincerity as a form of devotional sincerity and sradhha the presence of God. The impact of other people will always be sure of the glory of God, will always be able to overcome the problems of life and his life, not fast and desperate because he believes God will protect and help him. With sraddha into the presence of God, humans will be spared from vanity to what is achieved, remain grateful to humanity flavor, full of affection to all of God's creation and not materialistic (Raka Mas, 2002 : 4-5). Nyeburin marriage with foreigners in Bali due to religious factors are relatively small even just done in Pakraman Suralaga, Abiantuwung village, sub-district of Kediri, Tabanan regency. Bride has a strong commitment to their religion. Their commitment, which does not perform a marriage with a foreign national if the prospective husband has not Hindu. Hindu religion and culture has permeated and indoctrinate bride. In addition, he considers that the form of marriage nyeburin more practical than a regular marriage. He gave agument, which if carried out regular marriage, this couple should make a new objection
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and get out of the clan (soroh) bride's family . In addition , her future husband does not have soroh like in Bali. Instead, nyeburin marriage, bride and groom do not need to question the soroh as the wife already has a clan (soroh). The prospective bride and groom just follow soroh his future wife. For Hindus in Bali, soroh has an important role. It is ofen among them difficult to know know soroh his illness affects his family often overwritten. For families who do not yet know his soroh usually beg abstract instructions to jro heavy foundation. These instructions also seem not just acceptable but first matched with the other colonies to jro instructions. If the results are different instructions, the family is always trying to invoke other colonies to jro instructions for obtaining the same instructions. These instructions are not easy to obtain because it took long enough. Families must have patience and should not be emotional in determining soroh. Soroh in Bali is very important because it relates to the place of worship either while still alive or after death. IV. Central Meaning of Marriage Nyeburin in Social Change 4.1 Meaning of Emancipation Nyeburin marriage in the midst of social change in Bali implies emancipation. Wertheim (Wisnumurti, 2010 : 369) says that the conception of human emancipation is not merely the liberation of the natural surroundings , but the freedom of the human creative potential of the structures of society are suffocating, especially from extinction. In addition, emancipation is also a form of liberation from forms of domination and bondage created by man himself. Liberation from the ties which bind the power created by humans. In line with the view of Wertheim, Habermas in Hardiman stated that emancipation is a peoples' movement to fight against acts of instrumental rationality through subjective ratios or communicative action (Wisnumurti, 2010 : 369).
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Nyeburin emancipation movement in marriage shown by a number of individuals perform the movement as a reaction against the old cultural traditions that are considered highly discriminatory. Reactions to changes in marital nyeburin ban on the support of its people. Marriage which previously could only be done in the same manner pepadan dynasty. However, through the movement of emancipation, marriage nyeburin do antarwangsa even across different religions and nationality. Responsilibilitas society towards marriage nyeburin shown in the rituals, starting from preparation to execution ceremony making equipment. Families together with the local community to participate to give assistance to the success of the ceremony to completion. Responsibility appears in the form of community involvement in helping the success of the ceremony. Their participation in the ritual is a marker of the emancipation movement in addressing the meaning of marriage in the form of either inter nyeburin dynasty, likntas different religion or nationality. According to Salit (Sudarma, 2012 : 157) states that a number of individuals to mate nyeburin fellow dynasty, cross caste, across different religions and nationality can be done and accepted by society as a regular marriage. In marriage nyeburin, looks real community participation to assist the implementation of the ceremony. This participation is a form of support for marriage nyeburin although done cross caste, across different religions and nationality. In addition, the presence of members of indigenous communities and agencies prajuru especially in giving testimony and blessing as well as the endorsement of priest (sulinggih or pinandita) also a marker of the emancipation of the old traditions that are considered discriminatory nuances . This phenomenon is a depiction of the presence of a number of individual acts or acts as a marker of emancipatory movements in mating nyeburin.
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Responsibility communities tend to be very enthusiastic and open. Community welcomed the change of marital nyeburin fellow who originally only performed in pepadan dynasty. However, today has to be done cross caste, even across different religions and nationality. The amendment, considered a form of freedom from the shackles and bondage of the old shades feudalistic tradition. Sura (Budiana , 2004: 140) argues that the customs procedures nuanced discriminatory fashion, lately quickly abandoned by society. It happened because the custom sort does not stem from religious literatures, but rooted in the determination or decision of ancient kings. Unlike the case with customary norms contained in each awig awig pakraman, especially about marriage legalization provisions are preserved and adhered to by all individuals who perform marriages. Customary habit of this kind can provide comfort and perceived well-being for every individual because it comes from Hindu literature. In awig awig pakraman explained that the marriage of a man with a woman in whatever form, is considered valid if completed with a Hindu religious ceremony and led by a priest or pinandita. In recent social reality has shown a change. Nyeburin marriage seemed not only do cross caste (antarwangsa), different religions but also with foreign nationals. The phenomenon of marital exogamy done because of the interaction between individuals in a society that is increasingly socially open . In addition, there is no longer either normative or institutional provisions that may restrict or prohibit the marriage exogamy . Change order reflects the equality of human value that looks like the marriage ceremony procession . Both use the same bride wedding dress noble payas previously looked different. The presence prajuru desa pakraman in marriage as a marriage witness exogamy is done by custom and Hindu religion. In addition, the presence of indigenous prajuru marriage has meaning as a symbolic affirmation
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that Hinduism accepts the marriage exogamy and supported by customary functionaries, as long as the marriage is done on the initiative and based on the love the bride and groom. 4.2 Educational Meaning One of the meanings of marriage nyeburin different nationality, ie meaningful education. Education for human life has a very important position. Through proper education, one can detach oneself from ignorance and darkness. In addition, education can also make a person as an independent human being, able to face the problems of life and virtuous and regarded as one of the investment in human resources (Raka Mas , 2002: 74-75). For humans education has a very important role. There are three main education functions, namely as the enforcement value, as a means of community development, and as an effort to develop human potential. Education as enforcement value, meant that education can maintain and keep still for sustainability noble values in society. These values must be preserved and maintained well through selective education so not to cause unrest in the community. Education as a means of community development means that education major influence on the development of the community. Gait education really depends on how active and creative educators and community leaders because they are the promoters as well as the progress of society is concerned. Instead, in its function as the development of human potential, the potential of education to provide space for the growing individual concerned. The development of individual potential through education have an impact on the progress of society. In addition, it also created the successor generations are more reliable (http://suara terbaru.com/function-education-in-Indonesia/education). Soekanto (1982 : 33-338) suggests that factors driving social change in society, namely (1) the public education system that has been developed, (2) the attitude of the people who appreciate the work of a
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person and there is a desire to move forward, (3) the existence of public tolerance to the change occurs , (4) the attitude of public disclosure , (5) a heterogeneous population, (6) public dissatisfaction towards a particular field, and (7) the existence of social disorganization in society. Progress in the field of education, leading individuals in the community have an understanding of the teaching of chess as an order of color values contained in the Hindu religion. Increasing public understanding of the concept of color chess teachings bring change to marriage nyeburin. In the past antarwangsa marriage is a form of marriage is prohibited. But today not only do cross caste marriage, inter-faith, but also with foreign nationals. The marriage has gained public recognition as indicated by the presence of indigenous communities and prajuru and offices in the middle of the marriage ceremony nyeburin. Their presence as a symbol of social recognition and as a witness to corroborate that join the nyeburin marriage actually happened according to custom and Hindu religion. Increased public education and changing the state of the times cause the behavior of individuals in the community who do marriage, especially marriage nyeburin in Bali also changed. Progress of time marked by the era of plenty gives encouragement to members of the public to perform marriage in a way memadik. In this way, the parents of the bridegroom and his family is viewed more respected and appreciated . Today the real change that is evident in both marriage and regular marriage, nyeburin marriage different nationality is happening the same treatment as befits marriages performed in the same dynasty. In the procession of the ceremony, the bride and groom perform prayers in a marriage ceremony led by priests or pinandita. Supplies ceremony was also placed on a custom bale in a position parallel to, and does not show any act of discrimination. V. CONCLUSION
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Based on the above explanation, it can put forward some conclusions as follows. Nyeburin marriage performed today by Balinese Hindus not only happen cross caste, inter-faith, but also different nationality. Establish procedures for marriage nyeburin as befits a marriage in the usual form, ie how memadik. Marriage ceremony performed at the residence of the bride's parents to the bride's status as a cemetery rajeg (purusa, while the bridegroom as women (predana). Nyeburin marriage conducted to obtain the descent motivated to continue liable to the swadikara (right) and swadharma ( liabilities ) in the family and society. In addition, embraced Hindu bride is one of the criteria as adhesive nyeburin marriage. Instead, the meaning of marriage is different nyeburin citizenship, namely the meaning of emancipation and the meaning of education. Meaning of emancipation is shown as a form of cultural reaction to the long tradition that is seen very discriminating and nuanced feudalistic. Instead the meaning of education, marital nyeburin the growing understanding of individuals in society that rightly abandoned discriminatory treatment because it does not conform with gender equality. References 1. Abdulsyani. 1992. Sosiologi : Skematika, Teori, dan Terapan. Jakarta : Bumi Aksara 2. Artayasa, I Nyoman dkk. 1998. Petunjuk Teknis Perkawinan Hindu. Surabaya : Paramita. 3. Astiti, Tjok Istri Putra.2004. Nilai Anak dalam Kehidupan Keluarga Orang Bali dalam Bunga Rampai Sosiologi Keluarga. Jakarta : Yayasan Obor Indonesia 4. Budiana, I Nyoman. 2009. Perkawinan Beda Wangsa dalam Masyarakat Bali. Yogyakarta. 5. Graha Ilmu Candrakusuma, Ida Ayu Sri. 2007. Mementum Sakral dalam Perkawinan Agama Hindu. Tesis. Denpasar : Program Pasca Sarjana Institut Hindu Negeri.
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6. Diputra, Dharma Dewa I.B.N. 2003. ”Pola Penyelesaian Perkawinan Nyeburin Berbeda Wangsa di Wilayah Pemerintah Kabupaten Tabanan”. Tesis. Program Magister Kenotariatan Universits Diponogoro : Semarang Kajeng, I Nyoman . Dkk. 2003. Sarasamuscaya . Jakarta : Pustaka Mitra Jaya. 7. Lauer, Robert H. 1993. Perspektif tentang Perubahan Sosial. Jakarta : Rineka Cipta. 8. Nala, I Gst Ngurah, dan I.G.K, Wiratmadja. 1989. Murddha Agama Hindu. Denpasar : PT. Upada Sastra 9. Oka, I Gusti Agung, 1992. Slokantara. Jakarta.: Hanuman Sakti. 10. Pudja, Gede. 1985. Bhagawadgita. Jakarta : Maya Sari dan Sudharta, Tjokorda Rai. 1985. Manawa Dharma Sastra (Manudharma Sastra) atau Weda Smrti (Compendium Hukum Hindu). 11. Putra, Ny.I.G.A.Mas Mt, 1994. Panca Yadnya. Denpasar. Tanpa Penerbit. 12. Raka Mas, A.A. Gede, 2002. Perkawinan Yang Ideal. Paramita : Surabaya 13. Soekanto, Soerjono.1980. Intisari Hukum Keluarga. Bandung : Alumni . 1982. Sosiologi Suatu Pengantar. Jakarta : Rajawali. 14. Sztompka, Piotr. 2007. Sosiologi Perubahan Sosial. Jakarta : Prenada. 15. Sudarma, I Putu. 2012. Perkawinan Nyeburin Di Tengah Perubahan Sosial Di Kabupaten Tabanan. Disertasi. Denpasar : Program Pascasarjana Universitas Udayana 16. Suja, I Wayan. 1999. Tafsir Keliru Terhadap Hindu. Denpasar : Yayasan Dharma Naradha 17. Titib, I Made. 2003. Pedoman Upacara Sudhi Wedhani. Denpasar : Proyek Peningkatan dan Sarana Kehidupan Beragama di Bali 18. Wisnumurti, Anak Agung Gede Oka. 2010. ”Dinamika politik Lokal Dalam Pemilihan Kepala Daerah Langsung 2005 di Kabupaten Badung” Disertasi. Denpasar : Program Pascasarjana Universitas Udayana
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DALITS: THE AUTOCHTHONS OF INDIA - A SOCIO- CULTURAL, HISTORICAL AND SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVE
Capt.Naveen Kumar Chukka Lecturer in English & Associate NCC Officer Hindu College, Guntur, A.P
The beginning of 21st century is marked by a new enthusiasm among the circles of research towards subaltern and aboriginal studies, which has been intensified by the end of its first decade. It has now become a global phenomenon to explore Fourth World Literatures as dominating groups of people are feeling it take it for granted a policy in their hegemony above oppressed classes of people such as Negroes in Africa , Red Indians in America, Maoris in New Zealand, Dalits in India. Dalit’s is a complex and complicated case where in they are considered Untouchables constituted of 1500 castes in 7-lakh villages in India. It is not an exaggeration to say that there is no village without separate settlements of Dalits. In the urban India also 95% of slums are constituted by these Untouchables. Dalit is a term used for the people spread all over India traditionally considered untouchables. Dalits first embraced Buddhism (a religion of equality, rationality, morality, and humanity) to counter Vedic Brahminism. But after Pushyamitra Sunga’s violent revival of Brahmanism (185 BC) Dalits did not come back into the fold of Brahmanism continuing to eat beef and so they were stamped as untouchables since 400 AD (according to Dr. Ambedkar ). After the coming of Islam the untouchables converted to Islam (according to Sanchar committee report 90% of Muslims in our country were former untouchables ). Under the influence of Islam that paved the way for Sufism and Bhakti movement. Untouchables
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have undergone a silent revolution of leaving Brahmanism. It was the reason why the muslim rulers were in a position to rule India for more than 800 years. Later during the British rule some more untouchables hugged Christianity ( silent revolution ). During this period there arose a great social revolutionary Mahatma Phule in Maharastra who tried his best for the liberation of untouchables and sudras from the brahminical thraldom. Initially, the word Chandala was used in the Manu Smrithi. The word ‘Dalit’ comes from Hebrew which means ‘ground’, ‘suppressed’, ‘crushed’ or ‘broken pieces’. Victor Prem Sagar feels that this term indicates weakness, poverty, humiliation and oppression inflicted by Hindu society. The history of Untouchables is that these people are entrusted with the occupations ritually impure such as leather work, butchering, removal of garbage, dead animals and waste. They are also made to work as manual laborers cleaning streets, sewers, latrines. They are at risk of discrimination, dehumanization, degradation, and violence every day. Though the traditional Brahmin societies claim that the untouchables are kept aside because of the occupations they are doing it has a much more intensity. It is a product of caste system which has a carcinogenic impact on Indian society. According to Dr.B.R.Ambedkar it is a heinous practice prevailing in Indian society where a human does not touch another human is nowhere except in Hinduism. So Dr. B.R.Ambedkar the dalit crusader says ‘only the Hindu religion calls us untouchables. A religion that does not recognize our human values why should we cling on to it’…? [Vinod Tiwary, 2012]. As the total Indian society has been influenced by the ‘Thought of Ambedkar’ an intellectual awakening started in India.
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Among Indian literary circles it has become a hot topic as to who are aboriginal inhabitants of India and much research is going on in this connection. It has been intensified by the concept of Subalternism propounded by the Italian intellectual Antonio Gramesci (Prison Notes) in which he has given a paramount importance to Organic intellectuals that paved the way for writing the most marvelous classic “Orientalism” by Edward Said (A Harward University Professor). Rig-Veda is the oldest book in the world of course orally by the Aryan Brahmins. There is a clear distinction between Aryan Brahmins and Aboriginals (untouchables)
Aryan Brahmins Untouchables 1.fair in complexion 1. dark in complexion 2.strait hair 2. curling hair 3.oval faces 3. round faces 4. cone like nosed 4. snub nosed 5.plain eyes 5. reddish eyes 6.warlike race(nomadic) 6. Peaceful race (Indus Valley Civilization)
Most of the experiments so far done have found an association between caste status and ‘Y’ chromosomal genetic markers which seem to be indicate that the higher castes have greater Eurasian ancestry than lower castes according to Basu et.al.[2003] found it in the higher communities of Andhra Pradesh. Bamshed et.al[2001]have found that the genomic affinity to Europeans is proportionate to caste rank – upper caste being most similar to Europeans, particularly east Europeans where as the lower castes are not similar to Asians. Ludwig Gumplowicz et.al.[1980] opined “the Negritos were the earliest inhabitants of India. The Proto Australoids who followed them had their type more or less fixed in India and there fore may be
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considered true aborigines. The scientific studies of recent times have already confirmed that the Dravidian and Dalit races have a matching Genetic similarities with the Nigritos. According to Minochecher et.al.[1985], “The Adivsasis are the original Inhabitants of India.Adivasis means the original inhabitants. The tribals are The Gonds, The Bhils, The Muriyars ,The Nagas The Santals and a hundred more. Mundas, Santals, Bhils & Gonds are frequently classified as Australoid groups whose language has similarities with the Tamil (Jim Cummins and David Corson 1999). All the aboriginal tribes formed a rich urban civilization. They were later driven to south by Aryan Brahmins. In the 19th century, Alfredo Trombetti, one of the first to have presented that Dravidian and Negro-African language represented a common language akin to Sumerian. The original inhabitants of India are broken into hundred of groups of people after the Aryan Invasion and now they are called SCs, STs, BCs and Minorities. They were the conquered people by the conquerors, the Aryan Brahmins (V.T.Raja Sekhar). On the examinations it is found that most of the scheduled castes are carrying ‘Adi’(first)/Aborigin in their caste names. E.g: Adi Andhra(AP), Adi Dravida [Tamilnadu], Adi Karnataka (Karnataka), Adi Dharmis (Punjab). Before the coming of Aryans the whole subcontinent of India was owned by the Nagas the aborigines of India. Even in Telugu the first word identified with reference was ‘Nagabu’. in addition to that all over India we find the words in all languages starting with two letters ‘na-ga’or only ‘na’ .for example: Naga, Nagali, Nagaram, Nagara, Nagishi, Nagaraju, Nagapanchami, Nagapatnam, Nagavaram Nagarkoil, Nagapur etc.
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In this connection we must always remember one thing. As far as aboriginal (Naga, Santhal etc) are concerned i.e. everywhere in the world we find two types of people in the past one The conqueror other The conquered. The conqueror can change everything in the civilization and culture of the conquered. But they can not change three things in the language of the conquered. Those three things are names of persons names of places and names of the things used by the conquered. There may be some metamorphosis in these three things as they were used by the conqueror. At the same time the conquerors could not cut the tongues (physical) of the conquered. This most marvelous concept is profusely used by Goustav Oppert for writing his Magnum Opus- “The Dravidian Original Inhabitants of India or Bharta Varsha”. In this monumental work he says that the letters in India (pa,pha,ba bha ma) are interchangeable. Most of the untouchable inhabitations in A.P are called pelle, palem, in Karnataka ‘halli’ and in Tamilnadu ‘valli’, castes – mala, madiga (in A.P), Pariah (in Tamil Nadu), Pulaya in Kerala etc., In the state of Karnataka there are more than 105 untouchable castes below the Vindhya-Satpura which were locations of aboriginal people who fled from Indus valley area due to the invasion of Aryans . Mysore city also must have been developed and named after Mahisha Sura. Had he not been a great king [aboriginal] it would not have developed into a big city in South India On their invasive migration the Aryans defeated Aborigines occupied their lands properties and everything. They brought horses and iron, imposed their Brahminical culture through Village System, where as the aboriginal or untouchables or Dravidians had urban civilization. Nearly 1000 urban areas of Indus Valley Civilization were discovered by archeologists which is much connected with untouchables and South Indians. As far as language is concerned ,
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before the Aryan invasion Tamil was the mother tongue of the aborigines.Though Tamil disappeared from North India yet it is that the ‘Bhahri’ language was spoken by the people in Afghanistanis almost like ‘Tamil’ in vocabulary and grammar. In north India Tamil morphosed into different vernaculars beyond recognition (V.T.Rajasekhar [2007]. In 1922 under the leader ship of Sir John Marshal the director of Archeological Survey of India discovered the Indus valley civilization at Harappa and Mohanjedaro and at many other places and produced three monumental volumes on it. It is proved that it was a culture and civilization of the aborigines of India who are now called SCs, STs, BCs. It was a wonderful urban civilization in the history of mankind which was completely destroyed by the Aryan invaders and they started imposing their culture to their best advantage by writing their literature, shastras and Vedas The whole of North India was occupied by Aryan invaders [Aryavarthana] subjugating the aborigines of India imposing their own culture and literature as per their ideology of non-violent oppression and exploitation by creating Chaturvarna System in this context it is quiet relevant to tell the fact that the Rig-Veda [the first book in the world, though orally is bearing clear similarities with the “Zendavesta” of the sacred scriptures of the ancient Iranians [Aryan Iranian] At the same time the language Sanskrit, and the language of the ‘Zendavesta’ is quiet similar. Not only that, Sanskrit, English, French, German, Greek etc., are indo European languages. For example, the most familiar words in English ‘mother’, ‘father’ have the words sounding mathru, pithru and the same sounding in Indo-European languages. It is also evident that Sanskrit is used only by Brahmins forbidding others to learn
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it and use it which shows that they are foreigners and the rest of the people are original inhabitants of India. Fr.Coeudordux (in 1767) was probably the first to recognize the kinship of Sanskrit and languages of Europe and suggested that the Brahmins of India descended from one of the sons of Japhet whose brothers migrated to the west. ( S K Biswas 1995). The aboriginal songs, Dance and Stories (oral tradition) are called “Folk Literature’ while the brahminical stuff is called ‘Classical Literature’ (written tradition). The aborigines have started hating and burning their ancestor and hero Ravana and Bali and worshipping their enemies Kali, Chamundi etc., (V.T.Raja Sekhar). Dasara is the festival of aborigines. For instance in Maharastra this festival is celebrated in two ways by two section s of people, Sudras and Brahmins. On the day of Dasara the wife and sisters of Sudra when he returns from his worship of Shumi tree(Jammi chettu) and after the distribution of its leaves (gold) among his friends and relatives he is greeted at home with a welcome ‘let all trouble and misery go and the kingdom of Bali come’. But the wife and sister of Brahmin (on that day) place in the fore- ground of the house an image of Bali made of wheat or other flour and when the Brahmin returns from the worship of Shumi tree, he takes the stalk of it and pokes with it the belly of the image(of Bali) and passes into the house. This is the religious difference between the aborigines and Brahmins. It shows how that difference continues even now. The sacred festival Onam in Kerala is celebrated in honour of Bali which is celebrated by the aborigines Had Bali not been a great king (aboriginal) the ancient city Maha Balipuram would have not been in existence in his name The most striking celebration of Sivaratri at Mahendra Giri on the boarder of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh is the best example to show that the aborigine tribes from Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,
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Chattisghad and Madhya Pradesh tread hundreds of miles to worship at the temple of Shiva (god Pashupathi of Indus valley civilization). This greatest temple was built nearly 10000 years ago (according to carbon 14 test ) with just six big blocks of stone. Who built it 10000 years ago? It is none other than aborigines of India. Basing on the above facts and reasons it is evident that the Dalits are the original inhabitants of India which is indisputable. Realizing this the aboriginal intellectuals took up revolutionary movements in the 19th century. Mahatma Jyothirao Phule whom Dr B.R. Ambedkar considered a role model who started a school for the Untouchable girls in 1848 for the first time in the history of our country. Following this the great man Chatrapathi Sahu Maharaju (a sudra) of Kalhapur fought against Brahmanism in favour of untouchables and Sudras. He started a tea stall run by an Untouchable named Gangaram (a Mahar) and daily he used to go to the tea stall with all his royal paraphernalia and drink tea to show his people that he was so for Social equality. Lastly Dr B.R. Ambedkar the tallest intellectual titan sacrificed his life for the emancipation of untouchables whose avowed desire is that the Bahujans should acquire the master key of the political power for the total emancipation of the Aborigine/original inhabitants of this country.
Realization of Ambedkarism is the only way which could help the SCs, STs, BCs and Minorities of India through which they can re- capture political power and annihilate caste system so as to achieve true democratic spirit of Equality, Liberty and Fraternity in all spheres(social, political and economic).
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References :
1. Dr. B.R.Ambedkar’s writings and speeches ;vol-7 , ‘The Untouchables’ 1991 Education department Govt. of Maha Rastra. 2. Mahatma Phule, Slavery ( in Marathi Gulamgiri);1991; Education department Govt. of Maha Rastra 3 Rama Shankar Singh 2001, Thinking about Evolution, Cambridge University Press. 4 Surian K.Pandyan 1987, Hidden Heritage ; Sterling Publishers 5 S K Biswas, Autochthons of India and Aryan invasion- vol.-1 ,1995, Genuine Publication Media Pvt. Ltd. 6 Bojja Tarakam, Kulam & Vargam ,2008 , Hydrabad Book Trust; 7 A L Bhasham 2004, Wonder That was India; Replica Press Pvt Ltd. 8 Gutsav Solomon Oppert, 1888 ( 1988 print); The Original Inhabitants of Bharatha Varsha or India ‘The Dravidians’, Asian Educational Services. 9. Joseph A.Buttigieg, 2011, Prison Notes of Antonio Gramsci, Colombia University Press 10. Vinod Tiwary , 2012. Dr. Bheem Rao Ambedkar, Manoj publications. 11. Ludwig Gumplowicz et.al.1980, Outlines of Sociology, Transactions Publishers. 12. Ramaswamy Srinivasan, 1985, Freedom and Dissent, Democratic Research Service 13. Namita Mukherjee et.al, 2001 vol.80, High Resolution Analysis of Y- chromosonal Polymorphism (Journal of Genetics). 14. V.T.Rajasekhar 2007 “Bramhins Destroyed the Dravidian Indus Valley Civilization” Dalith Nation-The Only Authenetic Voice of Dalits). 15. Jim Cummins and David Corson, 1999, Bilingual Education, Springer. 16. Stephen Fuchs, 1974, The Aboriginal Tribes of India, Macillan India. 17. Bonigala Rama Rao Antaranivari Charitra(in Telugu);
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AN OVERVIEW OF MEDICAL EDUCATION (ALLOPATHY) AND LIBRARIES IN INDIA
Dr. P. Srinivasulu Librarian and Head Dept. of Library and Information Centre CMR Institute of Technology Kandlakoya Village, Medical Road, Hyderabad
1. Introduction India got independence on 15th August, 1947. Even today in India, professional education in health sciences continues to remain a problem area for achieving the cherished goal of the Government, ‘Health for All’ Health is the basic need of every individual. It is fundamental to national progress in any sphere. In terms of resources for economic development, nothing can be considered of higher importance than the health of the people. Even the ancient proverb ‘Health is Wealth’ also confirms this fact. An individual or a person can be said to possess good health when he is physically, mentally and spiritually sound. The Greek proverb ‘A Sound Mind in a Sound Body’ confirms this fact. Life is also not worth living on this planet unless and until we are physically and mentally sound. Hence, efficient health care system is essential to provide good health to the people. Well founded medical colleges are essential to prepare doctors with latest knowledge and skills in medicine. These doctors diagnose the diseases of people and treat them well accordingly. Good teachers, well equipped laboratories and libraries are important components in providing good medical education. The main purpose of medical libraries is to support medical education, teaching, research and patient care. Just as a sound brain is
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essential for a healthy human being, a healthy library is an asset for promotion and advancement of health sciences in a health institution. The objective of medical library is to assist the medical professionals in updating their knowledge and skills, and to provide them information regarding new innovations, views, theories and latest treatment for better patient care, medical education and research. It should meet all the information requirements of medical professionals. In the medical libraries, latest technologies are being increasingly used to collect, store, retrieve and disseminate a large amount of information to help medical professionals in their day-to-day education, research and clinical practices. The medical websites and databases developed by medical institutions, associations, agencies and publishers are available on the Internet to provide them latest information. In a developing country like India, medical professionals are quite aware of the new technologies used by their counterparts in the developed nations. As no article has been dealt so far with medical education (allopathy) and medical libraries in India, the present article attempts to present an overview in this regard. 2. Brief history of medical education in India Health sciences, like any other science, are undergoing rapid changes. Health research is increasingly recognized as one of the driving forces behind development. Health care system is considered one of the priority areas of strategic plans for development in the country. The quality of medical facility in the country and the quality of education too have been improved significantly over these years. Indian doctors represent a significant number in UK and USA. In the wake of the liberalization of Indian economy and its globalization over the last one decade, the health education and service sector in the country is emerging as a major exporter.
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Medical education in India is regulated by the Medical Council of India (MCI), a statutory body set up by the Indian Government, through a process of setting quality standards and guidelines and ensuring compliance. Similarly, Dental Council of India (DCI) regulates the functioning of the Dental Colleges. The Pharmacy Council of India (PCI) regulates pharmacy education and profession in India. Medical education occupies a crucial position as it involves a close and deep study of life itself and its vital functions. It is no more a study of human illness and cure but a comprehensive body of knowledge, dealing with health, and hence, the productivity and well- being of the citizens. There is a growing awareness of the role of health development as a vital component of socio-economic development. Since times immemorial, health has been a continuous concern of mankind. Charaka mentioned that diseases and mankind coexisted all along. In India and perhaps in the whole world, during Arsha Period (Period of the rishis), two great universities came into existence, where courses included medicine and surgery. One was at Banaras and the other was at Takshashila. The universities grew in the Buddhist Period in our country, producing medical literature useful not only to the students but also to the teachers. The first medical school was started at Calcutta in October 1824 with a view to imparting uniform and better medical education. This school was later converted into a medical college in 1835 but without any library. By the end of the nineteenth century, ten medical colleges and schools began to function in India. Medical training was set up in different parts of the country in addition to medical colleges. During the post-independence era, there was a spurt in setting up of private medical colleges without adequate resources and expertise. Goyal and Gupta1 write in their book ‘Anatomy of Medical Education’ that whatever priorities and programmes are identified for the shaping of a new educational policy, a holistic approach to
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education and meaningful linkages between its various components will be essential for its purposeful implementation. Medical education is to be related more closely to other fields of professional and general education so that medical education may gain from the vast corpus of knowledge and experience in these fields. Hence, ‘Anatomy of Medical Education’ stimulate new thinking, guide the educators and provide a valuable reference work to students, planners and administrators in an important sphere of education. Bhuiyan and Rage2 highlighted the role of medical education technology units and the urgency of reforming medical education in India. They suggest that these units should be supposed to carry out the following activities which can strengthen the quality of Medical Education. Faculty Development, Carry out Research in Medical Education, Serve as a Resource Centre, Continuing Medical Education, Policy Development, Developing System of Assessment, Developing Communication Links, and Instructional Design.
3. People Doctor Ratio The number of registered doctors in India has increased from 61,800 in 1951 to about 645,825 in 2005 - that's 0.6 doctors for 1,000 people. Compared to this, Cuba had 5.91 doctors for 1,000 people in 2002. India has 0.6 doctor, 0.8 nurse and 0.5 midwife for 1,000 people, which adds up to 1.9 health workers for 1,000 people3.
The country had 67,576 government doctors: meaning one doctor was serving roughly 15,980 people. The urban-rural skew is well
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illustrated by Chandigarh, a predominantly urban area, where one government doctor is available for just 654 people, which is the best figure in the country4. India would need at least one million more qualified nurses and 500,000 more doctors by 2012 according to a report from Escorts Heart Institute and Research Centre, 20055. 4. Changed Medical education scenario Medicine has always been a fast changing field. Rapid technological advances in diagnostics, therapeutics and patient care, coupled with astounding progress of information technology, have thrown up a challenge to medical administration. Today the medical world has no boundaries. Easy access to a wide range of information through Internet and, facilities like video conferencing has made ‘Telemedicine’ a reality today, making the task of medical administration a daunting challenge. Medical education in India is also given an important consideration from an international point of view. The Medical Council of India (MCI) controls medical education in India. All Universities or Colleges that impart medical education are monitored and inspected by the Medical Council of India every year. Medical Council of India allows Colleges or Universities to award MBBS, MS, MD, BDS, MDS or any Graduate or PG degree or Diploma provided those colleges are strictly adhering to the standards set by it. The MBBS course is of four and a half years and is followed by one year of Compulsory Rotating Residential Internship. The course is taken in three stages, following a short foundation course which provides basic principles of Communication, Ethics and problem based learning. The first stage is for 12 months and covers the basic sciences of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry. The next stage is for 18 months and includes Pharmacology, Pathology, Microbiology and Forensic Medicine. The last stage is for 24 months and covers Ophthalmology, Oto-Rhino-
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Laryngology, Community Medicine, General Medicine, Pediatrics, Surgery, Orthopedic Surgery and Obstetrics and Gynecology. MBBS is an undergraduate course while MD and MS are postgraduate courses. PG diploma courses are also available in various branches of medical education. All higher education Degrees or Diplomas are valid internationally, especially in the field of medicine. To obtain medical seats, candidates should appear for various entrance tests at All India or State level. An eligible candidate has to pass 12th class or equivalent with 50% marks in the aggregate and pass the All India Entrance Test such as AIIMS, AIPGE, AIPMT and AFMC. At the state level, one student has to get through Common Entrance Test of the states concerned. Most of the Government Medical Colleges offer admissions only to Indian students on the basis of their performance in a competitive entrance test. However, a few Government Medical Colleges have some quota for NRI/Foreign students. A student has to keep a watch over the medical and dental entrance tests conducted in India by various states and universities, if he or she has to get admission into such courses. Usually, the time for such tests will be around a couple of months earlier than the month in which the actual courses start in Medical Schools. The academic year begins in the month of July in India. 5. Medical Colleges and Universities in India Over the last five decades India, unlike many other Third World nations, has succeeded in setting up a complex medical and health infrastructure involving teaching, training and research, drugs and medical instrument production, and healthcare, including at the tertiary level. There is no denying of many achievements over the decades: increased life expectancy reduced infant mortality, declines in fertility, some success in eradicating basic communicable diseases. The state-wise distribution of medical colleges (Allopathy) in India is shown in Table1.
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Table 1 State-wise distribution of Medical Colleges (Allopathy) in India (Source: www.mciindia.org) Cumulative Government Private State Total No. % No. % No. % Andhra 15 34.88 28 65.12 43 11.30 Pradesh Assam 5 100.00 ------5 1.31 Bihar 9 69.23 4 13 3.41 Chandigarh 1 100.00 ------1 0.26 Chattisgarh 4 80.00 1 --- 5 1.31 Delhi 6 75.00 2 --- 8 2.10 Goa 1 100.00 ------1 0.26 Gujarat 9 40.91 13 22 5.77 Haryana 3 42.86 4 7 1.84 Himachal 2 66.67 1 --- 3 0.80 Pradesh Jammu 3 75.00 1 4 1.05 &Kashmir Jharkhand 3 100.00 ------3 0.80 Karnataka 12 26.09 34 46 12.07 Kerala 7 28.00 18 25 6.56 Madhya 6 50.00 6 12 3.15 Pradesh Maharastra 19 43.18 25 44 11.55 Manipur 2 100.00 ------0.52 Meghalaya 1 100.00 ------1 0.26 Orrissa 3 37.50 5 8 2.10 Puducherry 2 22.22 7 9 2.36
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Punjab 3 30.00 7 10 2.62 Rajastan 7 70.00 3 10 2.62 Sikkim ------1 --- 1 0.26 Tamilnadu 21 40.67 24 45 11.81 Tripura 1 50.00 1 2 0.52 Uttar Pradesh 15 50.00 15 30 7.87 Uttaranchal 2 50.00 2 4 1.05 West Bengal 14 82.35 3 --- 17 4.46 All India 176 46.19 205 53.81 381 100.00
It is evident from Table1 that Karnataka gets first rank for having more number of medical colleges (12.07%) followed by Tamilnadu (11.81%), Maharastra (11.55%) and Andhra Pradesh (11.30%). Medical Colleges in India are comparable with the best in the world. The Health Survey and Planning Committee of 1961, for instance, had recommended that one medical college should be available five million people. This amounts to 200 colleges for the country's roughly one billion population. At present, there are 381 medical colleges in the country, out of which 286 medical colleges have been recognized by MCI, 86 new medical colleges have been permitted and 9 others (i.e. recommended / not recommended for renewal of permission for 2013-2014) by the Central Government to conduct MBBS course. The admission capacity in these colleges is approximately 50068 students per year. In addition to them there are 301 dental, 149 Ayurveda, 42 Unani, 9 Siddha, 184 Homoepathy, 14 Yoga and Naturopathy colleges in the country. The President of Michigan State Medical Society, Dr M Appa Rao has recently said, 'The standard of medical education in Indian colleges is better, compared with that of in the United States. Our foundation was better as all
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students read science and mathematics at the school final level, while it was possible for a student in the US to complete his degree without studying these two subjects. Not only medical colleges, medical care provided by top Indian hospitals too is world-class. A testimony of this fact is the trend of growing medical tourism in India. A large number of people from America and Europe are coming to India for super- speciality treatments. Doctors are earning very handsome salaries in top Indian hospitals and they are in great demand. In a nutshell, a person pursuing medical education in India has very bright future. The following is the list of top medical colleges in India: All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi Armed Forced Medical College (AFMC), Pune Christian Medical College (CMC), Vellore Christian Medical College (CMC), Ludhiana Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research (JIPMER), Puducherry Maulana Azad Medical College (MAMC), Delhi University College of Medical Sciences (UCMS), Delhi Seth Gordhandas Sunderdas Medical College, Mumbai Grant Medical College, Mumbai King George's Medical College, Lucknow Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai Kasturba Medical College (KMC), Manipal Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi King Edward Medical College, Mumbai Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education & Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences, Loni
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Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow Calcutta Medical College, Kolkata Bangalore Medical College, Bengaluru Madras Medical College, Chennai Government Medical College, Nagpur Government Medical College, Mysore L.T.M. Medical College, Mumbai Lady Hardinge, Delhi The following are the famous Health Universities in India: 1. NTR University of Health Sciences, Vijayawada 2. Sri Venkateswara Institute of Medical Sciences (SVIMS), Tirupati 3. Nizam’s Institute of Medical Sciences (NIMS), Hyderabad 4. All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Delhi 5. National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), Bengaluru 6. Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences (RGUHS), Bengaluru 7. Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences & Technology (SCTIMST), Thiruvananthapuram 8. Rajmata Vijayraje Scindia Medical University, Gwalior 9. Maharashtra University of Health Sciences, Nashik 10. Baba Farid University of Health Sciences, Faridkot 11. Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute (SRMC & RI), Chennai 12. TamilNadu Dr. M. G. R. Medical University, Chennai 13. West Bengal University of Health Sciences, Kolkata 14. Rajasthan University of Health Sciences, Jaipur
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6. Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), New Delhi, the apex body in India for the formation, coordination and promotion of medical research, is one of the oldest medical research bodies in the world. As early as 1911, the Government of India set up the Indian Research Fund Association (IRFA) with the specific objective of sponsoring and coordinating medical research in the country. After Independence, several important changes were made in the organization and the activities of the IRFA. It was redesignated in 1949 as the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) with considerably expanded scope of functions. The ICMR is funded by the Government of India through the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. 7. Medical Council of India (MCI) The Medical Council of India (MCI) was established as a statutory body under the provisions of the Indian Medical Council Act, 1933 which was later revoked by the Indian Medical Council Act, 1956 with minor amendments in 1958. A major amendment in IMC Act, 1956 was made in 1993 making it mandatory for obtaining approval of Ministry of Health and Family Welfare for opening new medical colleges/increase of seats, starting of new courses in order to regulate the standard of medical education in the country. The IMC Act, 1956 was further amended in 2001 to enable the Medical Council of India to conduct screening test for Indian nationals holding foreign medical qualifications to test their skill before granting them registration to practise medicine in India. Through the same Amendment Act, it has been made mandatory for Indian students desirous of taking admission in an undergraduate medical course at an institute in abroad to obtain an Eligibility Certificate from the MCI stating that he/she conforms to the norms laid down by MCI for this purpose. The main functions of the Council are maintenance of uniform standard of medical education
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both at the undergraduate and the postgraduate levels, maintenance of Indian Medical Register, reciprocity with foreign countries in the matter of mutual recognition of medical qualifications, continuing medical education and granting of provisional/permanent registration of doctors with recognized medical qualifications, registration of additional qualifications and issue of Good Standing Certificate for doctors going other countries. 8. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) ICT is a great opportunity to improve access to medical education, to improve the quality of education and to facilitate collaboration amongst individual learners and institutions. Challenges do exist, especially for rural areas. These include Technological (e.g., overcoming barriers like cost, maintenance, access to telecommunications infrastructure) Educational (using ICTs to best meet learners' educational priorities) and Social (sensitivity to remote needs, resources, cultures). Finally, there is a need for more rigorous research to more clearly identify advantages and disadvantages of specific use of ICTs in medical education, to determine the specific conditions under which they are effective, and to understand the use of complex educational systems using multiple ICTs.6 9. Brief history of medical libraries in India India had a rich tradition of libraries in the ancient past. The history of medical libraries can be traced as early as to the second century BC. They were attached to the universities such as Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramshila which were sources of classical medical education, practice and research. During the medieval period, the Mughal rulers had their own personal medical libraries. However, the origin of modern medical libraries in India can be traced to the establishment of the British rule. By the end of 19th century, the three
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provincial capitals of India - Bombay, Calcutta and Madras and many of the towns had medical colleges. The first medical library attached to the Institute of Anatomy, Madras, came into being in 1830. In the beginning of twentieth century, India witnessed a strong movement for the establishment of medical libraries in different parts. Some of the prominent libraries came into existence during 1907-1944. As a consequence, in 1946 the Health Survey and Development Committee (Bhore committee) also took note of the existing conditions of medical libraries in India and strongly recommended the establishment of a central medical library. The committee noted that there was no medical library in India with more than 11,000 books apart from bound periodicals whereas the library of DGIMS (now National Medical Library) contained about 20,000 books. The traditional role for the professional librarian has been lending books and documents to users. Then the emphasis shifted from books to providing information to health clientele. Reference, bibliography, document delivery, reprographic and literature search services were being offered by medical libraries as well. The medical education in developing countries, particularly in India, is well organized and has reached a stage of relative maturity. To meet the demand for medical information, the national medical library makes the medical information effectively accessible for use in the medical education, research, health-care and administration. The growth and development of education and medical libraries in developed countries have attained a stage of sophistication. These countries have adopted computer technology and developed international information system in health sciences. These automated information systems provide a wide access to health information through online and establishing a direct interaction of the user database and offline.
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10. Changed scenario / recent developments in medical libraries in India This is the era of information explosion in which large amount of information is being generated at every moment in the whole world. The ability to collect, store, retrieve and disseminate the large amount of information, needs application of new technologies. Medical libraries can disseminate the desired information for medical professionals for their day-to-day education, research and patient care. The use of new technologies provides better ways of transmission of information in the form of telecommunication techniques. Information technology is also quite useful in information handling and resource sharing among different libraries. It helps libraries in creating databases of their collections and making them available for easy access to users inside as well as outside through networks. It also enables libraries to provide most efficient and specialized information services. Thus information technology is needed to fulfil the objective of the libraries to collect, organize and disseminate information effectively and efficiently. Health science library professionals had never been exposed so much in the past to the changing information scenario as they are being exposed now. Health science libraries are in the midst of a period of radical change, precipitated in large part by rapid and penetrating advances in automation. Libraries are moving beyond their traditional role as custodians of printed materials and integrating new methods of information storage, retrieval and transmission into existing collections and services. They are at the same time incorporating extensive changes that new technologies bring to their job responsibilities. Traditionally trained librarians, who are unaware of the current developments in the field of information technology, will not fit into the profession unless the educational process for health science librarianship is made adaptable to the fast changing technological
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environment. The whole scenario redefined the infrastructure of health-care, education and research. In the coming years, the educational responsibilities of health science librarians shall include teaching access to literature and other sources, and teaching and guidance in the use of technology as a means to access and manage information. As a consequence, the present need of medical professionals and information professionals/librarians, the use of recent technologies in the libraries is becoming inevitable for reasons given below: Information Explosion Resource Sharing Transmission of Information Information Management Changing Needs of Medical Professionals and Availability of Electronic Products and Services Medical college library is maintained by medial college, hospital, medical research institute, public health agency or medical association to meet the information needs of students, researches and practioners in medicine. Medial Council of India permits medical colleges to start medical courses when they follow standards with regard to the library. The following are standards set by the MCI: The minimum requirements for the medical college libraries as per the norms of Medical Council of India (MCI)7 are as follows: There shall be a central library (1200 sq. m.) with seating arrangement for at least 150 students for reading and having good lighting and ventilation and space for stacking and display of books and journals. There shall be at least one room for 150 members inside and one room for 75 students outside. It should have not fewer than 10,000 text and reference books. In a new medical college, the total number of books
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should be proportionately divided on yearly basis in five years. The number of journals shall be 100, out of which one-third shall be foreign journals subscribed on continuous basis. The number of copies of text books in each subject on undergraduate teaching shall be ten. There shall be provision for: o Staff reading room for 30 persons o Rooms for librarian and other staff o Room for daftaries and book binders o Microfilm reading room o Journal room o Room for copying facilities o Video and Cassette room (desirable) and o Air-conditioned computer room with MEDLARS and Internet facility. The staff in library shall consist of: o Librarian with a degree in library science 1 no. o Deputy librarian 1 no. Documentaries 1 no. o Cataloguer 1 no. o Library Assistants 4 nos. o Daftaries 2 nos. o Peons 2 nos. These standards also need to be revised and reformulated in view of changing scenario of libraries and challenging demands of users. There is an urgent need to modify the existing minimum standard requirements for medical libraries based on the evolutionary changes in the development of information technologies in the ‘digital era’ to achieve the concept ‘health for all’.
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11. Important medical libraries in India The following are the important medical libraries: 11.1 National Medical Library, New Delhi The National Medical Library at New Delhi, so designated from April 7, 1966 by the Government of India, marked the beginning of a new era in this direction. The National Medical Library has been functioning under the administrative control of the Directorate General of Health Services. It continues to discharge its mandate for providing information services to meet requirements in the field of health, medical and related sciences for the users throughout the country. The networking role of the national libraries needs to be defined. The national libraries will continue to share a major responsibility for collection building although networking provides a means to evolve some collection responsibility to other libraries. Networking should result in an increase in the number of remote users of the national collections, making them more truly national, and enabling the information more accessible to researchers of all kinds. The National Library of India in particular has a valuable contribution to make in this regard. It should introduce document delivery service. Like other National Libraries, it promotes Inter- Library Loan (ILL). The national library in common with other libraries will need to develop greatly improved methods of document and information delivery.
11.2 All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) Library, New Delhi AIIMS (All India Institute of Medical Sciences) is one of the premier Institute of Asia established in 1956 as an Institute of National Importance. The library of AIIMS is regarded as one of best Medical Sciences library in Asia and has earned de-facto status of NML of India.
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The library has collection of more than 2 Lakh books, which is automated. It has an OPAC, access the online journals and several International databases in medical sciences. The ALL India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) and Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education & Research (PGIMER) which are Institutes of National Importance have liberal grants and their libraries are well equipped with latest technologies. 12. Continuing Education Programmes for the medical Information Professionals/Librarians Continuing Education Programme (CEP) is crucial for professional development of medical information professionals/librarians especially in the context of developments and applications of information technology (IT) to library and information science. Continuing education or professional development is the life- long learning that librarians and information professionals engage in so as to refresh their knowledge and skills. Librarians are the real makers of the students and health care personnel. So, they should utilize their subject knowledge to guide the readers in bibliographic search. Only the qualitatively superior will survive in this age of information explosion. Such type of continuing education is essential for the professional development and competency of LIS profession. 13. Training agencies for continuing Educational Programmes (CEPs) Many organizations and institutions are conducting research on different aspects of library science with the objective of improving the competencies of library and information professionals in the field of Health Science Librarianship. The details of organizations which conducted CEP programmes over the years are given below: National Medical Library, New Delhi National Centre for Science Information (NCSI), Bangalore
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Documentation Research and Training Centre (DRTC), Bangalore NISCAIR (INSDOC), New Delhi Indian MEDLARS Centre, New Delhi Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences (RGUHS), Karnataka Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi and Information and Library Network (INFLIBNET), Ahmedabad 14. Suggestions To meet health care needs of the Indian society, more number of doctors are needed. Hence, there is need to increase the number of medical colleges in India. To provide quality education to medial professionals library and information services are to be improved. The following are the suggestions: 1. Medical Council of India should take necessary steps for providing UGC/State Government scales to librarians working in private medical college libraries to enable them to make both ends met in the hard days. 2. The authorities of medical colleges should constitute library committees for smooth functioning. 3. Medical Council of India should take necessary steps to appoint more library staff members as per the norms of Medical Council of India. 4. The managements of medical colleges should take necessary steps to improve the book collection as per the norms of Medical Council of India. 5. Medical Council of India should insist on medical colleges subscribing to the journals as per the norms of MCI so that the users can get latest information in medicine.
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6. The necessary steps should be taken by the medical college libraries to shift gradually from print to e-journals to reduce the expenditure on the subscription of periodicals. 7. The authorities of medical college libraries concerned should take necessary steps to provide services namely inter-library loan service, bibliographic service, indexing and abstracting services, referral service, newspaper clipping service, MEDLINE, CAS/SDI and book reservation facility for the benefit of users after the feasibility study. 8. The authorities should take necessary steps to provide Internet facility with adequate number of computer systems and high speed access. They should provide training to the users in the use of ICT in libraries. 9. The library authorities should take appropriate steps to create awareness among the users about the importance of library services through user education programmes, namely, lecture method, library tour, audio-visual method and printed booklet. 10. The authorities concerned, in both government and private medical colleges, should take necessary steps to provide library staff training in library automation. Medical Council of India should insist on that the college authorities computerizing the libraries for quick retrieval of information at the time of inspection. 11. The authorities should take necessary steps to establish medical college libraries consortia for better utilization of resources among themselves. 12. The authorities concerned should take necessary steps to develop the present collection by acquiring more number of reading materials.
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13. Medical Council of India should insist for separate building for library in the medial college at the time of inspection. 14. The authorities of medical colleges should consider of installing air-conditioning of their libraries to maximize the use of libraries and should consider the improvement of the facilities by examining the present situation. 15. The authorities should take necessary steps to purchase more number of copies for prescribed books to meet the requirements of students. 16. For sharing resources effectively and for efficient information retrieval, establishment of digital library is essential. Hence digital library facility should be made available for the benefit of users. 17. The authorities should take necessary steps to create awareness among the users about the open access electronic journals. 18. The Medical Library Association of India (MLAI) should conduct workshops, seminars, refresher courses and training programmes useful to medical college librarians. 19. The norms of MCI are to be revised taking into consideration the latest technological developments and the like.
References
1. GOYAL (M R) and GUPTA (Mahesh C). Anatomy of medical education. 1986. Central subscription agency Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 2. BHUIYAN (P S) and REGE (N N). Evolution of medical education technology unit in India. Journal of Postgraduate Medicine. 47; 2001; 42- 44. In: http://www.jpgmonline.com/ article. asp? issn=0022-3859 (visited on: Nov. 21, 2005). 3. World Health Report for 2006. In: www.who.int (visited on: May 21, 2009).
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4. MoHFWs Health Information of India, 2004. In: http://www.mohfw.nic.in (visited on: July 2, 2009). 5. Escorts Heart Institute and Research Centre, 2005.In: http://www. assocham.org/events/recent/event_35/dr_trehan_escort_heart.ppt (visited on: July 21, 2009). 6. SARGEANT (J M). Medical education for rural areas: Opportunities and challenges for information and communications technologies. Journal of Postgraduate Medicine. 51; 2005; 301-307. In: http://www.jpgmonline.com/ article. asp? issn=0022-3859;year= 2005;volume=51;issue= 4;spage =301; epage = 307; ulast=Sargeant (visited on: April 25, 2009). 7. SEETHARAMA (S) and AMBUJA (R). Standards for Health Science Libraries. In: INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HEALTH SCIENCES: NEWER PERSPECTIVES (MLAI National Convention on ---) (Chennai) (2004). Dr. ALM Post Graduate Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Madras, Chennai. p417-428. 8. http://www.mciindia.org/InformationDesk/ForStudents/ListofCollegesTeac hingMBBS.aspx (visited on: January 30, 2014). 9. http://www.cchindia.com/colleges.htm (visited on: February 1, 2014). 10. http://www.ccimindia.org/colleges_status_ayurveda_2012-13.htm (visited on: January 31, 2014). 11. http://www.ccimindia.org/colleges_status_unani_tibbi_2013-14.html (visited on: January 31, 2014). 12. http://www.ccimindia.org/colleges_status_siddha_2013-14.html (visited on: January 28, 2014). 13. http://www.ccryn.org/Quarterly%20Magazine%20Apr-June,%202011.pdf (visited on: January 30, 2014).
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NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF GESTATIONAL DIABETES MELLITUS WOMEN
Dr. Poonam Khanna Rachna Assistant Professor (Nutrition) Research Scholar College of Hotel Management AIIMS, New Delhi MMU Mullana. Ambala, Haryana
Rekha Kaushik Assistant Professor (Nutrition) College of Hotel Management MMU Mullana. Ambala, Haryana
INTRODUCTION Gestational diabetes mellitus, defined as “carbohydrate intolerance of varying degrees of severity with onset or first recognition during pregnancy,” (Metzger et al 1998) is associated with an increased risk of complications for mother and child during pregnancy and birth. The definition of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) as any degree of glucose intolerance with onset or first recognition during pregnancy is largely accepted. However, the precise level of glucose intolerance characterizing gestational diabetes has been controversial over the last three decades in 1979-1980, U.S. National Diabetes Data Group (NDDG) and the World Health Organization (WHO) (Eliana, et. Al. 2012). Gestational diabetes mellitus occurs in 2 to 9 percent of all pregnancies (Hoffman et al, 1998) and is associated with substantial rates of maternal and perinatal complications. Among those complications are shoulder dystocia and birth injuries, neonatal hyperbilirubinaemia, hypoglycaemia, respiratory distress syndrome, caesarean section, and pre-eclampsia. Fetal macrosomia is associated with gestational diabetes (Metzger et al 2008) and is a surrogate for many of the complications. Epidemiological research suggests that
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women who have gestational diabetes have an increased risk of type 2 diabetes later in life.(Bellamy et al 2009) Medical Management has shown that lowering blood glucose levels to a normoglycemic level will help prevent diabetic complications (Fagen, et al., 1995). Therefore medical management’s main goal is to prevent perinatal morbidity and mortality by normalizing the blood glucose levels to a non-diabetic state. Dietary and Nutritional Therapy is also important in regulating the blood glucose levels in women diagnosed with GDM. Nutritional counselling is the mainstay of therapy for women diagnosed with GDM (Fagen, et al., 1995). The best plan for regulating these blood glucose levels is to provide a diet that contains calories and nutrients necessary for maternal and fetal health, which results in normal blood glucose levels, prevents ketosis, and results in appropriate weight gain (Fagen, et al., 1995). Women with GDM should consume approximately 40-50% carbohydrate, 20-25% protein, and 30-40% fat during pregnancy (Fagen, et al., 1995). The recommended diet is believed to normalize blood glucose levels while preventing any other metabolic abnormalities. Good nutrition and controlling both carbohydrate and caloric intake will help control blood glucose levels. Medical Nutrition Therapy is a nutritional treatment for a specific condition, in this case gestational diabetes, based on a detailed assessment to individual factors such as pre pregnancy weight, physical activity level, pregnancy weight gain to date and diet history. The primary goal is to control blood glucose levels by controlling intake of carbohydrates and saturated fats while ensuring adequate nutrition without excessive weight gain. In view of above, the present study was conducted with an aim to assess the nutritional status of gestational diabetic women with respect to their anthropometric measurements and dietary patterns.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS. STUDY POPULATION The study focused on pregnant women who attended AIIMS and SAFDARJUNG hospitals for delivery.
STUDY DESIGN A hospital based study was designed to collect data for this research which was fully quantitative and observational. Two hospitals from the south Delhi were chosen for the collection of data. To collect necessary information a face to face interview with the mothers and a retrospective clinical chart review of all the cases (GDM). The patients involved in the study were diagnosed with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) based upon specific criteria when assessed during their third trimester of pregnancy. In order to determine a diagnosis, the study protocol required that the patient had to be diagnosed according to the standards set by their institution at approximately 28 weeks gestation, which typically used the 100-gram OGTT (oral glucose tolerance test) (at the time of the study, there were 2 sets of blood glucose levels used and they did not differentiate). At least 2 of the values from the OGTT needed to be abnormal in order for the women to be diagnosed with GDM (ie fasting: ≥ 105 mg/dL, 1 hour ≥ 190 mg/dL, 2 hours ≥ 165 mg/dL, 3 hours ≥ 145 mg/dL). The additional eligibility criteria initiated for this study included being in the age range of 18-45 years, carrying a singleton pregnancy, and entry into the trial from 28 to 32 weeks gestation. Factors that excluded the subjects from the study included already being diagnosed with type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus, having a diagnosis of sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, or other hemoglobinopathy, medical conditions prior to pregnancy (e.g., lupus, hypertension, thyroid disease, cardiovascular disease, transplants, renal disease, or other serious medical conditions),
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or being precipitated with current infectious diseases (HIV, active TB, or other similar diseases).
SAMPLE SIZE A sample of 100 pregnant women was randomly selected in AIIMS hospital and Safdarjung hospital who fulfilled inclusion criteria were asked to take part in the study These women were already diagnosed GDM patients by OGTT. They had been on treatment by AIIMS outpatient service for control of their diabetes and pregnancy care.
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE Prior to the initiation of the main study a small pilot study was performed on 10 subjects. The intention was to identify the potential problems to collect data necessary for the study. Data was collected with a structured questionnaire. Women selected as cases were interviewed by an investigator in their apparently stable situation. The purpose of the study was clearly explained to them. Those who gave consent to take part, a face to face interview were taken and antenatal card and blood records were reviewed to collect the necessary information.
RESULTS & DISCUSSION Table 1.1 represents the demographic profile of the respondents. From the results it has been seen that women with higher level of education had GDM more than those with less institutional education The more proportion found at the graduation level i.e 34% and the risk of GDM appears to be more among educated women. Women with GDM have been seen to have an increase of prevalence with increasing age of pregnancy. The mean age of GDM women were 28.44. About 86.0% of women in GDM group were over 25 years. No woman under
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the age of 20 was found in the cases. But the lowest recorded age in GDM group was 22 years. The prevalence proportion of GDM increased with age from 14% in the age group 20-24 to 36.0% for the group 30- 34and >35(Fig 1.1)
Table 1.1: Demographic profile of the respondents Education level Percentage Illiterate 10.0 Primary 1.0 Secondary 15.0 Intermediate 20.0 Graduate 34.0 Post graduate 20.0 Total 100.0 Family Nuclear family 45.0 Joint family 55.0 Total 100.0 Annual Income Below 100000 6.0 100000-200000 22.0 200000-300000 29.0 Above 300000 41.0 Don’t know 2.0 Total 100.0
About 55% in GDM were found as being have a joint family and 45% have a nuclear family. According to the answers provided by them these women were involved only in household activities.
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Fig 1.1 :Age profile of GDM WOMEN
<20 20-24 25-29 30-34
Women having better economic status were more likely to have GDM than those having low economic status in these study population (Table 1.1). Only 6% of women with annual income less than 100000 were found to have GDM. It has been noticed that GDM increased with increasing annual income of the family (Table1.1). The difference was highest in those with annual income more than 300000. 41%women found have GDM as compare to have a low income i.e 6%. Those who had monthly expenditure more than 300000 had a more risk of GDM than those had less than 100000. Family History of diabetes was found as a strong risk factor for GDM and significantly associated with GDM in this study (Table 1.2). About seventy five percent women with GDM answered ‘yes’ when they were asked whether any in their immediate relation like parents, siblings, children, uncles and aunts, grant parents have known history of diabetes and forty five percent women replied no. In our study all the women who had GDM in their previous pregnancy (21%) developed GDM in the current pregnancy. Women who were primigravida or had prior history of menstrual regulation or miscarriage were excluded in the previous obstetric history analysis. Previous history of GDM was found to have a significant association with GDM. A positive history of GDM in the previous pregnancy predicts high risk for GDM in the following pregnancies (Table 1.2).
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Table 1.2: Family history and obstetric factors of GDM women Family history of Percentage diabetes Yes 55 No 45 Total 100 Gravidity Primi 58 Second 42 Previous history of GDM Not applicable 58 Yes 21 No 21 Total 100 Miscarriage Yes 27 No 73
About 27% women had a miscarriage in the previous pregnancy and 73% women had no miscarriage. Most of the women in GDM group were primigravida (58%). It has been seen that the prevalence percentage of GDM increased with gravidity, but in present study it is not seen.
From the results it was seen, the GDM women were pre obese and obese class1, so their dietary adequacy cannot be compared with recommended dietary allowances. The dietary requirements were calculated on the basis of ideal body weight and height as per recommendations given by ICMR (2002).
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The minimum BMI were found a 20.0 and maximum BMI were found a 33.7 and the mean was found to be 27.87. The measurement of obesity depends on the proportion of both the height and weight of an individual. Therefore, we focused on the BMI of the women in order to examine the relationship of obesity with GDM.. We found a more risk of GDM who have a higher BMI than those have a lower BMI. 74% women have a BMI more than the 24.9.only 26%women BMI less than the 25.0.so obesity is the one of risk factor of GDM. In T test revealed significant difference of obesity in between BMI less than 25.0 and BMI higher than the 25.0 . Risk of GDM was more in the women with BMI more than 30 than those below 25 (Table 1.3).
Table 1.3: Anthropometric Status of GDM women Category Percentage >18.5 0 18.5-24.9 26 25.0-29.9 36 30.0-34.9 38 Total 100 Figure 1.2 highlights the food habits of GDM women and it was observed that majority of women were vegetarian (59%) followed by ovatarian (29%) and non vegetarian (12%) respectively.
Figure 1.2 : Food Habits
Vegetarian Non veg Ovatarin
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Table 1.3 depicts the food consumption patterns of GDM women. From the results it was observed that consumption of fast food, roots and tuber, and fats was more leading to increased risk for diabetes complications. We observed that 40%women eat pizza weekly, 23%twice a month and 37%eat monthly. 20%women eat French fries daily, 30% eat weekly, 12%eat twice a month and 37%eat monthly. 22% women eat chips daily, 16% women eat weekly,38% eat twice a month and 24% eat monthly. 33%women eat maggi daily, 43%women weekly,24%women eat twice a month respectively. It was observed that the consumption of the fast food is high in GDM women. Fat also found a high content100% in GDM women food. Staple food consumption was varied from 80-100% daily. The milk and milk products were consumed at 75% level daily followed by roots and tubers (72%) and green leafy vegetables (30%), respectively. Table 1.4: Food consumption patterns of GDM women. Frequency S.No. Food Twice a Group Daily Weekly month Monthly 1. Pulses and legumes Arhar dal 80 10 05 05 Channa dal 0 9 81 10 Masoor dal 70 10 10 10 Moong dal 80 3 7 10 Urad 0 0 20 80 Chana 5 21 39 35 choley 0 20 50 30 rajma 0 60 37 3 Lobiya 0 5 15 80 Matar 25 40 25 10 Other pl
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specify 2. Cereals Wheat 100 0 0 0 Rice 40 60 0 0 Poha 40 50 5 5 dalia 70 20 10 0 Other pl specify 3. Milk and milk products Milk 75 15 8 2 Yoghurt 61 22 12 5 Cottage 5 19 20 56 cheese Other pl specify 4. Green leafy 30 46 22 2 vegetables 5. Roots and 72 20 5 3 tubers 6. Fats and oils Ghee 82 8 7 3 Butter 0 0 45 55 Oil 100 0 0 0 Other pl specify 7. Meat, fish 0 33 5 3 and poultry 8. Fast food/ready to eat foods
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pizza 0 40 23 37 French fries 20 31 12 37 Chips 22 16 38 24 Cold drinks 23 31 34 12 Maggi 33 43 24 0 Chocolate 0 0 20 36 Ice cream 0 36 35 29
From the results it can be concluded that GDM is a dependent factor on hereditary and lifestyle factors. The results of the present investigation revealed that diets consumed by GDM females were inadequate in most of the foods ultimately lead to dietary inadequacy of nutrients. However, we found the GDM women consumption of fast food, roots and tuber, and fats was more leading to increased risk for diabetes complications. The anthropometric parameters were still in the higher range when compared with the normal values. . Particular attention needs to be given to the women who are diagnosed with diabetes early in pregnancy. A standard treatment guideline including referral instruction is to be prepared and available to the health professional so that they can identify GDM as well as make a birth plan for GDM in pregnancy
References 1. Bellamy L, Casas JP, Hingorani AD, Williams D.(2009). Type 2 diabetes mellitus after gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet;373:1773-9. 2. Eliana M Wendland, Maria Regina Torloni, Maicon Falavigna, Janet Trujillo, Maria Alice Dode, Maria Amélia Campos, Bruce B Duncan and Maria Inês Schmidt. (2012).Gestational diabetes and pregnancy outcomes - a systematic review of the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Association of Diabetes in Pregnancy
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Study Groups (IADPSG) diagnostic criteria. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 12:23 . 3. Fagen,C; King, G. D. & Erich M.(1995).Nutrition management in women with Gestational Diabetes mellitus: A review by ADA’S Diabetic Care and Education Dietetics Practice Group. Journal of American Dietetics Association.460-467. 4. Hoffman L, Nolan C, Wilson JD, Oats J, Simmons D. (1998). Gestational diabetes mellitus -- management guidelines: the Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society. Med J Aust ;169:93-97. 5. Metzger BE, Coustan DR.(1998) .Summary and recommendations of the Fourth International Workshop-Conference on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care.21(suppl 2):161-7S. 6. Metzger BE, Lowe LP, Dyer AR, Trimble ER, Chaovarindr U, Coustan DR.(2008). Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes. N Engl J Med.358:1991-2002.
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THE DARK CONTINENT: A PLACE FOR LIVING
Dr. Rejeti Krishna Rao Department of English Andhra University Campus Kakinada, East Godavari, A.P
Colonialism made its advent in Africa somewhat late, after other regions of the world were colonized, because of various historical and economic reasons. In historical terms Africa did not present itself as an attractive colonial destination because in the western imagination Africa was a dark continent inhabited by primitive tribes, constantly fighting one another and given to atavistic practices and ungovernable tempers. The western colonial powers did not see Africa as presenting a cultural contrast or a reference point to their own mode of living or philosophical outlook. From their point of view Africa was a human quarry from where enslaved young men and women should be transported to Europe and America, and sold on in the markets there. They did not think Africa was a place to stay comfortably at and its people fit to be governed with a sense of pride. But, when the race for colonial occupation of Africa started in the latter half of the 19th century, it did not take long before the entire continent came under colonial rule. The European colonial powers used a combination of tactics to subdue the African natives some of whom were fiercely independent stateless peoples. The colonial masters firmly dealt with them because of the advantage they had in terms of weapons. To deal with others they employed other tactics. They would secure the occupation of lands and loyalty of the people by a mafia-like offer of protection to the local rulers. In the final analysis the so called ‘tools of empire’ – medicines, steamships, railways, telegraphs and well-tested organizational capabilities of the
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western industrial powers – completely swept aside the African resistance by breaking the will of the people. Britain, like everywhere else in the world, held in Africa vast and heavily populated areas such as Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda and Ghana. Britain followed, irrespective of the geographical, cultural and historical context of Africa, essentially the same policies it followed and perfected in the other colonies it had held up until that time. Given its backwardness on almost every front Africa did not present a military or cultural challenge, the way India did, to Britain. British colonial policies, especially on the political and cultural fronts, met with stiff resistance in India because India has a glorious civilizational past including a literary tradition dating back to many centuries B.C. Africa could not boast of a similar past and so it was an infinitely easy task for the British colonial mission to completely overwhelm its African territories and put in place colonial systems and practices -- Christian religion and western cultural mores, political and military institutions -- and get them accepted by the local tribal populations with remarkable ease. In the process the age-old faiths and belief systems of Africa, which were obviously primitive and unacceptable from the western point of view, got twisted out of shape. In most cases its cultural institutions, such as they were, got dismantled and its life style changed beyond recognition. However opinion varies on the impact of colonialism on the peoples of Africa. John Parker and Richard Rathbone give a nuanced account of this impact in their book African History: A Very Short Introduction: European rule, underpinned throughout the continent by coercion and racism, was often violent, exploitative, and traumatic. But its impact varied enormously: across time, from region to region and colony to colony, between men and women and young and old, and
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according to a multitude of social, political, and economic factors that were often shaped as much by Africans themselves as by their colonial masters. For some Africans, colonial rule represented a threat; for others, an opportunity. For many, it was probably both. Reconstructing these complex patterns is one of the greatest challenges facing historians of Africa today.(91- 92) Considering these remarkable colonial successes in Africa, it has to be admitted that, the colonial conquest of Africa was more complete than in the other British colonies where there were already well established political, social and cultural institutions. The African mind, being fresh and not already harbouring competing ideologies, got fully colonized. While in the former British colonies such as India decolonisation of the mind was never a big challenge in African, as emphasised by the Kenyan writer Ngaga wa Thiong’o in his book Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature (1986), it was a stupendous task and is still incomplete. The British colonial administration in Africa, unlike the other colonial powers ruling the continent, concentrated on cultural transformation rather than economic exploitation alone. It was more patronizing and condescending in Africa than it was elsewhere. In just about half a century of colonial rule Africa went through complete cultural transformation so that the vast majority of the tribal population got Christianised, took to looking upon their own previous cultural institutions and religious practices with derision and regret. This transformation also resulted in an unqualified admiration of things western in general and things British in particular. British colonial enterprise in Africa was a short lived phenomenon. Although Britain started decolonizing Africa more than
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a decade after it did in Asia it was with no great regret because Britain left behind its colonial legacy there including the Christianity, English language, Westminster system of administration and cultural practices of various kinds. However, the colonial political legacy of democracy did not last long in Africa. Most African nations went through a wave of military coups in the first couple of decades after decolonization. Democratically elected governments were replaced by dictatorships, monarchies and various other kinds of totalitarian regimes. African societies found themselves in an unenviable situation having to deal with the colonial cultural legacy on the one hand, unfriendly and anti-people political regimes on the other. There was real identity crisis being experienced by the societies across African because they lost their historical moorings during the colonial era and they were not allowed to embrace the western democratic traditions by the local rulers now. The phenomenon of local rulers of Africa needs to be understood in some detail. Although the European imperialists invaded Africa claiming that the Africans were incapable of governing themselves they soon realized that they could not rule the continent without the support of local allies and intermediaries. In most cases these allies happened to be the local rulers -- kings and chiefs -- who eagerly embraced the colonial order and turned it to their advantage. Especially the British colonial states of Africa who flowed the policy of ‘indirect rule,’ like elsewhere in the world, were inclined to enlist the support of the existing rulers, such as the Sokoto Caliphate of northern Nigeria who were notorious aristocratic authoritarians, because it was easy to do business with them. It also made sound economic sense to rule indirectly because colonial rule in Africa was done on the cheap. It had to be, because the exaggerated hopes of finding untapped wealth quickly faded and replaced by a struggle on the part of the colonial bureaucracies to maintain law and order,
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collect taxes and mobilize labour. The local rulers made this task infinitely easier and for their services and loyalty they were richly rewarded by the colonial masters. Indirect rule also created several ‘decentralized despotisms’ – illegitimate power structures – that survived all through the colonial rule and continued into the postcolonial period. This in part explains the despotism and political authoritarianism of contemporary Africa. In the postcolonial era the local rulers were in most cases propped and supported by the former colonial powers as part of furthering their neo-colonialist agenda. Local ruling elite, dictators and kings played themselves into the hands of these neo-colonialist forces that woke up to the reality of economic prospects in Africa, especially its mineral wealth. In Nigeria, for example, dictatorial regimes and even elected governments have been traditionally patronized by the neo-colonial forces so that its oil wealth could be freely exploited by multinational corporations. Nigerian activists who opposed this exploitation were ruthlessly dealt with. The most famous example which springs to our mind in this context is the environmental activist Ken Sara-Wiwa who was executed by government for pleading for the rights of the people. Africa today is at the cross roads, plagued as it is by innumerable problems. It is the poorest and most underdeveloped continent, stricken by deadly diseases such as HIV-AIDS, plagued by corrupt, inefficient and dictatorial governments which do not hesitate to commit human rights violations, tribal strife, civil wars, international conflicts of various kinds and high levels of illiteracy, malnutrition and infant mortality. It is obvious that Africa needs help but this help is not easily forthcoming nor is it reaching the needy people. Africa needs to wait for a long while more to find its deliverance from the current imbroglio.
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As we have already noted Africa did not have a written literary tradition worthy of note before colonialism took its roots. However, it was rich in oral literature which even to this day informs the cultural contexts of the written African literature. Modern forms of literature such as novels and short stories began to be written by African writers in the languages of their colonial masters only towards the end of the colonial rule in most African countries, most notably in Nigeria. Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and other African works dealt with the psychological struggle against colonization. In the postcolonial era Wole Soyinka’s novels namely The Interpreters and Season of Anomy faithfully captured the struggle, unrest and insecurity experienced by the Nigerians. Although these novelists have written in the English language their approach and attitude to Africa and its life has been one of understanding, appreciation and accommodation. In their writings they replaced the characteristic western individualism with inclusiveness and the individual’s identification with society. Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, Ayi Kwei Armah and Ng g wa Thiong’o were among the first creative writers to wake up to the postcolonial realities of Africa and to protest against them. This naturally put them at odds with the successive ruling regimes and often obliged them to seek asylum in foreign countries. Most often African writers, including Soyinka, also took to political activism and that further alienated them from the powers that be. They were also unhappy with the cultural mess and identity crisis that Africa landed itself in following the departure of the colonial rulers. They protested against the loss of identity by means of their writings which focused on the essentials of the African life and exposed the hollowness of the colonial legacy. Ngg wa Thiong’o went to the extent of setting aside the English language itself for literary purposes and took to writing in his native Ghikuyu language. In the context of Nigeria Achebe and
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Soyinka have achieved remarkable success as the conscience keepers and providers of direction to their troubled society. These writers have always viewed themselves as an inalienable part of the Nigerian society and thus achieved complete identification with people. This helped them to reach out to the people and offer them intellectual, moral and cultural sustenance. In this article “Africa and her Writers,” later included in his book Morning Yet on Creation Day, Achebe declared that the novelist, more so the African novelist, should pay a decisive role in order to raise the consciousness of the people. As African writers emerge onto the world stage they come under pressure to declare their stand. Now I am not one for opposing an idea or a proposition simply on the grounds that it is ‘un-African’ – a common enough ploy of obscurantist self-interest. (Then a modern leader anxious to continue unchallenged his business of transforming public wealth into a dynastic fortune will often tell you that socialism which, quite rightly scares the daylight out him is un-African. We are not talking about his concern for Africanness). But there seems to me to be a genuine need for African writers to pause momentarily and consider whether anything in traditional African aesthetics will fit their contemporary condition. (618) He then goes on to emphasize the duty and responsibility of African writers to their land of origin. A writer is a human being with heightened sensitivity and therefore must be aware of the faintest nuances of injustice in human relations. The African writer cannot therefore be indifferent to or unaware of the monumental injustice which his people suffer. They are committed to a new society which will affirm their validity and accord them identity as Africans, as people; they are all working
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actively in this cause for which Christopher Okigbo died. I believe that our cause is right and just. And this is what literature in Africa should be about today – right and just causes. (80)
References 1. Biodun Jeyifo, “The ambiguous freight of visionary mythopoesis: fictional and nonfictional prose works,” Wole Soyinka: Politics, Poetics and Postcolonialism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004) 169. 2. Chinua Achebe, “Africa and Her Writers,” The Massachusetts Review 14.3 (Summer 1973): 618. 3. Chinua Achebe, “The African Writer and the Biafran Cause,” Morning Yet on Creation Day (London: Heinemann, 1975) 80. 4. Chinweizu, Onwuchekwa Jemie and Ihechukwu Madubuike, Toward the Decolonization of the African Literature (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1983).
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GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES AT NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVELS
Dr. Nalla Sushma Sanapala V L N Uday Kumar Associate Professor JRF-Ph.D Research Scholar PYDAH College, Visakhapatnam Dept. of Political Science and Public Admin Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Gender equality is an important goal in itself and a means for achieving development. Development policies and institutions must ensure that all segments of society – both women and men – have a voice in decision making, either directly, or through institutions that legitimately represent their interests and needs. Yet, persistent and pervasive gender disparities in opportunities, right vis-à-vis the state and public institutions, and voice, particularly limit women’s ability to participate as full citizens in social, economic and political life. The exclusion of women from full participation constraints the ability of public sector policies and institutions to manage economic and social resource effectively. Such gender- based exclusion compromises the prospects for high-quality service delivery. Women constitute half of the human resources. With the emerging changes in the modern world, she was not reluctant to undertake the changing roles. She was still treated as a silent producer. However there is a recent recognition of women in all progressive societies and groups across the world. Planners and policy makers were giving equal thrust to women welfare and development. The pre-World War II period saw flourishing movements of various forms of feminism: however, the nexus between (economic) development and women was not clearly articulated until the second half of the 20th century. Women first came into focus in development as objects welfare policies, including birth control, nutrition, pregnancy, and so forth. In 1962 the UN General Assembly asked the commission
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on Women’s Status to prepare a report on the role of women in development, and the welfarist approach still remains dominant in development practices today. This paper scrutinizes various approaches in gender development and it also explains about the present situation. There are several approaches related to gender & Development. They are classified into Early Approaches includes Women in Development (WID), Women and Development (WAD) and Gender and Development(GAD), Neo-liberal Approaches includes Gender and Neo- liberal Development Institutions, Gender, Financial Crises, and Neoliberal Economic Policy and Smart Economics. And Alternative Approaches includes Marxism and Neo-Marxism, Dependency Theory and Basic Needs Approach, Capability Approach and Econo feminism. Let us explain the approaches for Gender and Development in detail Gender and Development Approaches The term “women and development” was originally coined by a Washington-based network of female development professionals in the early 1970’s who sought to put in question the trickle down theories of development by contesting that modernization had identical impact on men and women. The Women in Development movement (WID) gained momentum in the 1970’s driven by the resurgence of women’ striving for equal rights and labour opportunities in the United States. Liberal feminism, postulating that women’s disadvantages in society may be eliminated by breaking down stereotyped customary expectations of women by offering better education to women and introducing equal opportunity programmes, had a notable influence on the formulation of the WID approaches, whereby little attention was given to men and to power relations between genders. The translation of the 1970’s feminist movements and their repeated calls for employment opportunities in the development agenda meant that particular attention was given to the productive labour of women, leaving aside reproductive concerns and social welfare. Yet this
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focus was part of the approach pushed forward by advocates of the WID Movement, reacting to the general policy environment maintained by early colonial authorities and post-war development authorities, wherein inadequate reference to the work undertook by women as producers was made, as they were almost solely identified as their roles as wives and mothers. The WID’s opposition to this ‘welfare approach’ was in part motivated by the work of Danish economist Ester Boserup in the early 1970’s who challenged the assumptions of the said approach and highlighted the role women by women in the agricultural production and economy. A dominant strand of thinking within WID sought to link women’s issues with development, highlighting how such issues acted as impediments to economic growth: the ‘relevance’ approach stemmed from the experience of WID advocates which illustrated that it was more effective if demands of equity and social justice for women were strategically linked to mainstream development concerns, in an attempt to have WID policy goals taken up by development agencies. The Women in Development approach was the first contemporary movement to specifically integrate women in the broader development agenda and acted as the precursor to later movements such as the Women and Development(WAD), and ultimately, the Gender and Development approach, departing from some of the critized aspects imputed to the WID. Women and Development (WAD) Women and Development (WAD) is a theoretical and practical approach to development. It was introduced into gender studies scholarship in the second half of the 1970’s following its origins, which can be traced the First World Conference on Women in Mexico City in 1975, organized by the UN. It is a departure from the previously predominant theory, WID (Women in Development) and is often mistaken for WID, but has many distinct characteristics.
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WAD arose out of a shift in thinking about women’s role in development, and concerns about the explanatory limitations of modernization theory. While previous thinking held that development was a vehicle to advance women, new ideas suggested that development was only made possible by the involvement of women, and rather than being simply passive recipients of development aid, they should be actively involved in development projects. WAD took this thinking a step further and suggested that women have always been an integral part of development, and did not suddenly appear in the 1970’s as a result of exogenous development efforts. The WAD approach suggests that there be women-only development projects that were theorized to remove women from the patriarchal hegemony that would exist if women participated in development alongside men in a patriarchal culture, though this concept has been heavily debated by theorists in the field. In this sense, WAD is differentiated from WIID by way of the theoretical framework upon which it was built. Rather than focus specifically on women’s relationship to development, WAD focuses on the relationship between patriarchy and capitalism. This theory seeks to understand women’s issues from the perspectives of neo-Marxism and dependency theory, though much of the theorizing about WAD remains undocumented due to the persistent and pressing nature of development work in which many WAD theorists engage. The WAD paradigm stresses the relationship between women, and the work that they perform in their societies as economic agents in both the public and domestic spheres. It also emphasizes the distinctive nature of the roles women play in the maintenance and development of their societies, with the understanding that purely the integration of women into development efforts would serve to reinforce the existing structures of inequality present in societies overrun by patriarchal interests. In general, WAD is thought to offer a more critical conceptualization of women’s position that does WID.
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The WAD approach emphasizes the distinctive nature of women’s knowledge, work, goals and responsibilities, as well as advocating for the recognition of their distinctiveness. This fact, combined with a recognized tendency for development agencies to be dominated by patriarchial interest, is at the root of the women-only initiatives introduced by WAD subscribers. Gender and Development (GAD) Gender and Development approach focus on the socially constructed basis of differences between men and women and the need to challenge existing roles and relations. This approach was majority influenced by writing of academic scholars such as oakely(1972) and Rubin(1975) which emphasize the social relationship between men and women. These depart from WID which perceived women’s problem in terms of their biological differences rather than gender. Influenced by this work, by the late 1970s, some practitioners working in the development field stated questioning the adequacy of focusing on women in isolation. GAD challenged the WID focus on women as important ‘target group’ and ‘untapped resources’ for development. GAD marked a shift in thinking about the need to understand how women and men are socially constructed and how ‘those constructions are powerfully reinforced by the social activities that both define and are defined by them. GAD focus primarily on gender division of labour and gender as a relation of power embedded in institutions. Consequently, two major frameworks ‘Gender roles’ and ‘social relations analysis’ are used in this approach. Gender role focus on social construction of identities within the household, it also reveals the expectations from ‘maleness and femaleness’ in their relative access to resources. Social relations analysis exposes the social dimensions of hierarchical power relations imbedded in social institutions; also it determining influence on ‘the relative position of men and women in society.’ This relative positive tends to discriminate against women.
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Unlike WID, the GAD approach is not concerned specifically with women, but with the way in which a society assigns roles, responsibilities and expectations to both women and men. GAD applies gender analysis to uncover the ways in which men and women work together, presenting results in neutral terms of economics, and efficiency. In an attempt to create gender equality,(denoting women having same opportunities as a men, include ability to participate to fulfill household management tasks, home based production as well as bearing and raising children and caring for family members. The role of a wife is largely interpreted as ‘the responsibilities of motherhood. In the labor market, women’s overall financial related payments tend to be lower usually earning less. For instance, ‘a study by the Equality and Human Rights Commission found massive pay inequities in some United Kingdom’s top finance companies, women received around 80 percent less performance-related pay than their male colleagues. In reaction to inequalities between gender, Beijing platform for Action established Gender mainstreaming in 1995 as a strategy across all policy areas at all levels of governance for achieving gender equality. Caroline Moser developed the Moser Gender Planning Framework for GAD-oriented development planning in the 1980s while working at the Development planning Unit of the University of London. Working with Caren Levy, she expanded it into a methodology for gender policy and planning. The Moser framework follows the Gender and Development approach in emphasizing the importance of gender relations. As with the WID-based Harvard Analytical Framework, it includes collection of quantitative empirical facts. Going further, it investigates the reasons and processes that lead to conventions of access and control. The Moser Framework includes gender roles identification; gender needs assessment, disaggregating control of resources and decision making with the household, planning for balancing the triple role, distinguishing between different aims in
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interventions and involving women and gender-aware organizations in planning.
Neoliberal Approaches Gender and Neoliberal Development Institutions Among development institutions, gender issues have increasingly become part of economic development agendas, as the examples of the World Bank shows. Awareness by International organizations of the need to address gender issues evolved over the past decades. The World Bank, for example, started focusing on gender in 1977 with the appointment of a first Women in Development Adviser. In 1984 the bank mandated that its programs consider women’s issues. at In 1994 the bank issued a policy paper on Gender and Development, reflecting current thinking on the subject. This policy aims to address policy and institutional constraints that maintain disparities between the genders and thus limit the effectiveness of development programs. Thirty years after the appointment of a first Woman in Development Adviser, a so-called Gender Action Plan was launched to underline the importance of the topic within development strategies and to introduce the new smart Economics strategy. In 2012, the World Development Report was the first report of the series examines Gender Equality and Development. Women have been identified by some development institutions as a key to successful development, for example through financial inclusion. One example is the Women’s Development Business (WDB) in South Africa, a Grameen Bank micro finance replicator. According to WDB the goal is to ensure “that rural women are given the tools to free themselves from the chains of poverty” through allocation of financial resources directly to women including enterprise development programs. The idea is to use microfinance as a market oriented tool to ensure access to financial services for disadvantaged and low-income
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people and therefore fostering economic development through financial inclusion. As a reaction, a current topic in the feminist literature on economic development is the ‘gendering’ of microfinance, as women have increasingly become the target borrowers for rural microcredit lending. This, in turn, creates the assumption of a “rational economic woman” which can exacerbate existing social hierarchies. Therefore, the critique is that the assumption of economic development through microfinance does not take into account all possible, especially the ones affecting women. The impact of programs of the Bretton Woods Institutions and other similar organizations on gender are being monitored by Gender Action, a watchdog group founded in 2002 by Elianze Zuckerman who is a former World Bank Economist. Gender, Financial Crises, and Neoliberal Economic Policy The global financial crisis and the following politics of austerity have opened up a wide range of gender and feminist debates on neoliberalism and the impact of the crisis on women. One view is that the crisis has affected women disproportionately and that there Is a need for alternative economic structures in which investment in social reproduction needs to be given more weight. The International Labour Organization (ILO) assessed the impact of the global financial crisis on workers and concluded that while the crisis initially affected industries that were dominated by male workers (such as finance, construction and manufacturing) it then spread over to sectors in which female workers are predominately active. Examples for these sectors are the service sector or wholesale retail trade. There are different views among feminists on whether neoliberal economic policies have moved positive or negative impacts on women. In the post-war era, feminist scholars such as Elizabeth Wilson critized state capitalism and the welfare state as a tool to oppress
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women. Therefore, neoliberal economic policies featuring privatization and deregulation, hence a reduction of the influence of the state and more individual freedom was argued to improve conditions for women. T his anti-welfare state thinking arguably led to feminist support for neoliberal ideas embarking on a macroeconomic policy level deregulation and reduced role of the state. Therefore, some scholars in the field argue that feminism, especially during its second wave, has contributed key ideas to Neoliberalism that, according to these authors, creates new forms of inequality and exploitation. As a reaction to the phenomenon that some forms of feminism are increasingly interwoven with capitalism, many suggestions on how to name these movements have emerged in the feminist literature. Examples are ‘free market feminism’ or even ‘faux-feminism’. Smart Economics Advocated chiefly by the World Bank, smart economics is an approach to define gender equality as an integral part of economic development and it aims to spur development through investing more efficiently in women and girls. It stresses that the gap between men and women in human capital, economic opportunities, and voice/agency is a chief obstacle in achieving more efficient development. As an approach, it is a direct descendant of the efficiency approach taken by WID which “rationalizes ‘investing’ in women and girls for more effective development outcomes.” As articulated in the section of WID, the efficiency approach to women in development was chiefly articulated by Caroline Moser in the late 1980s. Continuing the stream of WID, smart economics’ key unit of analysis is women as individual and it particularly focuses on measures that promote to narrow down the gender gap. Its approach identifies women are relatively underinvested source of development and it defines gender equality an opportunity of higher return investment. “Gender equality itself is here depicted as smart economics, in that it enables women to contribute
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their utmost skills and energies to project of world economic development. In this term, smart economics champions’ neoliberal perspective in seeing business as a vital vehicle for change and it takes a stance of liberal feminism. The thinking behind smart economics dates back, at least, to the lost decade of the Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) in the 1980s. In 1995, Word Bank issued its flagship publication on gender matters of the year Enhancing Women’s Participation in Economic Development (World Bank 1995). This report marked a critical foundation to the naissance of Smart Economics; in a chapter ; it produces significant social returns, improving child survival and reducing fertility, and it has considerable intergenerational pay-offs. The Bank also emphasized its associated social benefits generated by investing in women. For example, the Bank turned to researches of Whitehead that evidenced a greater by investing in women. For, example, the Bank also emphasized its associated social benefits generated by investing in women. For example, the Bank turned to researches of Whitehead that evidenced a greater female-control of household income is associated with better outcomes for children’s welfare and Jeffery and Jeffery who analyzed the positive correlation between female education and lower fertility rates. In the 2000s, the approach of smart economics came to be further crystallized through various frameworks and initiatives. A first step was World Bank’s Gender Action Plan (GAP) 2007-2010 followed by the “Three Year Road Map for Gender Mainstreaming 2010-13.” The 2010-13 framework responded to criticisms for its precursor and incorporated some shifts in thematic priorities. Lastly but not least, the decisive turning point was 2012 marked by its publication of “World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development.” This Bank’s first comprehensive focus on the gender issues was welcomed by various scholars and practitioners, as an indicator or its seriousness.
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For Example, Shahra Razavi appraised the report as a ‘a welcome opportunity for widening the intellectual space. Other international organizations, particular UN families, have so far endorsed the approach of smart economics. Examining the relationship between child well-being and gender equality, for example, UNICEF also referred to the “Double Dividend of Gender Equality. Its explicit link to a wider framework of the Millennium Development Goals (where the Goal 3 is promoting Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment) claimed a wider legitimacy beyond economic efficiency. In 2007, the Bank proclaimed that “The business case for investing in MDG 3 is strong it is nothing more than smart economics. In addition, “Development organizations and governments have been joined in focus on the ‘business case’ for gender equality and the empowerment of women, by business and enterprises which are interested in contributing to social good. A good example is “Girl Effect initiative” taken by Nike Foundation. Its claim for economic imperative and a broader socio-economic impact also met a strategic need of NGOs and community organizations that seeks justification for their program. The then president of the World Bank Robert B. Zoellick was quoted by Plan International in stating “Investing in adolescent girls is precisely the catalyst poor countries need to break smart economic move. The global financial meltdown and austerity measures taken by major donor counties further supported this approach, since international financial institution (IFIs)s and international NGOs received a greater pressure from donors and from global public to design and implement maximally cost-effective. Alternative Approaches Other approaches with different paradigms have also played a historically important role in advancing theories and practices in gender and development.
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Marxism and Neo-Marxism The structralist debate was first by Marxist and socialist feminists. Marxism, particularly through alternative models of state socialist development practiced in China and Cuba, challenged the dominant liberal approach over time. Neo-Marxist proponents focused on the role of the post-colonial state in development in general and also on localized class struggles. Marxist feminists advanced these criticisms towards liberal approaches and made significant contribution to the contemporary debate. Dependency Theory Dependency theorists opposed that liberal development models, including the attempt to incorporate women into the existing global capitalism, was in fact nothing more than the “development of underdevelopment”. This view led them to propose that delinking from the structural oppression of global capitalism is the only way to achieve balanced human development. In the 1980s, there also emerged “a sustained questioning by poststructuralist critics of the development paradigm as a narrative of progress and as an achievable enterprise. Basic Needs Approach, Capability Approach, and Eco feminism Within the liberal paradigm of women and development, various criticisms have emerged. The Basic Needs (BN) approach began to pose questions to the focus on growth and income as indicators of development. It was heavily influenced by Sen and Nussbaum’s capability approach, which was more gender sensitive than BN and focused on expanding human freedom. The BN particularly proposed a participatory approach to development and challenged the dominant discourse of trickle down effects. These approaches focused on the human freedom led to development of other important concepts such as human development and human security. From a perspective of sustainable development, ecofeminists articulated the direct link
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between colonialism and on degradation, which resulted in degradation of women’s lives themselves. All the above said approaches intended to promote Gender and Development by reducing inequalities among men and women by promoting the development of women through various schemes and programmes. The present practices of Gender and Development at National level (India). India is a welfare state. The aim of any welfare state is to promote the welfare to as many people as possible because a welfare state especially in democratic country cannot survive without getting the support from its people. Indian constitution guarantees equality to women along with men, but in actual practice, no remarkable change in social, economic and political aspects of their lives due to illiteracy, poverty and dependence. From the very beginning of planning in India, care has been taken to promote the Development of women as it has been realized that any Developmental plan would be incomplete unless it takes not of women and provide them Development services to meet their needs. In 1955, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, the then Prime Minister, also pointed out the need to lay stress on the improvement of conditions of women, children and the tribal people. Independent India has tried to redeem the situation by proclaiming equality of the sexes as a Fundamental Right under the Constitution and directing State Policy towards removing the various disabilities that prevent women in realizing their potential. Six decades of independence have also seen a plethora of laws passed by the State and Federal Governments to protect women from violence and discrimination and to strengthen their entitlements in the social and economic fields. Numerous Committees and Commissions have x-rayed the position of women, the advances made by them and the obstacles
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faced by them, and they have made several recommendations to improve the situation. Women Development Programmes In India Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP),(2003-04): To increase the self-reliance and autonomy of women by enhancing their productivity and enabling them to take up income generations activities. Rashtriya Mahila Kosh(RMK)(1993): To promote or undertake activities for the promotion of or to provide credit as an instrument of socio-economic change and development through provision of package of financial and social development services for development of women. Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls(RGSEAG) – Sabla(2010): It aims at empowering Adolescent girls of 11 to 18 years by improving their nutritional and health status, up nd gradation of home skills, life skills and vocational skills. Central Social Welfare Board(CSWB)(1953): To promote social welfare activities and implementing welfare programmes for women and children through voluntary organizations. Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana (IGMSY): To improve the health and nutrition status of pregnant, lactating women and infants. SwayamSiddha(2001): At organizing women into Self-Help Groups to form a strong institutional base. Short Stay Home for Women and Girls(SSH)(1969): To provide temporary shelter to women and girls who are in social and moral danger due to family problems, metal strain, violence at home, social ostracism, exploitation and other causes. Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas(DWCRA)(1982): To improve the socio-economic status of the poor women in the rural areas through creation of group of women for income generating activities on a self-sustaining basis.
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Conclusion Men and Women are like two wheels of a Cart. If there is balance between the two wheels than the Cart will move forward. In the same manner either in a family or in the nation the contribution of both men and women is essential for its development. Since several years Women were subjugated as second grade citizens and no Importance was given to them. But after getting Independence our Planners have worried so much about the position of the women and tried there level best to reduce the gender disparities and promote Equality between the two. Government has formulated several policies to empower women in every aspect. Besides all this the men have to change their traditional attitudes towards women and give equal importance along with themselves in the process of nation building and development. In this context there is close relationship between Gender and Development.
Reference 1. Moser, Caroline O.N. (1995). Gender Planning and development : theory, practice and training (Reprint.ed.). London (u.a.) Routldege, ISBN 0415056209. 2. Razavi, Shahrashoub; Miller, Carol(1995). “From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the women and. Development discourse” 3. Development Assistance Committee (DAC),199, p.7 4. World Bank Gender Overview. World Bank.3 May 2013 Retrieved 5 November 2013 5. UNICEF(2006). The state of the worlds’s children 2007: women and children: the double dividend of gender equality. United Nations Children’s Fund. 6. National Women Commission of India Main Website. 7. March, Smyth & Mukhopadhyay 1999, pp.55.
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DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN INDIA: A STUDY
Dr. Nareshlata Singla Dr. Mukesh Garg Teaching Associate Assistant Professor Law Department Law Department Chaudhary Devi Lal University Chaudhary Devi Lal University Sirsa Sirsa
1.1 Domestic Violence Against Women: Violence in intimate relationship or domestic violence is a worldwide problem. The victims of domestic violence are not only those women who are house wives but also those who are working. If we look towards Indian culture, women are being worshipped since Ancient India, but at the same time, it is also a hard fact that women are being suppressed in domestic relationship. It is mentioned in the Rig-Veda and other scriptures that women held a high place of respect in the society in Ancient India. But later on, because of social, political and economic changes, women lost their status and were relegated to the background.1 In India, although the criminal law deals with domestic violence in the form of Section 498A IPC, but there was no provision in the Civil Law to deal with this problem. In order to get rid of the mischief of domestic violence, the Parliament, in its wisdom, enacted the Act, which came into force on 26 October, 2006. The Act is a social beneficial piece of legislation.2 The Protection of Women (from Domestic Violence) Act, 2005 is enacted with a view to provide for more effective protection of rights of women who are victims of violence of any kind occurring within the family. Those rights are essentially of civil nature with a mix of penal provisions. The Act has devised an
1Members Reference Note, Lok Sabha Secretariat, http://164.100.47.134/intranet/Crimeagainstwomen.pdf visited on 6.3.2014 2 Sukrit Verma and Anr. Vs State of Raj. and Anr. Decided on 5.5.2011
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elaborate machinery to safeguard the interests of women subjected to domestic violence.3 According to Section 2(f) of the Act4 “domestic relationship” means a relationship between two persons who live or have, at any point of time, lived together in a shared household, when they are related by consanguinity, marriage, or through a relationship in the nature of marriage, adoption or are family members living together as a joint family. Domestic violence is not only the Indian problem but it is a worldwide problem to which a number of countries are facing. It is not possible to give the definition of domestic violence committed on women in precise manner. Generally, domestic violence with women means torture or harassment of women in her shared household, which includes a number of forms of violence against women. Moreover, it can be described as the power misused by one adult in a relationship to control another. It is the establishment of control and fear in a relationship through violence and other forms of abuse.5 According to Section 3 of the Act,6 domestic violence means any act, omission or commission or conduct of the respondent of shared household which: a) harms or injures or endangers the health, safety, life, limb or well-being, whether mental or physical, of the aggrieved person or tends to do so and includes causing physical abuse, sexual abuse, verbal and emotional abuse and economic abuse; or b) harasses, harms, injures or endangers the aggrieved person with a view to coerce her or any other person related to her to meet any unlawful demand for any dowry or other property or valuable security; or
3 http://lawcommissionofindia.nic.in/reports/report243.pdf visited on 1.2.2014 4 The Protection of Women (from Domestic Violence) Act, 2005 5 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2784629/ visited on 25.11.2013 6 The Protection of Women (from domestic violence) Act, 2005
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(c) has the effect of threatening the aggrieved person or any person related to her by any conduct mentioned in clause (a) or clause (b); or (d) otherwise injures or causes harm, whether physical or mental, to the aggrieved person. This definition of domestic violence is comprehensive and captures women’s experience of abuse and includes not only physical violence but also other forms of violence. It is based on definitions in international law such as the UN Declaration on Violence Against Women and a Model Code.7 1.2 Forms of Domestic Abuse: Domestic abuse is comprehensive in its scope under the Domestic Violence Act. It covers a number of forms of abuses caused against a woman, which are classified as under: 1.2.1 Physical Abuse: Medical dictionary defines physical abuse as any act resulting in a non accidental physical injury, including not only intentional assault but also the results of unreasonable punishment.8 In Domestic Violence Act, physical abuse is extensively defined. It means any act or conduct which is of such a nature as to cause bodily pain, harm, or danger to life, limb, or health or impair the health or development of the aggrieved person and includes assault, criminal intimidation and criminal force. So, physical abuse is not limited only to assault but also include criminal intimidation and criminal force. 9 1.2.2 Sexual Abuse:
7 http://www.icrw.org/files/images/Reducing-HIV-Stigma-and-Gender-Based- Violence-Toolkit-for-Health-Care-Providers-in-India-Annex-4.pdf visited on 1.2.2014 8 http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/physical+abuse visited on 2.2.2014 9 Gajendra Singh vs Smt. Minakshi Yadav and Anr. Decided on 05.05.2011
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Dictionary meaning of sexual abuse includes assault or other crime of a sexual nature, which need not be physical. Acts of a sexual nature are considered abuse if performed with minors or non- consenting adults.10 Under the Act sexual abuse means any conduct of a sexual nature that abuses, humiliates, degrades or otherwise violates the dignity of woman. 1.2.3 Verbal and Emotional Abuse: Verbal and emotional abuse under the Act includes:- (a) Insults, ridicule, humiliation, name calling and insults or ridicule specially with regard to not having a child or a male child and (b) Repeated threats to cause physical pain to any person in whom the aggrieved person is interested. 1.2.4 Economic Abuse: Financial and Economic abuse is a type of domestic violence in which the domestic abuser uses the money as the means of having control or dominance over his or her partner. When the victim asks for money the abuser will deny his or her partner money.11 Economic abuse under the Act includes:- (i) Deprivation of all or any economic or financial resources to which the aggrieved person is entitled under any law or custom whether payable under an order of a court or otherwise or which the aggrieved person requires out of necessity including, but not limited to, household necessities for the aggrieved person and her children, if any, stridhan, property, jointly or separately owned by the aggrieved person, payment of rental related to the shared household and maintenance. (ii) Disposal of household effects, any alienation of assets whether movable or immovable, valuables, shares, securities, bonds and the
10 http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/physical+abuse visited on 2.2.2014 11 http://www.peoples-health.com/financial_abuse.htm visited on 2.12.2013
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like or other property in which the aggrieved person has an interest or is entitled to use by virtue of the domestic relationship or which may be reasonably required by the aggrieved person or her children or her stridhan or any other property jointly or separately held by the aggrieved person and (iii) Prohibition or restriction to continued access to resources or facilities which the aggrieved person is entitled to use or enjoy by virtue of the domestic relationship including access to the shared household. While explaining the term economic abuse, the Act has defined economic rights of the women, the right to stridhan, the right to maintenance, the right to have access to the joint property owned by the aggrieved party, the right to shared household etc.12 1.3 Domestic Violence Act and Women Empowerment: Women, being a keeper of hearth in home, need to be protected as they are the foundation of any society. If women are exposed to physical abuses, to sexual exploitation, the very foundation of the society would begin to weaken. It is only after recognising their importance, sociologically, that the ancient Indian Seers had opined that “Gods dwell only in those houses, where women are respected”.13 Gender discrimination or the discrimination against women is a world wide problem. In its consideration, United Nations General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) on December 18, 1979. The Convention addresses the advancement of women, describes the meaning of equality and sets forth guidelines on how to achieve it. United Nations General Assembly has recommended that States should act to protect women against violence of any kind, especially that
12 Sukrit Verma and Anr. Vs State of Raj. and Anr. Decided on 5.5.2011 13 Ibid
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occurring within the family. 14 Until the UN General Assembly adopted the CEDAW, there was no treaty that addressed comprehensively women’s rights within political, cultural, economic, social, and family life.15 By accepting the Convention, States commit themselves to undertake a series of measures to end discrimination against women in all forms, including: i) To incorporate the principle of equality of men and women in their legal system, abolish all discriminatory laws and adopt appropriate ones prohibiting discrimination against women. ii) To establish tribunals and other public institutions to ensure the effective protection of women against discrimination and iii) To ensure elimination of all acts of discrimination against women by persons, organizations or enterprises.16 India ratified Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in 1993. Passing of the Protection of Women (from Domestic Violence) Act, 2005 is one of the steps taken by the Government of India in the light of CEDAW. It is a laudable piece of legislation which provides wide provisions for the protection of women in India from domestic violence in domestic relationship territory. The Act was passed by the Parliament in August 2005 and assented to by the President on 13 September, 2005.17 The Parliament enacted it with the view of protecting the rights of women under Articles 14, 15 and 21 of the Constitution, who
14 http://nlrd.org/womens-rights-initiative/news-from-national-commission-for- women/national-commission-for-women-strengthening-of-rights-to- womenvisited on 11.12.2013 15 http://www.feminist.org/research/cedawmain.html visited on 2.2.2014 16 http://www.globalgovernancewatch.org/human_rights/the-convention-on- the-elimination-of-all-forms-of-discrimination-against-women visited on 2.2.2014 17 http://legalservices.co.in/blogs/entry/Protection-of-Women-from-Domestic- Violence visited on 26.11.2013
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are victims of any kind of violence occurring within the family and matters connected therewith and incidental thereto, and to provide an efficient and expeditious civil remedy to them. 18 Before passing this Act, remedies available to the victims of domestic violence were divorce in the civil court and action under 498A in the criminal court. These remedies were limited.19 Section 498A was included in Indian Penal Code in 1983 which recognized domestic violence as specific criminal offence which covers cruelty by husband or relatives of the husband. The victims prior to passing this Act were generally married women. The provisions of Indian Penal Code protect married women against cruelty of husband, dowry death, rape (except rape by husband), outraging the modesty of a women. For strengthening women in India, apart from Domestic Violence Act, some legislations like Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986 and the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 have also been enacted.20 But this Act is wide enough to control the violence with women in domestic set up and to strengthen the women in India. Now not only married women but also unmarried women living in domestic set up are protected under this Act. Now a daughter can register a domestic incident report against her father for compelling her to get married or denying her basic needs. Now married women can file a complaint against her husband for marital rape. This Act also covers women living with men in household set up as live-in- relationship. The Act provides that every woman in a domestic relationship shall have the right to reside in the shared household, whether or not she has any right, title or beneficial interest in the
18 V.D. Bhanot vs Savita Bhanot, SLP(Crl.) NO. 3916 of 2010 19http://www.manupatra.co.in/newsline/articles/Upload/F55BBCAC-1884- 4A8A-BE66-77DFC2E0E4AD.pdf visited on 31.01.2014 20 http://in-mg6.mail.yahoo.com/neo/launch?.rand=5981ihisfj8ee#mail visited on 11.12.2013
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same.21 The aggrieved person shall not be evicted or excluded from the shared household or any part of it by the respondent save in accordance with the procedure established by law.22 A wife who lived in a domestic relationship earlier, but which ceases only because of any domestic violence can certainly file an application for such domestic violence that took place whilst she lived in that relationship. Such application is required to be filed within a reasonable time to show that relationship would give her the cause of action to sue under the Domestic Violence Act. It cannot be filed after 1 year.23 In the case of Sandhya Manoj Wankhade Vs. Manoj Bhimrao Wankhade And Others24, Apex court considered the definition of ‘Respondent’ defined under Section 2(q) of the Domestic Violence Act of 2005 and held that “although section 2(q) defines a respondent to mean any adult male person, who is or has been in a domestic relationship with the aggrieved person, the proviso widens the scope of the said definition by including a relative of the husband or male partner within the scope of a complaint. Hon’ble Apex Court further held that legislature never intended to exclude female relatives of the husband or male partner from the ambit of complaint that can be made under the provisions of 2005 Act. It is true that expression “female” has not been used in the proviso to Section 2(q) also, but, no restrictive meaning can be given to expression “relative” nor has said expression been defined to make it specific to males only. So, it can be said that this Act is wide enough which covers all relations of women in domestic set up living with respondent and strengthen the status of women in India. 1.3.1 Appointment of Protection Officers:
21 The Protection of Women (from domestic violence) Act, 2005, Section 17(1) 22 Id, Section 17(2) 23http://bombayhighcourt.nic.in/generatenew.php?path=./data/criminal/2013/& fname=APL16011070313.pdf&smflag=N 24 (2011) 3 SCC 650, also reported in Kaniz Fatima vs State of Rajasthan and Anr. Decided on 13.05.2011
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The Act enjoins the appointment of Protection Officers who will be under the control and supervision of a Judicial Magistrate of First Class. The said officer shall make and send a domestic incident report (DIR) to the Magistrate, the police station and service providers. The Protection Officers are required to effectively assist and guide the complainant victim and provide shelter, medical facilities, legal aid etc. and also act on her behalf to present an application to the Magistrate for one or more reliefs under the Act. 25 The Protection Officers shall as far as possible be women and shall possess such qualifications and experience as may be prescribed.26 The Protection officer shall maintain a list of all service providers providing legal aid or counselling, shelter homes and medical facilities in a local area within the jurisdiction of the Magistrate.27 Under the Act not only the victims but any person who has reason to believe that an act of domestic violence has been, or is being, or is likely to be committed, may give information about it to the concerned Protection Officer. And no liability, civil or criminal, shall be incurred by any person for giving in good faith of information of domestic violence.28 1.3.2 Service Providers: The Act introduces the concept of service provider. Any voluntary association registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 or a company registered under the Companies Act, 1956 or any other law for the time being in force with the objective of protecting the rights and interests of women by any lawful means including providing of legal aid, medical, financial or other assistance shall register itself
25 http://lawcommissionofindia.nic.in/reports/report243.pdf visited on 1.2.2014 26 The Protection of Women (from domestic violence) Act, 2005, Section 8(2) 27 Id, Section 9(e) 28 Id, Section 4 (1) & (2)
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with the State Government as a service provider.29 The service provides shall have the power to: (a) record the domestic incident report in the prescribed form if the aggrieved person so desires and forward a copy thereof to the Magistrate and the Protection Officer having jurisdiction in the area where the domestic violence took place; (b) get the aggrieved person medically examined and forward a copy of the medical report to the Protection Officer and the police station within the local limits of which the domestic violence took place; (c) ensure that the aggrieved person is provided shelter in a shelter home, if she so requires and forward a report of the lodging of the aggrieved person in the shelter home to the police station within the local limits of which the domestic violence took place. No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie against any service provider or any member of the service provider who is, or who is deemed to be, acting or purporting to act under this Act, for anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done in the exercise of powers or discharge of functions under this Act towards the prevention of the commission of domestic violence.30 The obligation to submit a DIR is imposed only upon the Protection Officers under Section 9 of the Domestic Violence Act and upon the Service providers under Section 10 of the Act. The proviso to Rule 16(2) of the Domestic Violence Rules provides that the omission to file the DIR by the Protection Officer or the Service provider, as the case may be, therefore, does not deprive the aggrieved person from getting shelter at the shelter home. Similarly, the proviso to Rule 17(2) stipulates that medical assistance from the medical facility shall not be denied merely because the DIR has not been filed. These provisions contemplated under the Rules imply that Parliamentary intent is not to make
29 Id, Section 10(1) 30 Id, Section 10(3)
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provision of relief under the Act subject to the filing of the DIR. The initiation of proceedings by serving a notice to the respondent can still be done, even if no DIR has yet been submitted to the Magistrate.31 1.4 Reliefs Provided under the Act: The Act does not make any changes in the existing personal law regime on family matters. The reliefs under the Act are in addition to existing laws and have been recognized with the objective of empowering a woman to tide over an emergency situation.32 An aggrieved person or a Protection Officer or any other person on behalf of the aggrieved person may present an application to the Magistrate seeking one or more reliefs under this Act.33 The protection officer’s report enables a magistrate to arrive at a conclusion in domestic violence cases.34 This Act also empowers the Magistrate to devise its own procedure in accordance with the exigency of the case. The magistrate can provide the following relief: i) issuance of an order for payment of compensation or ii) damages without prejudice to the right of such person to institute a suit for compensation or iii) damages for the injuries caused by the acts of domestic violence committed by the respondent. Provided that where a decree for any amount as compensation or damages has been passed by any court in favour of the aggrieved person, the amount, if any, paid or payable in pursuance of the order made by the Magistrate under this Act shall be set off against the amount payable under such decree.35
31 Shambhu Prasad Singh vs Manjari decided on May 17, 2012 32 http://www.icrw.org/files/images/Reducing-HIV-Stigma-and-Gender-Based- Violence-Toolkit-for-Health-Care-Providers-in-India-Annex-4.pdf visited on 1.2.2014 33 The Protection of Women (from domestic violence) Act, 2005, Section 12 (1) 34 http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-06-20/pune /28198093_ 1_domestic-violence-act-protection-officer-magistrate visited on 1.2.2014 35 The Protection of Women (from domestic violence) Act, 2005, Section 12(2)
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iv) Under the Act magistrate shall endeavour to dispose of every application made under Domestic Violence Act within a period of sixty days from the date of its first hearing.36 v) The Magistrate may, at any stage of the proceedings under this Act, direct the respondent or the aggrieved person, either singly or jointly, to undergo counselling with any member of a service provider who possesses such qualifications and experience in counselling as may be prescribed.37 vi) The Magistrate may secure the services of welfare expert, preferably a woman, whether related to the aggrieved person or not, including a person engaged in promoting family welfare as he thinks fit, for the purpose of assisting him in discharging his functions.38 vii) The Magistrate may, after giving the aggrieved person and the respondent an opportunity of being heard and on being prima facie satisfied that domestic violence has taken place or is likely to take place, pass a protection order in favour of the aggrieved person.39 viii) The Magistrate may prohibit the respondent from committing or aiding or abetting in the commission of acts of domestic violence. He may prohibit entering the place of employment of the aggrieved person or prohibit attempting to communicate in any form, whatsoever, with the aggrieved person, including personal, oral or written or electronic or telephonic contact. The magistrate may prohibit respondent alienating any assets, operating bank lockers or bank accounts used or held or enjoyed by both the parties, jointly by the aggrieved person and the respondent or singly by the respondent, including her stridhan or any other property held either jointly by the parties or separately by them. He may
36 Id, Section 12(5) 37 Id, Section 14(1) 38 Id, Section 15 39 Id, Section 18
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prohibit causing violence to the dependants, other relatives or any person who give the aggrieved person assistance from domestic violence.40 ix) The magistrate may pass residence order restraining the respondent from dispossessing or in any other manner disturbing the possession of the aggrieved person from the shared household, whether or not the respondent has a legal or equitable interest in the shared household.41 He may direct the respondent to remove himself from the shared household42 except in case of woman respondent and restrain the respondent or any of his relatives from entering any portion of the shared household in which the aggrieved person resides43. The respondent may be restrained from alienating or disposing off the shared household or encumbering the same or renouncing his rights in the shared household except with the leave of the Magistrate or he may be directed to secure same level of alternate accommodation for the aggrieved person as enjoyed by her in the shared household or to pay rent for the same, if the circumstances so require.44 x) The magistrate can provide monetary relief to meet the expenses incurred and losses suffered by the aggrieved person and any child of the aggrieved person as a result of the domestic violence and such relief may include but not limited to (a) the loss of earnings (b) the medical expenses (c) the loss caused due to the destruction, damage or removal of any property from the control of the aggrieved person and (d) the maintenance for the aggrieved person as well as her children, if any, including an order under or in addition to an order of maintenance under section 125 of the Code
40 Id, Section 18 41 Id, Section 19(1)(a) 42 Id, Section 19(1)(b) 43 Id, Section 19(1)(c) 44 Id, Section 19(1)(d to f)
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of Criminal Procedure, 1973 or any other law for the time being in force.45 The provided relief shall be adequate, fair and reasonable and consistent with the standard of living to which the aggrieved person is accustomed.46 The Magistrate shall have the power to order an appropriate lump sum payment or monthly payments of maintenance, as the nature and circumstances of the case may require.47 If respondent fails to make payment to the aggrieved person the magistrate may direct the employer or a debtor of the respondent, to directly pay to the aggrieved person or to deposit with the court a portion of the wages or salaries or debt due to or accrued to the credit of the respondent, which amount may be adjusted towards the monetary relief payable by the respondent.48 Therefore, Section 20 of the Act is meant to ameliorate the financial condition of the aggrieved person, who may suddenly find herself to be without a hearth and home. Financially, the aggrieved person may exist in a suspended animation, if she is neither supported by the husband, nor by her parents. In order to protect women from such a purgatory, Section 20 bestows a right to seek monetary relief in the form of compensation and maintenance. 49 xi) In addition to other reliefs, the magistrate may on an application being made by the aggrieved person, pass an order directing the respondent to pay compensation and damages for the injuries, including mental torture and emotional distress, caused by the acts of domestic violence committed by that respondent.50
45 Id, Section 20(1) 46 Id, Section 20(2) 47 Id, Section 20(3) 48 Id, Section 20(6) 49 Sukrit Verma and Anr. Vs State of Raj. and Anr. Decided on 5.5.2011 50 The Protection of Women (from domestic violence) Act, 2005, Section 22
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xii) The protection order shall be in force till aggrieved person applies for discharge. If the Magistrate, on receipt of an application from the aggrieved person or the respondent, is satisfied that there is a change in the circumstances requiring alteration, modification or revocation of any order made under this Act, he may, for reasons to be recorded in writing pass such order, as he may deem appropriate.51 xiii) There shall lie an appeal to the Court of Session within thirty days from the date on which the order made by the Magistrate is served on the aggrieved person or the respondent, as the case may be, whichever is later.52 xiv) A breach of order or of an interim protection order by the respondent shall be an offence under this Act and shall be punishable with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to one year, or with fine which may extend to twenty thousand rupees, or with both.53 A number of reliefs are provided under this Act which strengthen the position of women. But it is also a hard fact that the incidents of domestic violence are increasing day by day. Increase in violence against women in domestic set up demands a look up towards gender equality a fresh look and needs to broaden the attitude towards women. Early 2011, the government stated on the floor of Parliament that “the National Crime Records Bureau data shows there has been no perceptible change in the number of dowry deaths and the cases registered under Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, after the implementation of the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act.54 In India, of the cases registered under Domestic Violence Act in
51 Id, Section 25 (1) &(2) 52 Id, Section 29 53 Id, Section 31 54http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-domestic-violence-cases-up-by- 11pct-1787065 visited on 11.12.2013
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2012 Tamil Nadu has the most. The NCRB data shows that Tamil Nadu registered 3,838 cases of domestic violence which is 84% of all complaints (4,567) of domestic violence recorded across the country.55 1.5 Conclusion and Suggestions: Violence in intimate relationship is a world wide problem. In India, the Protection of Women (from Domestic Violence) Act covers violence with women committed by family members or it can be said that violence with women committed by husband, relatives of the husband, by brothers, parents or grand parents. It is a civil law. If we observe the reason of domestic abuse with the women, we will find that muscle power is the main reason behind it. Indian culture is male dominated and male is physically more strong than women. To curb this problem of domestic violence law is available but awareness of law is required because most of the women are not aware of the remedies provided by this Act. Domestic violence casts drastic effects on the development of women. The Protection of Women (from Domestic Violence) Act is a laudable piece of legislation which provides that for the purpose of determining whether any act, omission, commission or conduct of the respondent constitutes “domestic violence”, the overall facts and circumstances of the case shall be taken into consideration. Moreover, the mental set up of the males is also necessary to be changed. Women can be trained to protect themselves from domestic abuse. I suggest changing the definition of “respondent” under section 2(q) of the Act which include in the definition of respondent only adult male and in case of married women complaint can also be filed against a relative of the husband or the male partner. But, a woman can also be the perpetrator of violence to other woman in
55 http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-08-19/india/41424743_ 1_domestic-violence-act-tamil-nadu-ncrb visited on 11.12.2013
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shared household, so, ‘respondent’ should include ‘adult female’ also. There is need to increase the number of shelter homes. Succinctly, it can be said that the aim of this Act is to provide violence free home to women. There is need to spread awareness about the rights of women under Domestic Violence Act and everyone should do efforts to bring domestic violence to a halt.
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HEALTH STATUS AMONG ELDERLY WOMEN IN INDIA
Dr. P. Sailaja Department of Social Work Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Introduction In India, like many other developing countries, the problem of the elderly is becoming highly visible and pressing. Every minute, about 23 Indians become sixty years old joining the ranks of the statistically elderly (Nusberg, 1993).
As per 2001 Census, nearly 80 million people are in the age group of 60+, which is 7.7 percent of the total population. Further, it is projected to increase to 177 million by 2025 years. 1981 Census, there were only 42.5 million older people representing over 5 percent of the country’s population. The determinant for old age is average life expectancy. It was 23 years at the beginning of the 20th century; it rose to 32 years in 1951 and 60 years in 2000-01. It is estimated that it has increased to 65 years of now (Tripathi, 2008).
The Projected Population aged 60+ by sex (In Millions)
Year Males Females Persons 2006 40.75 42.83 83.58 2011 48.14 50.33 98.47 2016 58.11 59.99 118.10 2021 70.60 72.65 143.25 2026 84.62 88.56 173.18
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The percentage of population aged 60+ in the total population by sex
Year Males Females Persons 2006 7.10 8.00 7.50 2011 7.70 8.70 8.30 2016 8.70 9.80 9.30 2021 10.20 11.30 10.70 2026 11.80 13.10 12.40
The profile of the elderly population indicates that…
The majority of older persons are women. Today around 55 percent of those aged 60 plus are women. This percentage has remained almost the same since 1950 and is not expected to change in the next 50 years (Chakraboti, 2005).
Ageing has become a serious concern for women in India with a number of issues that are unique to them. Elderly women in India tend to be negatively affected with factors such as illiteracy or poor education, unemployment, widowhood, economic dependence, malnutrition, ill- health care and social security packages provide far-reaching results in the quality of life of elderly people.
Issues and Concerns Elderly women are all the more susceptible in the patriarchal social structure where they are hardly encouraged to be independent – economically, socially and psychologically. Illiteracy, poverty, subordination, chronic malnutrition and high morbidity pattern define the condition of women, which, often gets accentuated in the case of
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elderly women, making them more vulnerable (Archana Kaushik, 2005). The following are the major issues related to the elderly women in India.
Feminisation of the Elderly Feminization of the ageing is a world-wide trend. Demographic data project that elderly women would far outnumber their male counterpart in the next few decades. Coupled with this, higher incidence of widowhood, illiteracy, malnutrition and high economic dependence depict the vulnerability of elderly females. (Chakraboti, 2005).
The major problems of elderly women are suffering from the following Problems: Menopause It is a striking event in a woman’s life as it marks the termination of the reproductive cycle. Bone Fractures In most countries the incidence of osteoporosis is about 2-4 times higher in women than in men; this is related to the loss of bone that occurs as a result of estrogen deficiency after the menopause. Urinary Incontinence At least one in 19 among 65-year-old people has a problem of this nature.
Some of the authors are discussed about health problems in the elderly women. Health status of the elderly people is usually defined either by the presence or absence of disease or by the assessment of functional capacity. The former definition is more commonly used, particularly by health care providers (Shanas and Maddox, 1976)
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According to Paul (1992), elderly women in India suffer -availability from health problem because a inferior diet; non-utilisation of health facilities; non of medical facilities less working years and earning of women; economic dependence and non-working status; and gender bias.
Dandekar (1996) found no significant differences in male/female or rural/urban 7 proportions of those ill among the elderly. However, the pattern of diseases between males and females differed and problems related to blood pressure, heart disease, urinary problems and diabetes were dominant in the urban areas. For urban females, the chronically ill percentages were higher than for males. She found that poverty and health status were closely linked in her study. This paper takes a fresh look at these issues using all-India level rural data. In particular, it investigates whether the gender differences found in other studies are due to pure gender effects or a set of vulnerability factors.
(Dandekar 1996) have found that there are male-female and rural urban differentials in the incidence of disability relating to such functional competence. In fact, the conclusion reached is that the health-related quality of life of the elderly, especially women, from rural areas, is considerably lower in India when compared to other countries. Poor nutrition, inadequate health care, socio-economic conditions and gender have been the major factors explaining the ability of the elderly to maintain competence.
A study in Bangalore (Jai Prakash 1998) found that the fear of physical dependency, (including being sick, or disabled) rather than economic dependency was a major cause of worry for the elderly. Nearly 60 percent of the respondents suffered from some long-term illness that required at least one monthly visit to the doctor. Rural elderly rarely visited the medical units while urban elderly were more regular in their
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check-ups and followed medical regimens systematically. Even among the urban sample, the males accessed health facilities more than females.
(Irudaya Rajan et al. 1999) on the health of the elderly found that women are poorer and suffer more morbidity than men in old age, although their death rates are lower. A few attempts have been made at etching the profile of the illness patterns among the elderly. Among these, cough, poor eyesight, anaemia and dental problems were found to dominate
Disability is viewed as largely the result of cumulative experience over life cycle with disease and injury with the advancement of age; elderly peoples are suffering from four major components of impairments, such as hearing deficiency, loss of vision, locomotors problem and loss of memory. The age of onset of impairment, according to the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO of 1991) was 60 years or above for 54 percent (locomotors disability) to 69 percent (visual impairment) of the elderly persons. Visual impairment is one of the most common non-lethal conditions among the elderly.
Elderly women suffer more than men in the impairment of vision probably due to more nutritional deficiency (restrictions to dietary intake due to widowhood). Besides, it is evident that elderly females suffer more from locomotors problems, which is an obvious consequence after menopause.
The micro level health data as it reflected in the census of India 2001 that elderly people are suffering from chronic disorders, joint problems, cough and cold, hypertension, diabetes and heat diseases. Problem of joint and ‘cough’ happened to be the most severe chronic disease for the
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aged. Greater prevalence of blood pressure, joint pains in the rural and urban areas of the elderly women suffer more than men.
Health Needs of the Elderly:
The health status of the elderlies depend on steady income for the family, proper nutrition, good sanitation and hygiene, sufficient source of drinking water and a life free of old age stress and strain. However, both in urban and rural settlements most of the aged population do not enjoy that kind of life style and are undergoing hazards, the magnitude of which is immense. “Added to this there is a tendency to marginalize the aged for whom resources are not easily available. Scholars have identified four perspectives that show the tendencies of the policy makers with regard to the upliftment of the aged. These perspectives in terms of development are mainly (a) aged population as a whole are a low priority, (b) these people are an obstacle to development, (c) they are major drain of scarce resources and (d) they do not feel at ease with modernization and economic growth (Treas and Logue, 1986)
National Policy on Older Persons (NPOP)
The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment announced the National Policy on Older Persons in 1999 to reaffirm its commitment to ensure the well-being of the older persons in a holistic manner. Reiterating the mandate enshrined in Article 41 of the Constitution of India, the Policy has brought the concern for older persons on top of the National Agenda. The National Policy envisages State support to ensure financial and food security, health care, shelter and other needs of older persons, equitable share in development, protection against abuse and
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exploitation and availability of services to improve the quality of the lives.
The NPOP broadly provides for the following to fulfill these objectives Financial security Health Security Recognizing Shelter as basic human need Education/information needs Welfare and Institutional Care Protection of Life and Property of Older Persons Training of Human Resource to Care for Older Person Media
Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007
The Act on Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens, 2007 was passed by the Parliament on December 6, 2007 and has been notified on December 31, 2007. The Salient Features of the Act ensure maintenance of Parents and Senior Citizens within their family; places a legal obligation on children and relatives to maintain their Parents; prescribes setting up of Tribunals for quick settlement of maintenance claim; avoids Cumbersome Legal Procedure and recommends setting up Old Age Homes in all Districts.
The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment acts as the nodal agency with regard to ageing issues in India. It provides basic policy guidance, the roadmap for implementation of the same and also coordinates with stake holders such as the other Ministries of the
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Central Government and the State Governments, NGOs, Civil Society Institutions et
Conclusion
Ageing has become a serious concern for women in India with a number of issues that are unique to them. Elderly women in India tend to be negatively affected with factors such as illiteracy or poor education, unemployment, widowhood, economic dependence, malnutrition, ill health and other psychological problems. India still has a long way to go to improve the status of the elderly, especially of elderly women. The skill and expertise of elderly women should be fully utilized in the nation building process. There is lack of awareness regarding potential contribution of aged women to the development process. These is an urgent need to formulate a range of welfare programmes and social security measures for the aged, with priority given to elderly women to improve their social, economic and health status. Geriatric arrangements should be provided to elderly women, Health insurance polices and adequate free clinical facilities must be provided for the elderly women by opening dispensaries or through mobile dispensaries, especially for elderly women in rural areas, Elderly women should be educated on health, nutrition and better hygienic practices through the mass media. Special focus on widowed, childless, lonely and sick women who would constitute the bulk of the oldest – old. Special care houses for elderly women should be established at a low lost to those who are unable to lead fully independent lives
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due to age or recognised deterioration in physical capacity, and who are not in a position to receive support from their families Greater awareness and more accurate identification of the problem of the elderly victims can lead to the re-shaping of the attitudes and the broadening of knowledge about abuse, the required services. The scope and coverage of old age pension should be increased and pension amount should be enhanced and given regularly The government agencies, private agencies and voluntary organisations should also be involved in developing income- generating programme for elderly women . There is a need to establish more Old Age Homes, and Elders’ Help Line Better implementation of the NPOP and Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007 is the need of the hour There is a definite research gap in gerontology especially with respect to differential needs and problems of elderly women.
References: 1. Archana Kaushik (2005). How vulnerable are elderly women in the state of orissa? National Institute of Social Defense. A Quarterly Journal Vol.56, No. 159 Jan 05-Dec 05 2. Dandekar. 1996. Elderly in India. Sage Publications: New Delhi. 3. Irudaya, Rajan S., U.S. Misra and P.S.Sharma 1999. India's Elderly: Burden or 4. Challenge? Sage Publications: New Delhi 5. Jai Prakash, I. 1998. Maintenance of Competence in Daily Living and Well-being of 6. Elderly. Research & Development Journal. Vol. 4: 2 & 3. 7. Shanas, E. and L Maddox. 1976. Aging, Health and the Organisation of Health Resources. In R.H. Binstock and E. Shanas (Eds.) Hand Book
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of Aging and the Social Sciences, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. 8. Treas, Judith and Logue, Barbara. Economic development and the older population. Population and Development Review, New Youk, 12. 4(Dec). 1986/ 9. Tripathi S.L. (2008) Problems of Elders, Population and Development in India: Studies in Active & Graceful Ageing. Institute of Social Development, Udaipur. pp. 55-58. 10. Nusberg, C (1993) New century, new hopes, new thinking about ageing policies and programs, Ageing international, XX (1) 48-52
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A STUDY ON OCCUPATIONAL STRESS MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED PRIVATE BANKS IN VILLUPURAM
P.Arulprasad Dr.K.Murgadoss Research Scholar Associate Professor of Commerce St. Joseph’s College of Arts and Periyar Govt. Arts &Science College Science College, (Autonomous) Cuddalore Cuddalore
Introduction
Stress affects the employees’ performance that indirectly affects the organization survival because if employees reduce their work efficiency and can’t work best for their organizations, so this situation couldn’t be only affected the organizational performance but also lost healthy shares in an increasingly competitive market, and may even jeopardize their survival (Kazmi, 2008). It is therefore, an essentials task for management to deal effectively and prevents this suffering. It is the responsibility of management to fight against the stress at work, to identify the suitable course of action and solve them. Improving stress prevention is a positive action that contributes to a better health of workers and generates great organization efficiency and performance. Thus, Stress is inevitable in our society. Researchers on stress make it clear that, to enter into the complex area of stress, especially into the area of occupational stress, is very difficult. Stress is an unavoidable consequence of modern living. With the growth of industries, pressure in the urban areas, quantitative growth in population and various problems in day to day life are some of the reasons for increase in stress. Stress is a condition of strain that has a direct bearing on emotions, thought process and physical conditions of a person. Steers
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[1981] indicate that, “Occupational stress has become an important topic for study of organizational behaviour for several reasons.” Stress has harmful psychological and physiological effects on employees , Stress is a major cause of employee turnover and absenteeism , Stress experienced by one employee can affect the safety of other employees , By controlling dysfunctional stress, individual and organization can be managed more effectively. During the past decade, the banking sector had under gone rapid and striking changes like policy changes due to globalization and liberalization, increased competition due to the entrance of more private (corporate) sector banks, downsizing, introduction of new technologies, etc. Due to these changes, the employees in the banking sector are experiencing a high level of stress. The advent of technological revolution in all walks of life coupled with globalization, privatization policies has drastically changed conventional patterns in all sectors. The banking sector is of no exemption. The 1990s saw radical policy changes with regarding to fiscal deficit and structural changes in India so as to prepare her to cope with the new economic world order. Globalization and privatization led policies compelled the banking sector to reform and adjust to have a competitive edge to cope with multinationals led environment. The advent of technological changes, especially extensive use of computers in the sector has changed the work patterns of the bank employees and has made it inevitable to downsize the work force in the sector. The implications of the above said transformations have affected the social, economical and psychological domains of the bank employees and their relations. Evidence from existing literature states that more than 60% of the bank employees have one or other problem directly or indirectly related to these drastic changes. Along with other sectors the banking sector also leaning towards the policy of appointing contract labors while various compulsive as well as rewarding options such as VRS, etc. All the factors discussed above are prospective attributes to cause
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occupational stress and related disorders among the employees. Although a lot of studies have been conducted on the psychosocial side of the new policy regime in many sectors, there are only few studies, as far as the banking sector is concerned, while the same sector has been drastically influenced by the new policies. In this juncture, the present study is undertaken to address specific problems of bank employees related to occupational stress. This throw light in to the pathogenesis of various problems related to occupational stress among bank employees. The study will be helpful to drawn up further policy on the related fields and act as a secondary data for further research.
Review of Literature According to Douglas [1980], stress is defined as any action or situation that places special physical or psychological demand upon a person. Van Fleet [1988], stress is caused when a person is subjected to unusual situations, demands, extreme expectations or pressures that are difficult to handle. Cobb (1975) has the opinion that, “The responsibility load creates severe stress among workers and managers.” If the individual manager cannot cope with the increased responsibilities it may lead to several physical and psychological disorders among them. Brook (1973) reported that qualitative changes in the job create adjust mental problem among employees. The interpersonal relationships within the department and between the departments create qualitative difficulties within the organisation to a great extent. Miles and Perreault (1976) identify four different types of role conflict: 1. Intra-sender role conflict 2. Inter sender role conflict. 3. Person- role conflict; 4. Role over load. The use of role concepts suggests that job related stress is associated with individual, interpersonal, and structural variables (Katz and Kahn, 1978; Whetten, 1978). The presence of supportive peer groups and supportive
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relationships with supervisors are negatively correlated with R.C. (Caplan et al., 1964). Scope of the Study 1. Stress can be brought about by pressures at home and at work. Employers cannot usually protect workers from stress arising outside of work, but they can protect them from stress that arises through work. 2. Stress at work can be a real problem to the organization as well as for its workers. Good management and good work organization are the best forms of stress prevention. This study is helpful in assessing the extent of stress experienced by the employees. Objectives of the Study
1. To analyse the level of occupational stress among the selected private bank employees. 2. To examine what is the effect of stress on work factors (e.g., morale, job satisfaction, task effort, organizational commitment, etc) when people are under high stress. Methodology of the study Population : The population selected for this particular study is employees from the selected private banks in Villupuram. The private bank comprises of HDFC Bank, ICICI Bank, Kotak Mahindra Bank, and Standard Chartered Bank. Questionnaire were distributed and collected personally by the researcher. Sources of Data The study will consist of both primary and secondary data. The primary data was collected by direct interview through questionnaire. The secondary data was collected from research publications, standard journal and periodicals including the government organizations and from respective records about the job
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related occurrence. The instrument will be administered in the workplaces of each group. Data will be collected from the employees. Data will be collected using a structured questionnaire, which will be distributed in the workplace to employees in Villupuram. Analysis Of Data The data will be analyzed to determine any differences between the stress levels of employees and their impact on reducing stress. Interpretations This paper also includes an analysis of data collected by representing it in tabular form along with interpretations. The information collected were analyzed for arriving at proper conclusion on the topic. From the table 1, it is indicated that majority of the respondents working in private banks were stressed in their modern life, whereas only very few respondents felt that they were not stressed in their modern life. From Table 2, it is inferred that major causes of stress among the bank employees are excess of work load [25%] and lack of cooperation among the impatient customer [23%]. Hence it was found that employees felt that they were facing severe work pressure, as they were expected to handle multiple roles and responsibilities. Time stress is created by a real or imaginary deadlines; encounter stress is created by contact with other people [both pleasant and unpleasant], and in this study, the employees suffer from stress because of lack of support from the management and colleagues. The above table depicts the various attributes related to stress; work life imbalance is one of the major attribute which contribute to stress for an employee. This can be regarded as a factor building up stress because a lot of employees complained that they were unable to balance both the personal and professional fronts successfully. Extra work pressures and demands from work environment at
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times led to neglect of personal front. From the above table, it is interpreted that Meditation form an integral part of the science of Yoga, has a direct, positive impact on the mind giving it the strength and power to resist stress. Moreover, around 23 percent of the respondents expected that they required recognition as acknowledging people’s value is especially important in times of stress. Based on the analysis; the initiatives taken by the banks to reduce stress are by providing good ambience, continuous training, proper communication and conducting effective stress management programmes. Findings of the Study About 98 % of the respondents believed that they face high level of stress, which may be due to both professional and personal reasons. The respondent were overburdened with work load in their work place Work life imbalance is one of the major attribute which contribute to stress for an employee. Suggestions and Recommendations 1. Organize a Stress Management Program that focuses on different leave categories of employees’ at all hierarchical level. 2. Take adequate steps to redesign jobs, which are taxing to employees’ abilities and capacities. 3. Adequate role clarification to be made whenever necessary to eliminate role ambiguity. 4. Introduce more job oriented training programs, which improve employees skill and their confidence to work effectively. 5. Encourage open channel of communication to deal work related stress. 6. Undertake stress audit at all levels in the organization to identify stress area improving conditions of job and alleviating job stress. 7. Introduce ‘Pranayam’ (Brain Stilling and control of Vital Force) as a holistic managerial strategy to deal with occupational strategy.
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8. Provide counseling on work related and personnel problems and support from a team of welfare health and counseling staff. 9. Attractive system of reward and recognition of good work. Conclusion The problem of stress is inevitable and unavoidable in the banking sector. A majority of the employees face severe stress- related ailments and a lot of psychological problems. Hence, the management must take several initiatives in helping their employees to overcome its disastrous effect. Since stress in banking sector is mostly due to excess of work pressure and work life imbalance the organization should support and encourage taking up roles that help them to balance work and family. The productivity of the work force is the most decisive factor as far as the success of an organization is concerned. The productivity in turn is dependent on the psychosocial well being of the employees. In an age of highly dynamic and competitive world, man is exposed to all kinds of stressors that can affect him on all realms of life. The growing importance of interventional strategies is felt more at organizational level. This particular research was intended to study the impact of occupational stress on Private Bank employees. Although certain limitations were met with the study, every effort has been made to make it much comprehensive.
References 1. JyothiBudhraja, “ Causes of stress among insurance employees: An empirical study; The ICFAI journal of Marketing research, Vol.VII, No.10, 2008 pp7-14. 2. Gender Difference in stress among bank officers of Private and Public Sector; the ICFAI journal of Marketing research, Vol.VIII, No.2, 2009, pp63-69. 3. Journal of Marketing Research, Vol 1, Issue 1, January 2009, pp 57-65.
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IMAGE ERROR CONCEALMENT TECHNIQUE USING BOUNDARY MATCHING ALGORITHM & RECOVERY OF CORRUPTED IMAGE DATA BASED ON THE FEC INTERPOLATION
Vishwajit K. Barbudhe Assistant Professor Jagadambha College of Engineering & Technology Master of Engineering (ME) Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering Department Yavatmal, India
INTRODUCTION
In the last decade, a great effort has been spent in studying effective solutions for the transmission of digital video over data networks. In particular, packet video is the emerging technology for a wide range of applications and services, including video conferencing and DTV over the Internet. A crucial point for the overall performance of these applications is the quality of the video data delivered to the end user. In this context, standard compression techniques (e.g., MPEGx, H.26x [1]) are usually adopted to reduce the needs in terms of bandwidth, while ensuring acceptable reconstruction quality. Nevertheless, due to the extensive use of predictive and variable length codes, a compressed stream is in general more vulnerable to data losses and transmission errors, which can desynchronize the decoder causing spatial and temporal error propagation. Several methods have been proposed to increase the transmission robustness. Forward error correction schemes (FEC) can be used to protect the most significant parts in the bit-stream. Resilient coding makes possible the stream decoding also in the presence of unreliable transmission: as an example, layered coding ensures a minimum guaranteed level of quality even in critical situations, by partitioning the picture information into several streams
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with different transmission priorities [2]–[4]. Differently, error concealment techniques aim at masking the visual effects of errors in the decoded data. These techniques typically make use of the correlation with adjacent data (in the spatial or temporal dimension), to extrapolate the missing information. In temporal concealment, a matching area from a previous frame is used to replace the missing area in the damaged one, while in spatial concealment the lost image portion is interpolated from the nearest available data. Techniques based on the estimation of the lost block motion belong to the first category [5], [6]. In particular, boundary-matching criteria are used to minimize the contrast between the replaced blocks and the pixels nearby. As to spatial concealment, in [7] the edges of a large region surrounding the damaged area are exploited with an iterative process in the frequency domain, based on the method of projections onto convex sets. In [8], high-frequency information is recovered by a fuzzy logic reasoning, which provides a modeling of complicated textures and contours. In [9], the missing block is recovered by analyzing the sketch information (contour geometry and relevant gray level variation) in the surroundings blocks and synthesizing the sketch of the missing region, from which the low-frequency content can be easily interpolated. The choice between spatial and temporal approaches is based on the characteristics of both signal and decoder. In particular, temporal recovery typically fails in the presence of scene changes, fast movement, rotation and deformation of objects. Furthermore, it implies a large use of memory in the hardware implementation. Spatial concealment is in general computationally expensive and far less performing in static areas, due to the difficulty in recovering small details and textures, as well as the introduction of tiling effects. In this paper, a new concealment solution is proposed that combines temporal and spatial approaches. The technique uses a temporal replacement of the lost
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block with the best matching pattern in a previously decoded frame, followed by the application of a patch transform aimed at reducing the visible artifacts generated by fast movements, rotations and deformations. The first step is achieved by a fast search algorithm, for a high precision is not required at this stage, while the second step uses a mesh-based transformation to fit the block content with the correctly received surrounding area.
Algorithm 1 Received boundary modeling
1: select an appropriate boundary part 2: initialize the number of the approximation control points (n + 1) : n = 2 3: find an approximation curve using T-spines 4: calculate the approximation error 5: if approximation error > error threshold then 6: if n < [1/2 length of boundary part] – 1 then 7: increase the number of control points: n = n + 1 and go to step 3 8: else 9: reduce the length of the selected boundary part and go to step 2 10: end if 11: else 12: return the approximation control points 13: end if Algorithm 2 Shape error concealment
1: find the received boundary of a binary encoded shape (-plane) 2: group 4-connected lost macro blocks together 3: for every lost group do
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4: find pairs of connecting points according to [10] 5: for every pair of connecting points do 6: apply the proposed error concealment 7: end for 8: end for 9: extract the reconstructed -plane or calculate the PSNR and Time required to encoding curve.
Flow-chart for proposed algorithm
START
Threshold Input Noisy edge
Directi
Weighted Edge Averaging Quantization
Entropy and adaptive
Forward error Concealed concealment
END
GENERAL APPROACH Before the application of our general image-restoration approach, we should make two assumptions. First, only some of the pixels in the image are bad (lost or damaged) while the other pixels are good (uncontaminated, the same as those in the original image). Second, we
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have known which pixels are good and which pixels are bad. In case we do not have this kind of information, an error or noise detection algorithm should be applied first. A digital gray scale image x with M pixels can be denoted as a vector x = (x1 , x2 , …… , x M) For convenience, a 1-D model is used in this paper. Nevertheless, the algorithms presented below are also applicable or can be easily adapted to 2-D or higher dimensional cases. Let x and x(new) be the damaged image and the restored image, respectively. Since we know which pixels in the image are good, it is easy to give each pixel xi (i= 1 , 2 ,…., M) a binary flag , indicating whether it is bad, i.e., f i =0 means x i is good and f i
=1 means xi is bad. The goal of our image restoration algorithm is to (new) give each bad pixel with f i =1 a new value x i that can comply well with our visual sense.
Fig. 2. Demonstration of the general approach.
Our general image-restoration approach is composed of five basic steps. For the ease of description, a demonstration graph is provided in Fig. 2. The five steps are given as follows.
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1) Fetching: Extract a window l with N pixels from the image which is called a local window (see Fig. 2). We have l = (l1 , l2 , l3 , .. .. , lN). This window may be a square, rectangle, triangle, or any other shape. The only restriction is that all the pixels are contiguously connected. For each pixel li (i=1,2,….,N) in this local window , we can get its l corresponding flag value f i. l The set of pixels with f i = 1 is shown as the damaged information in the local window (see Fig. 2).
2) Searching: Search for another window r in the image which is of exactly the same shape and the same size as the local window l .We call r a remote window(see Fig. 2) and have r = (r1 , r2 , r3 ….., rN) . The flag r value of each pixel ri in window r is denoted as f i. Since the l and r are of the same shape and size, we can find an indexing method that makes every pixel in l correspond to a unique pixel at the same position in r and vice versa. Sometimes, we restrict the searching procedure to be conducted in a region not very far from the local window. We call such a region the search range (see Fig. 2). Obviously, if a full search is conducted in the search range, we can find many candidate remote windows. In the next two steps, we will try to find out which is the best for our needs.
3) Matching: Try to match the remote window r to the local window l. The matching method is determined by a 1-D luminance transformation function that transforms Every ri in r to v(ri). There are many possible matching methods. The simplest form is direct matching, where we use v(z) = z (where z denotes a real number) as the luminance transformation. Other practical luminance transformations include the -order polynomial functions v(z) = a0 + a1z p + …. a p z (p >= 1) ………(1) where , a0 , a1 and a n are the polynomial coefficients. The pixel pairs in the two windows can be classified into
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three categories. In the first category, the corresponding pixels in r and
l r l are good ( f i = 0 and f i =0). In the second category, the pixel in r is l r good, but its corresponding pixel in is bad ( f i = 1 and f i =0 ). In the last category, the pixel in r is bad irrespective of whether its
l r l corresponding pixel in l is good or not ( f i = 0 , f i =1 or f i = 1 ). The pixels in the first category compose the matching part of the window. The number of pixels in this category is
Actually, only the pixels in this part will be used in the matching procedure. The matching result is evaluated by the mean-squared error of the matching part (MSEM) between the transformed r window and the l window
Of course, we want the (MSEM) to be as small as possible. In practice, we can use the condition of minimal (MSEM) to calculate the parameters in the luminance transformation. For example, if we use one of the polynomial functions of (1) as the luminance transformation function, then the parameters can be obtained by solving the following set of equations:
∂MSE M / ∂a o = 0 ∂MSE M / ∂a 1 = 0 ∂MSE M / ∂a p = 0
For the one-order case, the solution is given as in (5), shown at the bottom of the page.
4) Competing: All the candidate remote windows compete for the best match for the local window. Each candidate remote window in the
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search range will result in its corresponding (MSEM) . An obvious effective standard for the selection of remote windows is to choose the one with the least (MSEM) . This remote window then becomes the winner. In Section IV of this paper, we will discuss the possibility of using more complex standards by combining other parameters such as the distance between the local and remote windows.
5) Recovering: Recover the damaged pixels in the local window using the good pixels in the transformed remote window. Suppose we have the winning remote window r and its related matching transformation function v . Because the remote window and the local window are very
l well matched, some bad pixels f i = 1 in l can be recovered by using r their corresponding good pixels f i =0 in r . This is why we call the set l r of the pixels in the second category of the windows ( f i = 1 and, f i =0 ) the recovering part. For a certain pixel in this part, the new pixel value is if and otherwise
Finally, we copy the renewed local window back into its corresponding position in the recovered image and modify the flag values of the recovered pixels from 1 to 0. By applying
l r the five steps above, some bad pixels ( f i = 1 and, f i =0 ) in the contaminated image are recovered. The restoration of the whole image needs to apply these steps many times until the flags of all the pixels in the image are all 0. We have proposed the general framework for image restoration using long-range correlation. In real applications, such a framework should be adapted to the practical requirements. For example, in some circumstances, the contaminated pixels may not be totally damaged. Their values can be viewed as the combination of their original values
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and later mixed noises. In such cases, the matching, competing, and recovering algorithms should be modified accordingly.
PSNR EVALUATION AND RESULT: For the evaluation of the algorithm performance we choose the PSNR metric. We compared the interpolation here proposed with a simple linear interpolation, on various uncompressed Images. We applied the interpolations over a damaged version of the image, where several slices are missed for the entire duration, i. e. in all the frames the same slides of blocks have been damaged. Obviously the result highly depends by the image. We can see that the proposed algorithm can gain or loose few dB decimals with respect to a linear interpolation. On the following graphs we just compare the PSNR calculated and Total time required.
Evaluation Criteria
Performance criteria include reconstructed image quality, computation complex, etc. Objective image quality criteria, such as SNR and PSNR, are widely used because they are easy to calculate. Subjective criteria are much more applicable, since most images will be judged by human vision system at last. However, since it is very difficult to do large-scale subjective image quality evaluation, we will use objective evaluation primarily. PSNR is
Where p(x, y) is the original gray value of pixel (x, y) and p' (x, y) is the gray value of the reconstructed pixel. Computation complexity is an important criterion for some applications. For example, the computation power of a desktop computer is much higher than a cell
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phone or PDA. Hence, for applications on desktop computer, some moderate complex algorithms are applicable. However, for cell phone, less computation complexity is much more desirable than high reconstructed image quality.
BMP FORMAT – Microsoft Windows bitmap PSNR: 17.95 dB, Total Time Required: 314.79 s: Lighthouse.bmp
OUTPUT OF BMP FORMAT HISTOGRAM
DIB FORMAT – Microsoft Windows Device Independent Bitmap
PSNR: 7.25 dB, Total Time Required: 130.39 s: Penguins .dib
OUTPUT OF DIB FORMAT HISTOGRAM
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EPI FORMAT – Adobe Encapsulated Postscript Interchange format PSNR: 9.27 dB, Total Time Required: 20.86 s: Tulips.epi
EPI FORMAT OUTPUT HISTOGRAM
EPS FORMAT- Adobe Encapsulated Postscript PSNR: 18.65 dB, Total Time Required: 451.84 s: v2.eps
EPS FORMAT OUTPUT HISTOGRAM
GIF FORMAT – CompuServe graphic interchange format PSNR: 15.75 dB, Total Time Required: 146.38 s: Desert.gif
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GIF FORMAT OUTPUT HISTOGRAM
JPC FORMAT- JPEG -2000 Code stream syntax PSNR: 24.24 dB, Total Time Required: 6.80 s: AA.jpc
JPC FORMAT OUTPUT HISTOGRAM
JPEG FORMAT - Joint photographic experts group JFIF Format PSNR: 20.73 dB, Total Time Required: 47.36 s: O.jpeg
JPEG FORMAT OUTPUT HISTOGRAM
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PSNR: 12.91 dB, Total Time Required: 4.84 s: Z.pcd PCD FORMAT – Photo CD
PCD FORMAT OUTPUT HISTOGRAM
PCX FORMAT- IBM PC Paintbrush file PSNR: 17.48 dB, Total Time Required: 1.19 s: b.pcx
PCX FORMAT OUTPUT HISTOGRAM
PDB FORMAT- Palm database image viewer format PSNR: 11.60 dB, Total Time Required: 0.35 s: z.pdb
PDB FORMAT OUTPUT HISTOGRAM
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PDF FORMAT – Portable document format PSNR: 18.62 dB, Total Time Required: 0.39 s: d.pdf
PDF FORMAT OUTPUT HISTOGRAM
PGM FORMAT – Portable gray map format (gray scale) PSNR: 13.41 dB, Total Time Required: 0.71 s: j.pgm
PGM FORMAT HISTOGRAM
PICT FORMAT- Apple Macintosh quick draw / PICT file PSNR: 18.20 dB, Total Time Required:2.75 s : h.pict
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PICT FORMAT HISTOGRAM
PNG FORMAT – Portable Network Graphics PSNR: 12.71 dB, Total Time Required: 3.28 s: nn.png
PNG FORMAT OUTPUT HISTOGRAM
PSD FORMAT – Adobe Photoshop bitmap file PSNR: 18.25 dB, Total Time Required: 0.53 s: oo.psd
PSD FORMAT OUTPUT HISTOGRAM
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SVG FORMAT- Scalable Vector Graphics PSNR: 20.76 dB, Total Time Required: 203.43 s: kk.svg
SVG FORMAT HISTOGRAM
TGA FORMAT- True vision Targa image PSNR: 11.03 dB, Total Time Required: 0.84 s: pp.tga
TGA FORMAT OUTPUT Sr. IMAGE PSNR TIME Rq. No. 1 Lighthouse.bmp 17.95 dB 314.79 s 2 Penguins .dib 7.25 dB 130.39 s 3 Tulips.epi 9.27 dB 20.86 s 4 v2.eps 18.65 dB 451.84 s 5 Desert.gif 15.75 dB 146.38 s 6 AA.jpc 24.24 dB 6.80 s 7 O.jpeg 20.73 dB 47.36 s 8 Z.pcd 12.91 dB 4.84 s 9 b.pcx 17.48 dB 1.19 s
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10 z.pdb 11.60 dB 0.35 s 11 d.pdf 18.62 dB 0.39 s 12 j.pgm 13.41 dB 0.71 s 13 h.pict 18.20 dB 2.75 s 14 nn.png 12.71 dB 3.28 s 15 oo.psd 18.25 dB 0.53 s 16 kk.svg 20.76 dB 203.43 s 17 pp.tga 11.03 dB 0.84 s
Comparison with different Algorithm: Sr. IMAGE DCT HARRIS INPAINT FEC No. 1 Cheak 48.46 9.39 34.29 8.12 P board 2 S jdice 12.78 14.74 10.70 3.56 3 N D3 11.37 11.26 11.20 12.10 R 4 grains 7.71 8.56 8.85 11.70
5 bark 12.13 12.77 12.27 15.90 6 bulls eye 36.01 11.19 12.93 5.81
CONCLUSION A new error concealment technique was presented, aimed at masking the loss of visual information due to erroneous transmission of coded digital video over unreliable networks. The technique is based onto two steps: preliminary replacement of missing blocks by a boundary matching criterion (BMA), and recover damaged portion of image and boundary of damage image. BMA model Experimental tests demonstrated that the proposed approach is able to significantly reduce the artifacts that characterize other temporal concealment techniques, increasing both the subjective quality of the concealed image and most
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used objective quality parameters. The moderate increase of the computational complexity with respect to plain BMA does not preclude the real-time implementation of the technique, which just requires simple integer computation. . For performing the comparison of the original and concealed Image sequence PSNR. Metric are used. Although PSNR has been criticized precisely for not correlating well with perceived quality measurement.
References
1. J. L. Mitchell, W. B. Pennebaker, C. E. Fogg, and D. J. LeGall, MPEG Video Compression Standard. London, U.K.: Chapman & Hall, 1997. 2. I.-W. Tsai and C.-L. Huang, “Hybrid cell loss concealment methods for MPEG-II based packet video,” Signal Process. Image Commun., vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 99–124, Jan. 1997. 3. R. Aravind, M. R. Civanlar, and A. R. Reibman, “Packet loss resilience of MPEG-2 scalable video coding algorithms,” IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol., vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 426–435, Oct. 1996. 4. L. H. Kieu and K. N. Ngan, “Cell-loss concealment techniques for layered video codecs in an ATM network,” IEEE Trans. Image Processing, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 666–677, Sept. 1994. 5. W.-M. Lam, A. R. Reibman, and B. Liu, “Recovery of lost or erroneously received motion vectors,” in Proc. ICASSP, vol. 5, 1993, pp. 417–420. 6. M. J. Chen, L. G. Chen, and R. M.Weng, “Error concealment of lost motion vectors with overlapped motion compensation,” IEEE Trans. Circuits 7. Syst. Video Technol., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 560–563, June 1997. 8. H. Sun and W. Kwok, “Concealment of damaged block transform coded images using projections onto convex sets,” IEEE Trans. Image Processing, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 470–477, Apr. 1995. 9. X. Lee,Y.-Q. Zhang, and A. Leon-Garcia, “Information loss recovery for block-based image coding techniques—A fuzzy logic approach,” IEEE Trans. Image Processing, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 259–273, Mar. 1995.
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10. L. Atzori and F. G. B. De Natale, “Error concealment in video transmission over packet networks by a sketch-based approach,” Signal Process. Image Commun., vol. 15, no. 1/2, pp. 57–76, Sept. 1999.
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APPLICATIONS OF WATER BALANCE IN THE ASSESSMENT OF THE IDEAL GROWING PERIOD FOR RAIN FED CROPS IN TENTA DISTRICT - A CASE STUDY FROM ETHIOPIA
Tesfaye Muhiye Endris Dr. B. Hema Malini Research Scholar Department of Geography Department of Geography College of Science and Technology College of Science and Technology Andhra University,Visakhapatnam Andhra University,Visakhapatnam
Introduction Under the rain fed system the length of time within which sufficient soil moisture continuously available for the growth of crops is called as the length of growing period (LGP). Temperature and rainfall are the two prime climatic requsites for the successful growth of crops. However, moisture, is the most detrimental climatic factor for crop production in the tropics than temperature (Ovuka and Lindiquist, 2000). Plants require sufficient moisture for all the stages of plant growth from the time of sowing until harvesting. Plants extract moisture more easily for their optimum growth and attains maximum productivity when the soil moisture is at field capacity (Champman, 1976; Ram and Subrahmanyam, 1983). The moisture supply within the growing period varies from time to time. Any serious and abnormal water scarcity during the growing period causes crop failure. In this regard, agricultural practices, especially under rain fed system must be in harmony with the available soil moisture during the growing period. Therefore, the knowledge of soil moisture amount and variations within the growing period is very important for the successful growth of crops. However, estimation of soil moisture at a given time is a very complicated task. Soil receives moisture from precipitation and loses it by evapotranspiration. Even if the primary source of soil moisture is
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rainfall, the relationship between rainfall and the amount of moisture stored in the soil is not direct. It is impossible to estimate the amount of soil moisture from a given amount of rainfall. The moisture transferred from previous months, slope, soil type, intensity of rainfall and evapotranspiration affect the available soil moisture of a given area at a given time (Wilhite, 1983; Ayoade, 1983). These situations make estimation of soil moisture difficult and complicated. Therefore, any method used to estimate soil moisture at a given time must incorporate the aforementioned factors.
The percentage ratio of actual evapotranspiration (AE) to potential evapotrnspiration (PE), the derived parameter of water balance analysis, is employed in the present study to estimate the soil moisture. This parameter, being the function of AE and PE is considered as the best method to estimate soil moisture at any time (Hema Malini and Pampa Chaundri, 2010) because it integrates both the incoming and outgoing moisture of the soil by considering the amount retained in the soil. By employing AE/PE ratios the agricultural potentiality of any area and its ideal growing period can be identified. An index used to assess the agricultural potentiality of an area is called index of moisture adequacy (Ima). Ima, which is the percentage ratio of AE to PE provides clear indication of moisture variability in which the higher percentage signifies higher moisture availability and the lower value implies the reduction in the soil moisture (Subrahmanyam, 1972). An ideal growing period is also assessed using AE/PE ratios. A growing period has a well defined duration in which its beginning and end are determined by the available moisture conditions. Different studies set a threshold of 0.5 percent of AE to PE ratio for the growing period (FAO, 1996, Chandrasekaram, 2010). This implies that moisture below 0.5 AE/PE ratio is insufficient for crop growth. Mather (1974) claimed that when half of the soil moisture from the field capacity is lost by
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evapotranspiration, plants begin to suffer from drought. Half soil moisture, in this sense, directly implies 0.5 AE/PE ratios, as potential evapotranspiration is corresponding to the field capacity of a soil. This amount of moisture should be constantly available in the soil throughout the growing period for the successful growth of crops. Objectives of the study This study has three objectives: (i) to assess status of the seasonal and monthly moisture of the study area; (ii) to analyze the monthly soil moisture variations and reliability characteristics of the growing period; and (iii) to identify and determine the length of growing periods of the study area. Study Area Tenta District is located in South Wollo Administrative Zone of the Amahara National Regional State in Ethiopia. The district has a total area of 1339 km2 (ANRS, 2012). The district is a predominantly rain fed cropped area in which moisture variability and scarcity resulted in huge crop losses. Based on the rainfall charsacteristics there seasons are recognized in the study area namely Belg (low rainy season), Kiremt (high rainy season), and Bega (dry season). Belg season extends from February to May, Kiremt from June to September, and Bega from October to January. Methods of the study Monthly temperature and rainfall data of Amaba Mariam station were collected from the records of National Meteorological Agency (NMSA) of Ethiopia during 1992-2009. The ratios of actual evapotranspiration (AE) to potential evapotranspiration (PE) were computed by employing the Water Balance technique of Thornthwaite and Mather (1955) to assess the agricultural potentialities and the ideal length of growing period of the study area.
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Agricultural potentiality assessment index Index of moisture adequacy (Ima) was used to determine the agricultural potentiality of the study area. Indices of moisture adequacy (Ima) were worked out as a percentage ratio of AE to PE. Based on the statuses of annual and seasonal Ima, the study area can be classified into different potentiality classes (Table 1). Table 1 Ima Ranges and Corresponding Agricultural Potentiality No. Ima (%) Agricultural Potentiality 1 Above 80 Efficiently Suitable to Paddy 2 60-80 Suitable for paddy but yields are low; efficiently suitable to millets. 3 40-60 Suitable to millets 4 20- 40 Suitable only to drought resistant crops 5 Below 20 Not suitable to crop agriculture Source: Hema Malini (1996, p.73) Length of growing period (LGP) To examine the growing period of an area, it is important to assess the moisture characteristics along with the moisture requirement of crops. The following two important factors should be considered in the identification of growing period. These are: i) The minimum duration in which sufficient moisture must be available for crop growth must be known. The minimum length of the growing period, however, is determined by the type of crops grown in the area; and ii) The stability or degree of dependability of moisture within the Length of Growing Period (LGP). As to the former, soil moisture above 0.5 AE/PE ratios can support crop growth and crops begin to suffer from shortages of water when soil moisture decreases below 0.5. So in this study, a 0.5 AE/PE ratio is considered as the minimum moisture amount to support crops. Such a
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quantitative measure, however, could be of practical significance if the number of days in which the retained moisture remains above the minimum values is known with their level of dependability. According to FAO (1996), the AE/PE ratio of the dependable growing period should be 0.5 and above for the 75 percent of total occurrences, to qualify a growing period. Though this seems acceptable, the following two conditions govern the determination of LGPs in the study area: I. The short growing crops require 90 days from sowing to harvest; II. As farmers are seriously affected by minor shocks, a 10% occurrence below the 0.5 of AE/PE ratio is considered dependable to delimit the growing period in this study.
The moisture dependability status of each month was assessed by computing their AE to PE ratios separately for the study period on a yearly basis. Months whose AE to PE ratios are over 0.5 for the 90 percent of the years of study considered as having sufficient moisture for crop growth. If three or more successive months of the above characteristics occur, the period is considered as growing period. Thus LGP in this study constitute a minimum of three successive months in which AE/PE ratio remains above 0.5 for over the 90 percent of their total occurrences. Based on this parameter months of the growing period, for the present study, were categorized as highly reliable and dependable as follows: i. Highly Reliable Months: These months are those whose AE/PE percentage ratio remains over 50 percent throughout the study period. During these months moisture supplies may vary between 0.5 and 1.0 AE / PE ratio, but never fall below 0.5. During these months, no risk of crop failure due to moisture stress, irrespective of crop types grown in the area.
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ii. Dependable Months : This category consists of months whose AE/PE percentage ratio may fall below 0.5 for less than 10 percent of the study period. These months experience some risk of crop failure due to moisture stress with a probability of once in 10 years. Results and discussion Amba Mariam a representative station located in Tenta district is considered to fulfill the objectives such as assessment of status of the seasonal and monthly moisture of the study area, analyze the monthly soil moisture variations and reliability characteristics of the growing period and identify and determine the length of growing periods. Table 2., shows that the average monthly temperature at Amba Mariam. Table 2 Monthly Average Temperatures and Rainfall of Amba Mariam Station Item Ja Fe Ma Ap Ma Ju Jul Au Se Oc No De Avg/To n b r r y n g p t v c tal Temp 13. 14. 14. 14. 14. 15. 13. 12. 13. 12. 12. 12. 13.6 oC 2 2 8 5 9 0 0 7 0 4 2 6 Rainf 17 14 59 63 34 39 33 28 64 10 15 6 938 all 2 6 mm
Table 2., shows that the average monthly temperature at Amba Mariam ranges between the lowest of 12.2 oC in November and the highest of 15 oC in June. Temperature steadily increases from November to June and then declines. All months of the year at Amba Mariam station experienced rainfall. The lowest rainfall amount was registered in December (6mm) and the highest in July (332 mm). July and August are the two peak rainfall months. Table 3 shows that the average annual and seasonal Index of moisture adequacies of Amba Mariam.
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Table 3 Annual and Seasonal Index of Moisture Adequacy of Amba Mariam Station
Station AE/PE X 100 Annual Belg Kiremt Bega Amba Mariam 83 80 96 77
Table 3 shows that the average annual Ima is 83 percent which means that the study area can support wet crops without supplemental irrigation. The seasonal Ima analysis indicates that seasonal Ima ranges between 77 percent and 96 percent. Of all the three seasons, Kiremt season experiences maximum ( 96 percent) water potential followed by Belg season (80 %0 and bega season (77%). This indicates that the area experiences surplus soil moisture potential throughout the year to grow all kinds of crops including wetland crops such as rice. Fig. 1 and 2 clearly reveals the trends in monthly soil moisture fluctuations at Amba Mariam station. The total number of years studied are 18 (1992-2009). Ten percent of the total studied years are two, so two years and above occurrences of below 0.5 AE/PE ratios would make the month dry. It becomes evident that months from July to November are all above 0.5 AE/PE ratios, whereas others do constitute one or more occurrences of below 0.5 AE/PE ratios (Fig. 1 and 2).
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Amba Mariam Station July (A) Amba Mariam Station August (B) Amba Mariam Station (C) AE/PE Ratio AE/PE Ratio September AE/PE Ratio
100 100 100
50 50 50 AE/PE(%) AE/PE(%) 0 0 AE/PE (%) 0 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
Amba Mariam Station (D) Amba Mariam Station (E) Amba Mariam Station (F) October AE/PE Ratio November AE/PE Ratio December AE/PE Ratio
100 100 100
50 50 50 AE/PE(%) AE/PE(%) AE/PE(%) 0 0 0 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Fig. 1 AE to PE Percentage Ratio of Amba Mariam Station (July-December)
Amba Mariam Station January (A) Amba Mariam Station February (B) Amba Mariam Station March (C) AE/PE Ratio AE/PE Ratio AE/PE Ratio 100 100 100 50 50 50 AE/PE (%)AE/PE AE/PE(%) 0 AE/PE(%) 0 0 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
Amba Mariam Station April (D) Amba Mariam Station May (E) Amba Mariam Station June (F) AE/PE Ratio AE/PE Ratio AE/PE Ratio 100 100 100
50 50 50 AE/PE(%) AE/PE(%) AE/PE(%) 0 0 0 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
Fig. 2 AE to PE Percentage Ratio of Amba Mariam Station (January-June)
Table 4 shows the ideal growing period of Amba Mariam station.
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Table 4 Ideal Growing Period of Amba Mariam Station Station Months of Ideal Growing Months AE/PE> 0.5 Months Highly Dependable Reliable Months Months Amba July,August,Sept July,August, December (1) Mariam ember, September,Octo October,Novemb ber, November er, December, (5)
Table 4 shows that the study area has six months of growing period. Of these, five months (July, August, September, October and November) are highly reliable whereas one (December) is dependable. During the highly reliable months of the year crops can grow without any risk of moisture stress as AE/PE ratios of over 0.5 in all these months. The dependable months (December) involves a ten percent risk of drought occurrences. However, December is a month when crops are at mature stage and requires low quantities of water. Therefore, the damage to crops due to moisture scarcity in December would not be as highly pronounced as the earlier months when crops are very sensitive to moisture scarcity. Conclusion Rain fed crop production, as an activity, is a risky engagement due to its vulnerability to soil moisture fluctuations. Therefore, the clear understanding statuses of soil moisture and variability characteristics of a region is extremely important to reduce the risk of crop failure. The study reveals clear variation between the agricultural potentiality and the length of growing period analysis. In agricultural potentiality analysis, the moisture adequacies are worked out for a 12 months to identify the favourable crop growing period. From the study , it was
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found that period length of growing period restricted to six months only. The reason for such differences is that the agricultural potentiality analysis simply considers the average value, while the length of growing period analyzes annual variability characteristics of each month. So any technique employed in the study of the length of growing period should be capable of considering the variability and dependability aspects of soil moisture. In conclusion, the monthly moisture availability and variability study reveals that the study area is having a six month of growing period extending from July to December months. Though monthly average water balance analyses helpful to draw conclusions analysis based on weekly water balance is more dependable.
References
1. Ayoade, J.O., 1983: Introduction to Climatology for the Tropics. John Wiley Sons, New York, pp. 204-205. 2. Champan Stephan R., 1976: Crop Production Principles and Practices; W.M. Freeman and Company, Sanfransisco, p. 125 3. Chandrasekaran, B., Ananduria K., and Samasundra E., 2010: A Text Book of Agronomy. International (P) Limited Publisher, New Delhi. Retrieved from booksclub.org, P.121. 4. FAO of United Nations, 1996: Agro-ecological Zoning Guideline, FAO Soils Bulletin 76, Rome. Pp. 16-22 5. Hema Malini, B., 1996: Climatic Data Analysis of Kurnol District; (Project Sponsored under Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development by Andhra Pradesh State Remote Sensing Application Center, unpublished document), Department of Geography, Andhra University, p. 73. 6. Hema Malini, B., and Pampa Chaudhuri, 2010: Drought Vulnerability and its Implications on Agriculture in Orissa State., Punjab Geographers, Volume 6:1-15. 7. Mather, J. R., 1974: Climatology Fundamentals and Applications; Mc Graw Hills Inc. New Delhi, pp. 158, 174-175.
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Ovuka, M,. and Lindiquist, S., 2000: Rainfall Variability in Murang’ A District, Kenya: Meteorological Data and Farmers’ Perception, Geografiska Annaler, 82, 108 – 119 8. Ram Mohan and Subramanyam, V.P., 1983: Application of water balance concepts in agricultural planning and operations in south India, The national geographical journal of India, 30-34 9. Subrahmanyam, V.P. , 1972: Concepts and Use of Water Balance for Eco Climatic Planning, Papers on Evapotranspiration and the Climatic Water Balance, Thornthwaite memorial volume I (Ed. John Mather), New Jersey, pp 50-51. 10. Thornthwaite, C.W., and Mather, J.R., 1957: Instructions and Tables for Computing Potential Evapotranspiration. Publication in Climatology, 1957, X, (3): 206-228. 11. UNDP/FAO, 1984: Land Evaluation, Land Suitability Classification; Assistance to Land Use Planning, Ethiopia, Technical Report 5, Part four, Rome, p. 19 12. Wilhite, Donald A., 2007: Preparedness and Coping Strategies for Agricutural Risk Management, Recent Progress and Trends, Springer- Verlg Berlin, Hidel Berg. PP 23-24
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VISUAL TRANSLATION THROUGH COMPUTATIONAL GENERATION OF REFERRING EXPRESSIONS: A LINGUAL SURVEY TO CUT THROUGH THE LANGUAGE BARRIERS
Dr. Challa Ramakrishna Mr. Krishnaveer Abhishek Challa Assistant Professor Student Dept of Journalism MA English Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Ms. Challa Sushmita Student Department of ECE Lankapalli Bullayya College,Visakhapatnam
Introduction: Much research in translation studies indicates that translated texts have unique characteristics that set them apart from original texts. Known as translationese, translated texts (in any language) constitute genre, or a dialect, of the target language, this reflects both artifacts of the translationprocess and traces of the original language from which the texts were translated. Among the better-known properties of translationese are simplification and explicit. Translated texts tend to be shorter, to have lower type/token ratio, and to use certain discourse markers more frequently than original texts. Interestingly, translated texts are so markedly different from original ones that automatic classification can identify them with very high accuracy. Contemporary statistical machine translation (SMT) systems use parallel corpora to train translation models that reflect source- and target-language phrase correspondences. Typically, SMT systems ignore the direction of translation of the parallel corpus. Given the unique properties of translationese, which operate asymmetrically from source to target language, it is reasonable to assume that this direction may affect the
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quality of the translation. Recently, Kurokawa, Goutte, and Isabelle (2009) showed that this is indeed the case. They trained a system to translate between French and English (and vice versa) using a French- translated-to-English parallel corpus, and then an English translated- to-French one. They find that in translating into French the latter parallel corpus yields better results (in terms of higher BLEU scores), whereas for translating into English it is better to use the former. Machine translation implements natural language processing, a task of generating natural language from a machine representation system such as a knowledge base or a logical form; Psycholinguists prefer the term language production when such formal representations are interpreted as models for mental representations. It could be said an NLG system is like a translator that converts a computer based representation into a natural language representation. However, the methods to produce the final language are different from those of a compiler due to the inherent expressivity of natural languages. NLG may be viewed as the opposite of natural language understanding: whereas in natural language understanding the system needs to disambiguate the input sentence to produce the machine representation language, in NLG the system needs to make decisions about how to put a concept into words. Simple examples are systems that generate form letters. These do not typically involve grammar rules, but may generate a letter to a consumer, e.g. stating that a credit card spending limit was reached. More complex NLG systems dynamically create texts to meet a communicative goal. As in other areas of natural language processing, this can be done using either explicit models of language (e.g., grammars) and the domain, or using statistical models derived by analysing human-written texts. Despite the fact that image understanding and natural language processing constitute two major areas, there have only been a few
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attempts toward the integration of computer vision and the generation of natural language expressions for the description of image sequences. Although there has been much progress in developing theories, models and systems in the areas of Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Vision Processing (VP) there has been little progress on integrating these two subareas of Artificial Intelligence (AI). In the beginning the general aim of the field was to build integrated language and vision systems, few were done, and two subfields quickly arose. It is not clear why there has not already been much activity in integrating NLP and VP. Is it because of the long-time reductionist trend in science up until the recent emphasis on chaos theory, non-linear systems, and emergent behaviour? Or, is it because the people who have tended to work on NLP tend to be in other Departments, or of a different ilk, to those who have worked only in VP? There has been a recent trend towards the integration of NLP and VP and other forms of perception such as speech. Dennett (1991, pp. 57-58) says "Surely a major source of the widespread skepticism about "machine understanding" of natural language is that such systems almost never avail themselves of anything like a visual workspace in which to parse or analyze the input. If they did, the sense that they actually understood what they processed would be greatly heightened (whether or not it would still be, as some insist, an illusion). As it is, if a computer says, "I see what you mean" in response to input, there is a strong temptation to dismiss the assertion as an obvious fraud." Heretofore social trends in science in general have been towards reductionism. Pure reductionism argues that the social nature of experimentation is irrelevant to scientific outcome where the interactions between scientists should have no effect upon their results. In contrast, the effort on integration required here will certainly involve social interaction between researchers in each field which might not have occurred otherwise. What matters to scientific progress is not
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the conducting of experiments per se, but rather the determination of which experiments are worth conducting. In such contexts, 'worth' is clearly a sociological, as opposed to a scientific, matter.
Computational generation of referring expressions in visual translation: Consider three balls, suppose one wants to point out a ball. Most speakers have no difficulty in accomplishing this task, by producing a referring expression such as “the red ball” for example. Now imagine a computer being confronted with the same task, aiming to point out the ball d2. Assuming it has access to a database containing all the relevant properties of the balls in the scene, it needs to find some combination of properties which applies to d2, and not to the other two. There is a choice though: There are many ways in which d2 can be set apart from the rest (“the ball in the middle” “the red ball” “the ball to the right of the blue ball”), and the computer has to decide which of these is optimal in the given context. Moreover, optimality can mean different things. It might be thought, for instance, that references are optimal when they are minimal in length, containing just enough information to single out the target. But, as we shall see, finding minimal references is computationally expensive, and it is not necessarily what speakers do, nor what is most useful to hearers.
d1 d2 d
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Figure 1: A simple visual scene
Referring expressions play a central role in communication, and have been studied extensively in many branches of (computational) linguistics, including Natural Language Generation (NLG). NLG is concerned with the process of automatically converting non-linguistic information into natural language text, which is useful for practical applications ranging from generating weather forecasts to summarizing medical information. Of all the subtasks of NLG, Referring Expression Generation (REG) is among those that have received most scholarly attention. A survey of implemented, practical NLG systems shows that virtually all of them, regardless of their purpose, contain an REG module of some sort. This is hardly surprising in view of the central role that reference plays in communication. A system providing advice about air travel (White, Clark, and Moore 2010) needs to refer to flights (“the cheapest flight,” “the KLM direct flight”), a pollen forecast system (Turner et al. 2008) needs to generate spatial descriptions for areas with low or high pollen levels (“the central belt and further North”), and a robot dialogue system that assembles construction toys together with a human user (Giuliani et al. 2010) needs to refer to the components (“insert the green bolt through the end of this red cube”). REG “is concerned with how we produce a description of an entity that enables the hearer to identify that entity in a given context” (Reiter and Dale 2000, page 55). Because this can often be done in many different ways, a REG algorithm needs to make a number of choices. According to Reiter and Dale (2000), the first choice concerns what form of referring expression is to be used; should the target be referred to, for instance, using its proper name, a pronoun (“he”), or a description (“the man with the tie”). Proper names have limited applicability because many domain objects do not have a name that is in common usage. For pronoun generation, a simple but conservative
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rule is discussed by Reiter and Dale (2000), similar to one proposed by Dale (1989, pages 150–151): Use a pronoun if the target was mentioned in the previous sentence, and if this sentence contained no reference to any other entity of the same gender. Reiter and Dale (2000) concentrate mostly on the generation of descriptions. If the NLG system decides to generate a description, two choices need to be made: Which set of properties distinguishes the target (content selection), and how the selected properties are to be turned into natural language (linguistic realization). One of the most ubiquitous tasks in natural language generation is the generation of referring expressions: phrases that identify particular domain entities to the human recipient of the generation system’s output. Each property expressed in a referring expression can be regarded as having the function of ‘ruling out’ members of the contrast set. Suppose a speaker wants to identify a small black dog in a situation where the contrast set consists of a large white dog and a small black cat. She might choose the adjective black in order to rule out the white dog and the head noun dog in order to rule out the cat; this would result in the generation of the referring expression the black dog, which matches the intended referent but no other object in the current context. The small dog would also be a successful referring expression in this context, under the distinguishing description model. More formally, we assume that each entity in the domain is characterised by means of a set of attribute–value pairs. We will sometimes to refer to an attribute–value pair as a property. We assume that the semantic content of a referring expression can also be represented as a set of attribute–value pairs. We will use the notation (Attribute, Value) for attribute–value pairs; for example, (colour, red) indicates the attribute of colour with the value red. The semantic content of head nouns will be represented as the value of the special attribute type: for example, (type, dog). Let r be the intended referent,
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and C be the contrast set; then, a set L of attribute–value pairs will represent a distinguishing description if the two conditions in hold: Every attribute–value pair in L applies to r: that is, every element of L specifies an attribute–value that r possesses. For every member c of C, there is at least one element l of L that does not apply to c: that is, there is an l in L that specifies an attribute–value that c does not possess. l is said to rule out c. For example, suppose the task is to create a referring expression for Object1 in a context that also includes Object2 and Object3, where these objects possess the following properties: • Object1:
A good referring expression generation algorithm should be able to take into account what is known about the hearers/ reader’s knowledge and perceptual abilities. This can be done at the simplest level by restricting the attributes mentioned in a referring expression to those which most human hearers/reader’s are presumed to easily be able to perceive, such as colour and size. A more general solution is to allow the generation algorithm to issue appropriate queries to a hearer/reader’s model at run-time. There are many criteria that an algorithm which generates referring expressions should satisfy; we are particularly concerned here with the following:
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1. The algorithm should generate referring expressions which satisfy the referential communicative goal: after hearing or seeing the referring expression, the human hearer or reader should be able to identify the target object. 2. The algorithm should generate referring expressions which do not lead the human hearer or reader to make false conversational interpretations. 3. The algorithm, if it is to be of practical use, should be computationally efficient. Computational journalism: as an application of visual translation: Computational journalism combines classic journalistic values of storytelling and public accountability with techniques from computer science, statistics, the social sciences, and the digital humanities. It can be defined as the application of computation to the activities of journalism such as information gathering, organization, sense making, communication and dissemination of news information, while upholding values of journalism such as accuracy and verifiability. The field draws on technical aspects of computer science including artificial intelligence, content analysis (NLP, vision, audition), visualization, personalization and recommender systems as well as aspects of social computing and information science. Computational reporting can be evolved over time to inform visual news such as that of reporting accidents etc., as well as discrete data to the mass audience. For example the pollen forecast for Scotland, shows a simple NLG system in action. This system takes as input six numbers, which give predicted pollen levels in different parts of Scotland. From these numbers, the system generates a short textual summary of pollen levels as its output. For example, using the historical data for 1-July-2005, the software produces,
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Grass pollen levels for Friday have increased from the moderate to high levels of yesterday with values of around 6 to 7 across most parts of the country. However, in Northern areas, pollen levels will be moderate with values of 4. In contrast, the actual forecast (written by a human meteorologist) from this data was Pollen counts are expected to remain high at level 6 over most of Scotland, and even level 7 in the south east. The only relief is in the Northern Isles and far northeast of mainland Scotland with medium levels of pollen count. The process to generate reports can be as simple as keeping a list of canned text that is copied and pasted, possibly linked with some glue text. The results may be satisfactory in simple domains such as horoscope machines or generators of personalised business letters. However, a sophisticated NLG system needs to include stages of planning and merging of information to enable the generation of text that looks natural and does not become repetitive. The typical stages of natural language generation, as proposed by Dale and Reiter are Content determination: selecting the information to be mentioned in the text. Document structuring: organisation for information conveying Aggregation: To improve naturalness of the report. Lexical choice: Putting appropriate words to the context. Referring expression generation: Creating expressions for identifying objects and regions Realisation: Creating correct text obeying the rules of syntax, morphology, and orthography. Conclusion: Visual translation not only erases the barricades of language diversity but also the gap between machine and man communication. We believe that it is time for evaluation studies to extend their remit and look at
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the types of complex references that more recent REG research has drawn attention to. Such studies would do well, in our view, to pay considerable attention to the question of which referring expressions have the greatest benefit for readers or hearers. One day, perhaps, all these issues will have been resolved. If there is anything that a survey of the state of the art in REG makes clear it is that, for all the undeniable progress in this growing area of NLG, this Holy Grail is not yet within reach.
References: 1. Belz, Anja. 2009. That’s nice . . . what can you do with it? [Last Words].Computational Linguistics, 35:111–118. 2. Appelt, Douglas. 1985. Planning English referring expressions. Artificial Intelligence, 26:1–33. 3. Gatt, Albert and Anja Belz. 2010. Introducing shared task evaluation to NLG: The TUNA shared task evaluation challenges. In Emiel Krahmer and Mariet Theune, editors, Empirical Methods in Natural Language Generation; Springer Verlag, Berlin, pages 264–293. 4. Horacek, Helmut. 1997. An algorithm for generating referential descriptions with flexible interfaces. In Proceedings of the 35th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL), pages 206–213, Madrid. 5. Paraboni, Ivandre, Kees van Deemter, ´ and Judith Masthoff. 2007. Generating referring expressions: Making referents easy to identity. Computational Linguistics, 33:229–254. 6. Appelt, D & Kronfeld, A (1987); A computational model of referring; In Proceedings of IJCAI-1987, volume 2, pages 640–647. 7. Dale, Robert; Reiter, Ehud (2000); Building natural language generation systems. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. 8. Goldberg E, Driedger N, Kittredge R (1994). "Using Natural-Language Processing to Produce Weather Forecasts"
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EMOTIONAL STABILITY AND PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIP
Dr. K. C. Barmola Lecturer Amity Institute of Behavioural and Allied Sciences Amity University, Rajasthan
Emotional stability is a state of being able to have the appropriate feelings about the common experiences and being able to act in a rational manner. Stability refers to be stable emotionally, physically, predictable and not readily swayed. People that are emotionally stable are able to face day to day hustle-bustle and shown by not getting emotionally upset, disturb and angry. The signs of an emotional stability are calmness of mind and freedom from anxiety and depression (Hay & Ashman, 2003). A study on depression in adolescence it was found that emotional stability and depression has a negative relationship. No relation was found between parental behavioral control and depression. Furthermore, the results have shown that emotional stability did not moderate the relationship between parental behavioral control and depression (Jessen, 2013). An emotionally stable person has the attributes of emotional maturity, self-confidence, and stability in their plans and affections; these subjects look boldly ahead for facts and situations and do not give into occasional fluctuations in their mood (Pavlenko et al., 2009). Social well-being correlated positively with initial standing on extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness (Hill et al., 2012). The emotional warmth approach to professional childcare being a more holistic type of applied psychology not only enables carers to manage the problems of vulnerable young people but also builds on the potential they have to lead more fulfilling lives (Maginn and Cameron, 2013). Emotional insecurity mediated the relationship between maternal warmth and adolescent internalizing
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and externalizing problems. Higher maternal warmth was linked to greater emotional security, which in turn was linked to fewer internalizing and externalizing problems (Alegre et al., 2013). So the present study is also related in one aspect to find the emotional stability among school students. Second aspect of the current study is to know the relationship between child and parent. The parent-child relationship is one of the longest lasting social ties human beings establish, said Kira Birditt, lead author of the study and a researcher at the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research (ISR). This tie is often highly positive and supportive but it also commonly includes feelings of irritation, tension and ambivalence. Generally people perceive as warm and competent elicit uniformly positive emotions and behaviour, whereas those perceive as lacking warmth and competence elicit uniform negativity. People classified as high on one dimension and low on the other elicit predictable, ambivalent affective and behavioral reactions. These universal dimensions explain both interpersonal and intergroup social cognition (Susan et al., 2007). Negative parent-child bonds are indirectly related to low-quality partner relationships and dissatisfaction with life in adulthood (but not anxiety and depression) through conflictual parent-adolescent communication and low-quality partner relationships in young adulthood (Overbeek et al., 2007). Based on age-centered growth-to-growth curve analyses, the results indicated that children who had a higher initial status on positive emotional intensity, negative emotional intensity, and expressivity had a steeper decline in their social skills across time. These findings provide insight into the stability and association of emotion-related constructs to social competence across the elementary and middle school years (Vaughan et al., 2009). Child and family attributes (e.g., child age, disability status, and maternal education), as well as contextual factors (e.g., weekly parent home involvement) were significant predictors of these
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classification patterns, and parents' involvement in educational activities at home significantly moderated transitions among the profiles (McWayne & Bulotsky-Shearer, 2013). The relation between maternal neuroticism and overprotective parenting style increased among parents of shyer children. As well, maternal agreeableness was more strongly (negatively) associated with the use of a harsh/coercive parenting style among parents of more emotionally-deregulated children (Coplan et al., 2009). Sibling relationship quality (SRQ) and emotion regulation (ER) improved for program participants (n = 55) in comparison to those in a wait list condition (n = 40). Children participating in the program needed less parental direction to control negative emotions and refrain from directing negative actions toward others following the program. Higher levels of ER were linked with more positive SRQ at posttest. Results highlight the value of strengthening children’s emotion regulation processes as a mechanism for promoting pro-social sibling relationships (Kennedy and Kramer, 2008). Higher levels of paternal emotional stability were associated with less perceived over reactive and more positive parenting behaviors only when children were high on extraversion, benevolence, conscientiousness, emotional stability and imagination. A study demonstrated that different forms of parenting are associated with goodness-of-fit relations between parent and child personality and that these relations are different for negative and positive parenting (Peter et al., 2012). The relationships and interactions with parents and friends can serve as protective or exacerbating factors in the developmental course of social withdrawal and its concomitants including social anxiety (Rubin et al., 2010). Studies based on emotional stability and parent-child relationship in different context as discussed above inspired author to find out this relationship in context of high school students. Therefore the present study is designed to know the
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relationship between emotional stability and parent-child (cold/warmth) relationship. Objective To know the role of parent-child relationship in the development of emotional stability of students. Hypothesis There would be no significant relationship between emotional stability and parent-child relationship. METHODOLOGY Sample: Sample of the present study is consisted of 128 high school students who are selected randomly from different public schools of Haridwar and Dehradun district of Uttarakhand: India. The age range of the students is 14 to 16 years. Research Design and Data Analysis: The present study is a quantitative research to assess the relationship between emotional stability and parent-child (cold/warmth) relationship among high school students. Chi-square test is used to find the relationship between emotional stability and parent-child (cold/warmth) relationship among high school students. Tools: The following Questionnaires are administered for the present investigation:- Mental Health Scale (Bhatia and Sharma, 1998): The M.H.S. measures a total of five dimensions of the mental health of the students. It contains a total of 50 items (10 items in each dimension with some of positive and negative items). The respondents are to respond on a five point scale. In the current study author has used only emotional stability dimension. The total score ranges for the present study from 0 to 50. Its’ reliability on emotional stability dimension is 0.76 and overall reliability 0.79.
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Family Climate Scale (Beena and Shah, 1990): The complete scale is consisted of 90 items but having used only one dimension (cold/warmth relationship) in the current study it is of only 9 items. There are three choices to respond to: always, sometime and never. For negative items choices for always, sometime and never 0, 1, 2 respectively and for positive items this is reverse. The total score ranges for the current study from 0 to 18. The reliability of the used dimension is 0.77 and overall reliability coefficient of the scale is 0.76 RESULT AND DISCUSSION Findings of the currents study is presented below in 2x2 Chi- square ( 2) table. Emotional stability is shown in two levels of high and low on the other hand parent-child relationship is shown cold and warmth level. On one finding there are found 57 on high and 71 students on low level of emotional stability. In another finding there are found 19 students on cold and 109 on warmth level of parent-child relationship. Overall relationship ( 2=8.89*) is found significant. Therefore the null hypothesis of no difference between emotional stability and parent child relationship is rejected. Thus it may be estimated from the current findings that there is a significant relationship between emotional stability and parent-child relationship among high school students.
Table: Showing the Relationship between Emotional Stability and Parent-child Relationship Emotional Parent-child Relationship Total Stability Cold Warmth High 02 (8.5) 55 (48.5) 57 Low 17 (10.5) 54 (60.5) 71 Total 19 109 128 2 =8.89* (df=1, *Significant)
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So it may be estimated from the current findings that there is a significant role of parent child relationship in building emotional stability among high school students. In other words it can be said that emotional stability could be one of the good indicators of parent child relationship. Reasons behind this significant relationship could be the strong attachments between parent and child, and family climate, parenting, familial involvement and emotional security.
CONCLUSION Having found the contribution of parent-child relationship in the development of emotional stability among high school students, it can be concluded that to develop emotional stability among children there is need to have cordial partnership between child and parents. On the other hand emotional stability among parents also indicates a warm relationship between parent and child. This may play an important role in overall development of the children.
References
1. Alegre, A., Benson, M.J. and Pérez-Escoda,N. (2013) Maternal Warmth and Early Adolescents’ Internalizing Symptoms and Externalizing Behavior: Mediation Via Emotional Insecurity. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 27. 2. Coplan, R.J.,Reichel, M. and Rowan, K. (2009) Exploring the associations between maternal personality, child temperament, and parenting: A focus on emotions. Personality and Individual Differences, 46(2), 241–246. 3. Hay, I., & Ashman, A.f. (2003) The Development of Adolescents’ Emotional Stability and General Self-Concept: the interplay of parents, peers, and gender. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 50(1), 77-91. 4. Hill, P. L., Turiano, N.A., Mroczek,D.K. and Brent, W. R. (2012) Examining Concurrent and Longitudinal Relations Between Personality
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Traits and Social Well-being in Adulthood. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3(6), 698-705
5. Jessen, K.L.E. (2013) Depression in Adolescence: The Role of Emotional Stability and Parental Behavioral Control. Theses. 6. Kennedy, D. E. and Kramer, L. (2008) Improving Emotion Regulation and Sibling Relationship Quality: The More Fun with Sisters and Brothers Program. Family Relations, 57(5), 567–578. 7. Maginn, C. and Cameron, R.J.S. (2013) The Emotional Warmth Approach to Professional Childcare: Positive Psychology and Highly Vulnerable Children in Our Society. Rsearch, Applications, and Interventions for Children and Adolescents, 165-182. 8. McWayne, C. M. & Bulotsky-Shearer, R.J. (2013) Identifying Family and Classroom Practices Associated With Stability and Change of Social- Emotional Readiness for a National Sample of Low-Income Children, Research in Human Development, 10(2), 116-140.
9. Overbeek, G., Stattin, H., Vermulst, A., Ha, T. and Engels, R. (2007) Parent-child relationships, partner relationships, and emotional adjustment: A birth-to-maturity prospective study. Developmental Psychology, 43(2), 429-437. 10. Pavlenko, V.S., Chernyi, S.V., & Goubkina, D.G. (2009) EEG Correlates of Anxiety and Emotional Stability in Adult Healthy Subjects. Neurophysiology, 41(5), 400-408.
11. Peter, P., Dekovica, M., Alithe, L. V.D. A., Haana, A.D.D., Sabine, E.M.J. S., Hendriksb, A. A. J. (2012) Fathers’ personality and its interaction with children’s personality as predictors of perceived parenting behavior six years later. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(2), 183–189. 12. Rubin, K.H., Root, A.K. and Bowker, J. (2010) Parents, peers, and social withdrawal in childhood: A relationship perspective. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 127, 79–94. 13. Susan, T. F., Amy, J.C. C. and Peter, G. (2007) Universal dimensions of social cognition: Warmth and competence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(2), 77–83.
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14. Vaughan, S.J., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T., Reiser, M., Hofer, C., Zhou, Q., Liew, J. and Eggum, N. (2009) Positive and negative emotionality: Trajectories across six years and relations with social competence. Emotion, 9(1), 15-28.
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THE CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANS TO INDIAN CULTURE
K.Narasimhulu Ph.D Scholar Dept of History, Archaeology & Culture Dravidian University, KuppamChittoor District
Christianity has votaries throughout the world. The common belief among the section of the Christians in India is that the faith and entered India in the first century of the Christian era itself. Christianity was brought to India by St.Thomas the Apostle and one of the twelve disciples of Jesus Christ. Thomas landed at Malabar, near Kranganur in 53 AD. He converted several Brahmins and preached the gospel to the natives and Baptized many believers, he went to Madras after his Sojournin Kerala, where he killed and the St.Thomas mount in Madras is considered to be the place where he was interned. Christians in India have played aimportant role in contributing to theIndian culture. As India is composed of various cultural traditions, theircontribution to the Indian culture varies from one state to another. Christians and Kerala culture As Christians in Kerala have a good education and have played an activerole in public life, they have been able to contribute to its culture,mainly literature and fine arts. There is little doubt that their mostimportant achievements were in the fields of linguistics and literature. Asfar as the 18th century is worried, the credit of having started theexpansion of literature in Malayalam goes to Carmelite Vicar ApostolicAngelo Francis of St Teresa who authored a grammar book in colloquialMalayalam, supplemented by a short dictionary1, which was followed by aMalayalam-Latin dictionary. After settling down at Ambazakkad in 1662,he established a printing press and published a
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number of books in Tamil.A German Jesuit, John Ernest Hanxleden, who worked in Kerala near Trissurfor more than 30 years and died there in 1782, did outstanding work inthis area. He had a thorough knowledge of Sanskrit, Malayalam and Syriac,and is the author of a Sanskrit grammar in Latin, a Malayalam-Portuguesegrammar and a Malayalam-Sanskrit-Portuguese dictionary. Hanxleden isknown among the Malayalees as Arnos Pathiri. He wrote at least five poeticalworks, all of which were later sung by Christians. Some are still used,especially during the three days of Holy Week. Archbishop Emmanuel Carvalho Pimentel of Kodungaloor (1721-52),who was nicknamed Buddhi-Metran(brainy bishop) by his collect, had abrilliant knowledge of Malayalam and Syriac. Some of the other Jesuitswho left an impression in the same field were two Germans, B Bidcopinick(died in 1743) and J Hausegger (died in 1756). The former wrote twodictionaries (one in Malayalam and the other in Sanskrit-Portuguese).Some of the written works of Kerala Christians are also importantlandmarks, especially three of them, Malayalam manuscripts written onthree palmOlas(leaves). The first one forms a collection of sortilege; magicalformulae and medical recipes admixed with many Christian names andprayers. There is also a prayer book with many Syriac words. The lastmanuscript, which is incomplete, has a poem in honor of St Alexus writtenby Jacob Mapilla (a Syrian Catholic priest) who was a friend of Paulinus. Kollancherry of Mathew, a Syrian Christian priest, authored a prayerbook, which has morning prayers, a short catechism and prayers related tothe mysteries of Christ. According to the two Germans mentioned above,there is a versified life of David by an Orthodox priest, Joseph. Another priest,George of Parur, is the author of a poem on Job, and also of a short ballad onthe arrival of Syrian Orthodox bishops, BaseliusGregorios and Yuhanon.The work, Varthamanapustakam, is almost unique in the annals ofMalayalam literature before the 20th
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century. It is the work of Paremmakkal(1735-99), the friend of Archbishop Kariattil.2 It isa travel narrative pertaining to the years, 1773-1786; it also deals with thewhole 18th century history of St.Thomas Christians. It is excellent as itis the very first prose narrative in Malayalam. Fr Placid J Podipara CMIpublished in 1971 a fully annotated English translation. The Carmelites also introduced a school of languages at Alangad in1734 for the newly arrived Carmelite priests, thus helping them to fabricatemany books and dictionaries: a Latin–Malayalam grammar, and a shorterLatin-Malayalam-Sanskrit grammar. They also produced two dictionaries,one being a Malayalam-Sanskrit grammar and the other a Portuguese-Sanskrit grammar. In addition, they also produced a Malayalam grammarwith a small dictionary written in Sanskrit characters. There is also acollection of palm-leaf manuscripts kept at the Vatican library in whichthere is one in Malayalam, which among other items such as prayers, aconfession rite and so on, contain selected passages from the Gospels. Protestant churches such as the London Missionary Society, the Church Missionary Society and the Basel Mission Society played a very important role in Kerala. There were also considerable efforts in linguistics and lexicography. Benjamin Bailey (1805-70), Joseph Peet, Rev George Mathan (1819-70) and Rev George Koshy, played a key role in developing the Malayalam language. The most important of the missionaries was Herman Gundert (1814-93) who wrote many books in Malayalam, the most significant of which are a Malayalam English Dictionary, Keralappazhama(Kerala Antiquity) and Pazhamacholamala (A Garland of Proverbs). Bailey’s Malayalam- English Dictionary (1846) and English Malayalam Dictionary (1846) stand out. Father Gerad brought out the first work on rhetoric in Malayalam on the European model under the title AlankaraSastramin 1881.Missionaries started the first journals in Malayalam.
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Rajyasamacharam is the first in 1847, produced as eight cyclostyled sheets from a press at Ilikkikinnu near Thalassery. In Central Travancore in early 1848, Jnananiksepam, the first Malayalam magazine was printed. The first indigenous printing press was established at Mannanam in 1846, masterminded by the Blessed Chavara. In 1768, Ildephonse of the Presentation wrote a Latin narrative ofsorts on the Hinduism of his day. It is titled (in translation)Accurate Collection of All Doctrines and Secrets from the Puranas, which hasas many as 618 folios, a work of apologetics. After his return to Rome in1790, he wrote many books among which were System BrahamanichumLitugicum, published in 1791, with a German translation in 1797.3It ison Hinduism and partly on the Indian antiques he had collected and whichwere kept in the Borgia museum at Velletri near Rome. He also publishedtwo books on the history and state of Christians in India, the first calledIndia Orientalis Christiana, and the second, A Voyage to Eastern Indies. Theoriginal Italian edition came out in Rome in 1796, the German in 1798,the English in 1800 and the French in 1808. The expedition is much morethan a mere description of his journeys. It describes South India, aboveall Kerala, in detail. Hindus, Christians and Muslims are describedfrom various angles— social, religious, economic and political realitiesof the day. Christians and Karnataka culture The Jesuit, Thomas Stephens was the first Englishman in India. He wrote aseries of letters to his father, which held out ‘the strongest encouragement whichLondon merchants had been vacant to embark on Indian speculations’ whichconsequently led to the configuration of the East India Company.4He was thefirst to make a scientific study of Canarese. He also studied Hindustani, andin both these languages he published manuals of piety and grammar.The Christian Purana(1616), a long poetic work, shows that he must haveacquired a complete
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mastery of Marathi, Konkani and Sanskrit. HisArte de lingua Canarinis a grammar of the Konkani language, and it is thefirst grammar of an Indian language by a European. He also wrote a catechismof Christian doctrine, which appeared in 1622. Coorg Songs, with outlinesof the Coorg grammar by Graeter (Mangalore, 1870), and R.A Cole’sGrammar of Karnataka Language (Bangalore 1867) are later contributionsmade by Europeans to linguistic studies. Christians and Andhra Pradesh culture The Vedanta Rasayanamuis one of the four Roman Catholic Prabandams,which is a poetical work on five joyful and five sorrowful mysteries of therosary, composed by a Roman Catholic nyogiBrahmin. There is a manuscriptentitled ‘Dialogue between a Christian and a Brahmin’ found at theBibliothequeNationale, Paris. The NistaraRatnakaramu(Ocean of Salvation)was printed before 1852. The SatyavedeSarasangrathasam, as a Sanskritwork by Calmette which was translated into Telugu by a Roman Catholic Brahmin. Anilya Nitya Vivastamor difference between the temporal andthe eternal is considered to be one of the four Roman Catholic Prabandams,written both in prose and poetry by SamantapudiMallyayya for a catechistMarianna working in Kondavidu. The Vedanta Saramu(‘Essence ofTheology’) is of a higher order of writing. Veermamunivar wrote Gnanabodammu, ‘Spiritual Instruction’, in Telugu (Nellore 1753). Antony KuttyAnnaviar (1710-30), a lay colleague of Beschi, wrote AnadaPrasatamand AnuVasagam. The missionaries have contributed to the study of Telugu grammar and lexicography, including William Carey’s Grammar of Telugu Language (1819) his translation of the Bible or parts of the Bible into twenty-four Indian languages or dialects 5 and Brown’s vocabulary of Gentoo and English (1818). Some of the other contributions by the Europeans to Telugu literature include, The Prosody of the Telugu and Sanskrit Languages. The Tobias Charitra or SarveswaraMahatwamis a
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historical poemcomposed during the last quarter of the 18th century by a nyogiBrahminpoet, PingalaEllanaRayadu, at the request of ThummaAnuanduRayyappaReddy, lord of the Bastala-Kavrapadu and grandson of YelnatiRayyappaReddy, the first of his family to become a Christian. One of theRoman Catholic Prabandamsis GnanaChintamani, which belongs tothe same period, and is a poetic narrative of the Christianization of thefirst regional (Telugu) Roman Catholic, GopuReddi clan of Alamuru.Fr G L Coeurdoux (who died in 1779), is the author of a Telugu-Sanskrit-French Dictionary, and a French-Telugu-Sanskrit and Telugu-FrenchDictionary, with greater emphasis on colloquial language. FrPerre de laLane (died in 1746) wrote in 1729 a Telugu grammar and also a Telugudictionary entitled Amara Sinham.6 Christians and the culture of other areas Henry Martin translated the New Testament into Hindi and Persian, revisedan Arab version of the New Testament and translated the Psalter into Persianand the Prayer Book into Hindi. He came to India in 1806 as a chaplainand left India for Persia in 1811 and died at Tokat in 18127. English Dictionaryby A Manner (Mangalore 1886), Extensive Vocabulary English andHindoostaneeby John E Gilchrist (1798) and Dictionary of Hindi and Englishby J T Thompson (1862) are further missionary contributions. As a resultof the efforts of Serampore Mission, the first Hindi periodical Digdarshanappeared in 1810, and Herman Mongliv of the Basel Mission publishedthe first newspaper available in the Kannada language. Illustrations ofGrammatical Parts Guzeratte, Maratta and English Language (1808) byRober Drummond, William Carey’s, Grammar of the Maharatta Language(1810), Vans Kennedy’s, A Dictionary of MarattaLanguage (1824),Rev Amos Sutton’s, Introductory Grammar of Oriya Language (1831) andhis Oriya Dictionary–3 volumes (1841), William Carey’s, A Grammar ofPunjabee Language (1812) and Samuel Starkey’s, A
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Dictionary of EnglishPunjabee(1849) are also examples of missionaries’ contribution to thelanguages in India.Robert Caldwell is considered to be the first linguistwho made a comparative research on the Dravidian languages;The Comparative Grammar of Dravidian Language was his masterpiece, whichwas published in the middle of the 19th century. No one can deny that the missionaries had a strong aspiration to serve thepeople of the country. They also brought to the local people anintellect ofpleasure in their own languages, using the simple style of the common man asa means of communicating new thoughts. The printing press, no doubt, madebooks cheaper and made it possible to take literature to the masses.8
ART AND ARCHITECTURE Nowhere in the world is there any fully local or indigenous art orarchitecture. Such is the case with the church art and architecture ofIndia. To a certain extent all nations and cultures that came into contactwith India have influenced the process. This process falls into certainspecific periods in history. For convenience it can be condensed into three: first, the pre-European period; second, the17th to the 18th centuries;and third, the modern period. Christians and Kerala art and architecture Kerala, located on the west coast of India, was at the centre of theinternational highway of seaborne trade. It was a meeting point of manyworlds from early times. The discovery of monsoon trade routes of Hippalusin the first century A.D connected Muzuris (Cranganore) directly acrossthe Arabian Sea with cities to the West (especially Alexandria and Aden).The western coastal route gave the ships ready access to the Indus andcountries to the north and north-west in Asia and Europe.Kerala was also influenced much more by the trans- Arabian Sea visitorsthan her immediate neighbors. Christian art and architecture in Keralawere greatly prejudiced by the influx of Vascodi
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Gama in 1498 and visitorsfrom Portugal, the Netherlands, France and England. The pre-Europeanperiod of Christian art and architecture must have developed through theinfluence of two sources: first, indigenous forms and techniques of art andarchitecture that previously existed in the land; and second, sustenancereceived perhaps from countries in the Near East including Greece,Rome, Egypt and other Middle East countries through missionaries andtraders. One can see a pleasant blending of East and West in Christianart and architecture. There are two accounts of church and church building activities ofChristians of Kerala at the end of the 16th century. There is, first, anaccount by Joseph the Indian and letters written by four bishops in 1504;and, second, there are documents of the Synod of Diamper in Malayalamfound in many Kerala churches, in Portuguese in the work of Goa,and in English in the work of Geddes.9 In the first, it seems thatVascodi Gama mistook a Hindu temple for a church and he veneratedthe idol of Bhaghavai mistakenly as an image of the Blessed Virgin Mary.This clearly illustrates the similarity between Hindu temples and Christianchurches. Soon after, four East Asian bishops ‘were received by the faithfulwith great joy and they [the Christians of Kerala]went to meet them withjoy, carrying before them the book of the Gospel, the cross, censers, andtorches… And they [the bishops] consecrated them’.10 In the second,The ‘Journada’ of the Synod of Diamper throws light on the structuresand preparations of the churches visited by Archbishop Menezes. Thesechurches and all their belongings were the property of the local worshippersof each church and they were built entirely by the independent parishes.Almost all the churches had very similar structures to each other bothinside and outside. To meet the rations of Christian’s liturgical celebrations according to the east-Syrian rites, the native craftsmen have drawn stimulation from the architecture and decorations of the Hindu
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temples. Hence, the churches looked approximately the same as the temples except for the crosses placed on the church roofs. Built in stone and roofed with tiles, the churches were strong edifices; they were decorated with wood or stone reliefs of flowers, birds, Biblical stories, historical events etc. A few churches have pictures or icons, but none of them has statues. A gold or silver cross was placed over the altar and a decorated Bible also.Now only a few residues of the old structures can be seen at Tiruvancodu, Kundara, Kalluppara, Chengannur, Mailacombu, Kothamangalam and other places. The rebuilt churches, however, are a merge of the western and Indian architecture, for native artisans sustained to use the native art forms in executing the wood works of the porches, balconies, gateways, or the granite motifs on the pedestals of the open air crosses, on the baptismal fonts, etc.11 The typical early Malabar Church had certain conspicuous objects ofimplication in frontage, inside the courtyard or just outside it. One was open-air rock cross, sometimes called ‘Nazraneysthamba’, seen atKaduthurthy, Kuravilangad, Kanjoor and Ollur churches. A second one isa Kodimaram, or flag staff, made of famous Kerala teak wood as at Parur,and often enclosed in copper hoses or parasas at Changanacherry, Pulikunnuor Chambakulam. A third one is the rock Deepa-sthamba, or lamp stand, asat Kallooppara, Kundara and Chenganur churches. One notices a variety of sthambaor pillars in other religious structuresas among the Buddhists, Jains and Hindus. These pillars were part of theChristian heritage of Kerala well before the pre- eminence of Vedic Hinduism.The rock cross of Malabar churches is frequentlyreduction tall stone column,sometimes decorated. Rome, London, Paris and New York have many obelisksfrom Egypt and East, but have no original cross-bearing structures decoratingpiazzas and squares. The Asoka Pillar and other pillars were inclined byGraeco- Parthian style, under Parsi influence. The Nazraneysthambais adirect
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successor of the obelisk and much closer to it than the other Indianpillars—in shape, method of structure and transportation, method oferection and so on. These obelisk crosses continued to be erected mostly infront of churches, even after the establishment of western churches, althougha few changes in the motifs on the pedestals can be noticed. These crosseswere typically found in Portuguese colonies in India and elsewhere. The native architecture of Kerala churches is hugely rich inproportion and beauty because the open-air rock crosses (some more thanthirty feet in height) include the fundamentally carved pedestals and monumentalshafts. It is to be noted that no other community in Kerala has such enormousmonumental structures. Furthermore, the indoor counterparts of thesecrosses, called ‘Pallavi’ or St.Thomas crosses, have the earliest carvings inKerala of the national flower, lotus, and the national bird, the peacock; andsometimes the national animal, tiger, is depicted in Kerala art in churchsculptures. Even the Vedic Hindu Vigrahasappear in Kerala much laterthan these so-called Persian crosses. A closer examination of the supremeBAL, sacrifice, or Mahabali appearing on the Balikkalluor the sacrificialaltar is asuitabledemonstration of the Calvary events. Perhaps itsheds light on the ideological mindset of the forefathers. Preservation of fireand oil- marchers are linked to these crosses. The typical old Kerala church has a special roofing pattern, a three tiered gabled wooden roofing pattern. The highest roof is for the Madhbaha or Sanctum Sanctorum and the lowest for the Mukhamandapamor portico with the nave or Hykalahaving a roof of middle height. The flagstaffs, the rock lamp stands, the baptismal fonts, and the three tiered roofing pattern, and the appearance of the inside of the churches have undergone radical changes after the arrival of the Westerners, especially the Portuguese.
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The granite lamp stand or deepastambaat churches in Kalloopara,Kundara and Chenganoor are of great antiquity. Displays of rows of rocklamps, and the traditional bronze lamps (some even with hundreds of wickholders) like the AayiramAalilalamps at Arthat or Angamaly speak well ofthe architecture of the churches. In front of the churches there is a thirdinteresting object, the flagstaff. Every festival is ushered in with the kodiyettuor flag hoisting, a tradition which goes back to early Buddhist times at least. Madubaha is the refuge or Sanctum Sanctorum of the Syrian Christian churches. It resembles in many ways the garbagriha of the Hindu temples. Roofs (melkkuura), beams, ceilings, walls, windows, doors, pillars, columns etc., are made of wood well decorated, carved and bowedcreatively. The beams are decorated with floral and animal carving as well as the carvings of the images of angels. A particular carved out elephant head with its stem and tusks is used to support a beam in the churches of Trichur area. The columns made out of stones are generally circular and do not bear much similarity to the Greek architecture. They resemble more the Tuscan type, if at all they look like any other types. Church architecture is sternly based on the liturgy. Hence liturgical architecture includes different faces of faith and worship namely baptism fonts, altars, pulpits etc.12 With the arrival of the Portuguese the elaborate monumentality of theEuropean churches came on to the scene and was introduced into the smalltemple-like Syrian Christian churches, which did not have windows. Thenthe Romano-Portuguese style was introduced. The local artists learned itsfinesse and assimilated it and created some of the finest pieces of artistry inthe NazraneySchool. One can see diverse art traditions (both Western andEastern) superimposed one over the other, such as the Indian symbols likestone lamps, flag masts, stone crosses, arched entrances and so on, untouchedby foreign hands and co-existing
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with Renaissance frescoes, and the Baroqueart of Europe in the same churches. Some other changes since the arrival of Western Christianity arepaintings and sculptures on a large scale, imposing altar pieces or reredos,rostra or pulpits, statues of different types and sizes, huge bells and belfries,frescoes, paintings on wood panels and cloth, among others. The Portugueseput up facades between the portico and the nave in order to impart a‘Christian’ (a non-Hindu) exterior to the churches. It is to be notedthat the mural paintings depicted on the walls of the Kerala churches maybe older than the well-known Mughal and Rajput paintings. Someinteresting murals, using only pigments extracted from natural objects likeleaves and laterite stones, are to be seen in the churches at Angamaly,Akaraparambu, Paliekkara, and Cheppad. The early paintings andiconography of Kerala churches strictly follow the concepts of Indian sagesand craftsmen in these matters. Ancient wooden panels are seen at Piravaom,Kottayam, Changanacherry and Ollur churches. There are also churches inKerala which adhere more or less to one or other of the classical Christianarchitectural styles like the Basilican, Romanesque, Byzantine, Gothi,Baroque and Rococco. But the churches built in the 20th century arecombinations of various styles, both Eastern and Western. The devices of Kerala churches remain basically Indian, but are partial by western styles. So most of the churches were rebuilt and the Persian, antiochean and western forms of architecture crept into the Christian architecture during different periods. Architecture of the Latin Christians shows the relevant features of Gothic and Roman art forms. Christian art and architecture outside Kerala Two different patterns of Christian art have emerged since the Portugueseascendancy in India, one within the areas of Portuguese influence, mostlyalong the coasts of the Peninsula and the other at the
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Moghul court in thenorth. The Christian art of Goa reached its climax in church building. Thechurches were highly decorated expressing the Baroque ideal of makingvisible here on earth the heavenly durbar (centered round the Eucharisticpresence of Christ among the people). But European Baroque in the handsof Indian artisans and craftsmen developed its own repertoire of skills, stylesand motif and produced anexceptional locally developed style evocative ofthe Hindu temple and its companion lamp tower. By the end of the 16thcentury Goa is compared to Lisbon and was termed ‘the Rome of the East’.Something quite different happened in northern India at the court ofAkbar (1556- 1605). The Jesuits wanted to establish great influence at thecultural and intellectual level, and they made good use of paintings andengravings, which were easily available and transportable. Akbar was veryappreciative of their artistic qualities and the religious content and he orderedhis court painters to copy the new art. This continued even when the secularpictures reached India through officials of the East India Company. With the arrival of Protestant missionaries pioneered by William Carey,there was a stress on literature (the Bible) and education. They did notshow interest in music, drama, feasts and festivals. Their church buildingsshowed the influence of their country of origin. There were more creativeattempts during this modern period than ever before. Both groups ofpainters (non-Christian and Christian) expressed their search and insightsin relation to Indian traditions. While the non-Christian painters expressedtheir search and insights in relation to the person of Christ, the Christianpainters interpreted Christ through the means of Indian traditions.Nandalal Bose studied under Rabindranath Tagore and he exercised greatinfluence on the Bengal School. Christian painters like Angaelo da Fonsecaand Vinayak S Masoji studied under them. One of the recurring themes ofNandalal Bose’s Christian paintings is the cross. For several years, JaminiRoy
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chose Christ as the main theme of his paintings. K C S Paniker carriedon the spirit of India in a modern form, and during recent times severalChristian artists have come forward to express their Christian faith throughthe medium and form of Indian art.13 There is no one style of temples architecture; styles vary from region to region or even from state to state. A particular contrast in temple styles is to be found between Tamilnadu and Kerala. There are also differences between towns and villages, sometime of scale, but also of style. Village temples often evoke the memory of survival of a different religious culture prior to what is present day Brahmanical Hinduism, which is rustic, folksy and loci.14
References
1. E R Hambye, History of Christianity in India, Vol III, 18th century, p 94 2. ibid. p 98 3. ibid. p.98 4. Catholic Encyclopedia 5. Santosh Thomas, Christianity and Culture, New Delhi, 2005, p.170 6. Catholic Encyclopedia.p.341 7. Santosh Thomas, Opp.cit. Pp.169-170 8. Jacob Punnose, Indian Christian Directory, 2006, p 84. 9. ICD (Indian Christian Directory), 2006, p 66. 10. Ibid.p.66 11. Dravidian encyclopaedia, Vol.II, Kerala, 1993, pp.158-159 12. Ibid, p.159 13. George Menacherry, Indian Christian Directory, p 70. For a longer treatment of the subject and many references on ‘Christian Influence in Indian Art’ George enacherry, in Christian Contribution to Nation Building, CBCI, KCBC, 2003. 14. Pauly ManiYattu, Heaven on earth: the theology of Liturgical space time in the east Syrian qurbana, Rome, 1995, pp.307-308
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IMPACT OF EDUCATION IN WOMEN EMPOWERMENT – A STUDY OF SCHEDULED TRIBE WOMEN IN ARUKU MANDAL OF VISAKHAPATNAM DISTRICT S.Bhagyam Research Scholar Department of Economics Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Introduction
Women constitute almost half the human race. Education has been recognized as an essential agent of social change and development in any society of any country. Education is considered as a potent instrument through which processes modernization and social change come to existence. Education exposes people to new thoughts and ideas and provides necessary skills. Hence to think harmonious development without educating women is impossibility. More over it has been rightly said that to educate a woman is to educate the whole family. Therefore, the emphasis with regard to women education should be to equip her multiple role as citizens, housewives, mother, contributor to family income, builders of new society and builder of the nation. In this study, researcher wants to discuss impact of education in women empowerment among the Scheduled Tribe community women of Aruku mandal of Visakhapatnam district. However, tribal women face problems and challenges in getting a sustainable livelihood and a decent life due to environmental degradation and the interference of outsiders. The strategy for tribal development, and specially women, needs improvement, betterment, development and upliftment to effect their empowerment. Tribal women have adjusted themselves to live a traditional life style in the local environment and follow occupations based on natural resources. Undoubtedly, the programmes, oriented towards the empowerment of
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tribals, particularly women, have improved their socio-economic conditions and status. However, there are wide variations across regions and tribes in terms of work participation, sex ratio, economic productivity and social life. The impact of development planning needs to be evaluated in terms of desired and unanticipated consequences. The development process should be perceived as an involvement and reorganization mechanism of not only the socio-economic system but the entire eco-system. Against this backdrop, the present paper reviews the emerging perspective in the context of the socio-economic empowerment of tribal women and changing paradigms of development. Status of Women in India In previous times, the status of women in India was inferior than men in the practical life. However, they had a higher status in scriptures. They are considered as the perfect home maker in the world. With their incomparable quality of calmness of their mind, they can easily handle even toughest situation. Indian women are completely devoted to their families. They’re preached in the names of Goddess Saraswati, Goddess Durga, Parvati & Goddess Kali. Their condition remains unchanged even during the modern times with only little changes. In India, women were never given any right of liberty & equality. Their condition becomes even worse when they gave birth to girls. Men treated them in a humiliated manner. They were not only permitted not to step outside their house but also abstained from being educated. They were also supposed to eat after their husbands or even sometimes to eat their husband’s leftovers. Women were prohibited from prohibited from taking external matters as well as domestic matters. They were under the influence of their parents before marriage & their husband after marriage. However, their status varied a lot depending on the period which they were living us illustrated
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below: Women status in the ancient India It’s said during the ancient India, women enjoyed equivalent status & rights like their males counterparts. In addition they were properly educated in the early Vedic period. These references are available from the works of Grammarians such as Katyayana and Patanjali. Women also had the freedom to select their husbands. This system was known as ‘Swayamvar.’ In fact during this time, women had superior position than the males. Women status in medieval India The status of women in India deteriorated during the medieval period with the entrance of the Muslims. Several evil practices such as female infanticide, sati and child marriage were practiced during this period. ‘Purdah’ was introduced to the society. Women were also forced to practice ‘zenana.’ Polygamy was also common during this period. Women also excelled in literature, music and arts. They were also rulers during this period. Some great-women rulers were Razia Sultana who was the only women-monarch to-rule-the throne of Delhi, Nur Jahan, Gond queen Durgavati who ruled for fifteen years before she was defeated in a battle by Ali emperor Akbar’s. Nur Jahan is still considered as the most effective ruler by the society. In spite of these powerful women, the condition of poor women remained the same. At this time girl were forced to get married at a very tender age. The society also practiced Sati where women were forced to jump over the burning bodies of their husbands during funerals. The southern India also practiced Devdasi tradition where girls were forced get married to trees or deity. Women status in modern India During this time there was a little development in the women status. There were many women reformers in India who worked for the uplift & betterment of their female counterparts. The begun of Bhopal
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discarded the ‘purdah’ & fought in the revolt of 1857. Their education was elevated and English was introduced during this period. Various female writers emerged in the society. In the modern time, women in India were given freedom & right such as freedom of expression & equality as well as the right to be educated. Various prestigious positions at this period were held by women. They’re enjoying the ‘ladies first’ facility in different fields. However, some problems such as dowry, domestic violence, sex selective abortion, female infanticide are still prevalent. Preventive measures need to be taken to ensure that women are empowered in India.
The sources of women empowerment Social empowerment Women are educated about the social benefits including awareness about the existing social problems in the society, good recognition & image in the family & community, role in making important decision in their family, plan & promote better education for their children, taking care of health of the aged and the children just to mention a few. Women are also allowed to participate in political and public life. Therefore, they are given a chance to serve the community including fighting for the basics amenities & welfare needs of the village community such as:
Safe drinking water Public sanitation Street light Chance to help the weaker people like disable and the aged Education and women empowering Most women are given a chance of finishing their education to the degree level. They are discouraged from getting married and raising a family when they are young. There are number of women education grants that offer help to women from poor background in order to give
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them a chance to be educated. There’re various scholarships that benefits women in India to achieve their career by going back to school or various training institutions where they can further their education. Also, many NGO‘s in India offer support to women in order to benefit them in education. The government of India is also setting aside funds that are used to empower women & other initiatives that will empower them. Women who have the desire to improve their lives are allowed to take these grants from the government and NGO’s to empower themselves with the help of their spouses or without for single mothers to get education to the degree level, post graduates, PHD just to mention a few. These grants for women get most supports from different companies after realizing that women can perform better than men if they are well educated and equipped. Empowering women in business The government of India set aside some reasonable amount of money which women who have business ideas can borrow in order to start businesses. Women are encouraged to start small business in order to have their own source of income thus they become independent. Various non-governmental organizations also offer financial support to women in India and encourage and teach them how they can be making their own money by starting various business activities. The status of the women in India has greatly improved and there are many women who are holding high position in the government offices. This has proved that women can be even better than men if they are given an opportunity. Women are given equal opportunity like their male counterparts by the government. Significance However, tribal women face problems and challenges in getting a sustainable livelihood and a decent life due to environmental
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degradation and the interference of outsiders. The strategy for tribal development, and specially women, needs improvement, betterment, development and upliftment to effect their empowerment. Tribal women have adjusted themselves to live a traditional life style in the local environment and follow occupations based on natural resources. Undoubtedly, the programmes, oriented towards the empowerment of tribals, particularly women, have improved their socio-economic conditions and status. However, there are wide variations across regions and tribes in terms of work participation, sex ratio, economic productivity and social life. The impact of development planning needs to be evaluated in terms of desired and unanticipated consequences. The development process should be perceived as an involvement and reorganization mechanism of not only the socio-economic system but the entire eco-system. Against this backdrop, the present paper projects on the emerging perspective in the context of the educational impact on empowerment and other economical factors of tribal women. Methodology In order to fight against the socially constructed limits, the tribal women have to swim against the system that requires more strength. Such strength comes from the process of empowerment and empowerment will come from the education. Therefore, this paper expose on impact of education on women empowerment that aims to find out the effect of education on scheduled tribe women in tribal area of Aruku mandal in Visakhapatnam district. This study tries to find out the status of tribal women in present society, women education and its impact on economic factors associate with women empowerment in the scheduled tribe communities of tribal society. Data analysis and discussion For this paper the author has collected information from the tribal women of the study area about economical factors like working status, income levels, savings, debts, and economical activities along
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with educational status with the help of a self designed questionnaire. The following tables analyses how different education level women distributed in various groups of economical variables. Table-1: Educational and working status of tribal women in study area Higher Working status Primary Secondary Secondary Agricultural workers 45(73.8) 22(38.0) 33(40.8) Non-agricultural 16(26.2) 36(62.0) 48(59.2) workers Total 61 (100.0) 58 (100.0) 81 (100.0) Chi-square value – 19.94**; df-2; Table value-9.21 The working status and educational levels of tribal women in the study area shows that out of the total respondents who are with primary level of education, more than seventy percent are agricultural workers and just above one-fourth are in non-agricultural activities. Among the women respondents who are educated up to secondary level more than sixty percent are in non-agricultural activities and below forty percent are agricultural workers. On the other hand, from the total women respondents who are educated above secondary level, nearly sixty percent are non-agricultural workers and just above forty percent are agricultural workers. Hence, the calculated chi-square value is 19.95 is significant at 1% level because it is more than table value (9.91). The analysis infers that there is a significant difference in the distribution of sample women where majority group of higher educated women are in non-agricultural activities, while nearly three- fourth of the women in agricultural activities are studied up to primary level education.
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Table-2: Educational status and income levels of tribal women in study area Income per Higher Primary Secondary month Secondary Less than 26(42.6) 11(19.0) 19(23.5) Rs.500 Rs.500 – 14(23.0) 18(31.0) 25(30.9) Rs.1000 Rs.1000-Rs.1500 18(29.5) 21(36.2) 27(33.3) Above Rs.1500 3(4.9) 8(13.8) 10(12.3) Total 61(100.0) 58 (100.0) 81 (100.0) Chi-square value – 10.98; df-6; Table value-12.6 The distribution of sample women respondents by their level of education and income levels shows that from the total women who are with primary level of education, more than forty percent are earning less than Rs.500, less than one-fourth are earning between Rs.500 – Rs.1000, just below thirty percent are earning Rs.1000 – Rs.1500 and below five percent are earning above Rs.1500 per month. Among the total respondents of secondary level educated women, 19.0 percent are earning less than Rs.500, 31.0 percent are earning between Rs.500 – Rs.1000, above one-third are earning Rs.1000 – Rs.1500 and 3.8 percent are earning above Rs.1500 per month. But from the total respondents of higher secondary level educated women 23.5 percent are earning less than Rs.500, 30.9 percent are earning between Rs.500 – Rs.1000, one- third are earning Rs.1000 – Rs.1500 and above ten percent are earning above Rs.1500 per month. Hence the calculated chi-square value of the above table distribution is 10.98 is not significant because it is less than the table value (12.6). Therefore, the analysis reveals that the higher educated women are earning more income than the lower educated
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women.
Educational status and savings of tribal women in study area Higher Yearly savings Primary Secondary secondary Nil 21(34.4) 15(25.9) 5(6.2) Less than Rs.1000 19(31.2) 22(37.9) 28(34.5) Rs.1000-Rs3000 15(24.6) 17(29.3) 34(42.0) Above Rs.3000 6(9.8) 4(6.9) 14(17.3) Total 61 (100.0) 58 (100.0) 81 (100.0) Chi-square value – 22.0**; df-6; Table value-16.8 The distribution of sample women respondents by their level of education and savings shows that from the total women who are with primary level of education, more than thirty percent have no savings, 31.2 percent are saving less than Rs.1000, just below one-fourth are saving Rs.1000 – Rs.3000 and below ten percent are saving above Rs.3000 per annum. Among the total respondents of secondary level educated women, 25.9 percent have no savings, more than one-third are saving less than Rs.1000, just below thirty percent are saving between Rs.1000 – Rs.3000 and 6.9 percent are saving above Rs.3000 per year. But from the total respondents of higher secondary level educated women 6.2 percent have not savings, above one-third are saving less than Rs.1000, above forty percent are saving between Rs.1000 – Rs.3000 and 17.3 percent are saving above Rs.3000 per annum. Hence the calculated chi-square value of the above table distribution is 22.0 is significant at 1% level because it is more than the table value (16.8). Therefore, the analysis reveals that the higher educated women are having more savings than the lower educated women.
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Educational and occupational status of tribal women in study area Higher Occupational status Primary Secondary secondary Agriculture labour 25(41.0) 21(36.2) 20(24.7) Contract labour 21(34.4) 18(31.0) 35(43.2) Self employee 15(24.6) 19(32.8) 26(32.0) Total 61 (100.0) 58 (100.0) 81 (100.0) Chi-square value – 5.43; df-4; Table value-9.49 The distribution of sample women respondents by their level of education and occupational status presents in the above table that from the total women who are with primary level of education, more than forty percent are agricultural labours, above one-third are contract labours and nearly one-fourth are self employed women. Among the total respondents of secondary level educated women, more than one- third are agricultural labours, 31.0 percent are contract labours and nearly one-third are self employees. Whereas, from the total respondents of higher secondary level educated women nearly one- fourth are agricultural labours, more than forty percent are contract labours and above thirty percent are self employed women. With the above distribution the calculated chi-square value is 5.43 found not significant because it is less than the table value (9.49). Therefore, the analysis reveals that there is no much difference in the selection of occupation by the women based on their education levels. Major findings 1. The data reveals that there is a significant difference in the distribution of sample women where majority group of higher educated women are in non-agricultural activities, while nearly three-fourth of the women in agricultural activities are studied up to primary level education.
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2. The distribution of education levels and income levels of the sample women indicates that the higher educated women are earning more income than the lower educated women. 3. The savings and education levels of sample women shows that the distribution indicates significant because the higher educated women are having more savings than the lower educated women. 4. The data and the distribution of the sample women reveal that there is no much difference in the selection of occupation by the women based on their education levels. Conclusion Tribal women play a major role in the co-management of their natural, social, economic resources and agricultural development including crop production, livestock production, horticulture and post harvest operations but they remain backward due to traditional values, illiteracy, superstitions, dominant roles in decision making, social evils and many other cultural factors. The participatory role of tribals in improving their living conditions by fully exploring natural endowments and alternative uses must find an appropriate place in the strategic approach. The social dynamics of tribal welfare and development is such that effective strategies to protect tribals and their livelihood imply negotiating some kind of social consensus about criteria concerning tribal development and values of the society that evolves from such programmes. This also implies a broad social consensus about the basic rights and opportunities that tribals should enjoy and the responsibilities that should be taken by different individual and social groups. References 1. Bhasim, Veena (2007), “Status of Tribal Women in India”, Stud. Home comm. Sci. Vol. 1, NO. 1, pp. 1-16. 2. Chakarvarti, Sumi and et al. (2007), “Tribal Welfare and Development in India: Past, Present and Strategies with Special Reference to
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Agriculture and Forestry”, Kurukshetra, Vol. 56, No. 1, November, pp. 33-39. 3. Chakarvarty, B. (2008), “Traditional and Modern Health care Services in Tribal Areas: Problems of Accessibility, Affordability and Acceptability, Kurukshetra, January, pp. 37-41. 4. Dashora, Rakesh and Sharma, Anushree (2002), “Role of Tribal Women in Agriculture: A Study of TSP Region of Rajasthan”, The Indian Journal of Commerce, Vol. 55, No. 4, October-December, pp. 63-71. 5. Mohanty, S. and et al. (1998), “Elected Women’s Representatives to the Village Panchayats”, in Tribal Development : Options (ed.) Samal, P.K., Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital. 6. Mukhopadhyay, Lipi (2002), “Tribal Women in Development”, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi. 7. Panda, Nishakar (2006), “Tribal Development: Imperatives and Compulsions”, Orissa Review, December, pp. 37-42. 8. Pandey, G.S. (1998), “Environment and Development” in Tribal Development: Options (ed.), Samal, P.K. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital. 9. Sharma, S.P. and Mittal, A.C. 91998), The Tribal Women in India, Vol. 2, Radha Publications, New Delhi. 10. Singh, S.K. and Singh, A.K. (2006), “Sustainable Development and Tribal women”, in Land and Forest Rights of the Tribals Today (ed.) Sarkar, R.M., Serials Publications, New Delhi, pp. 168-181. 11. Sinha, Archana (2006), “Economic Empowerment and Amelioration of Tribals in India”, Kurukshetra, Vol. 54, No. 9, July, pp. 3-13. 12. Waghmare, S.K. and Choudhary, N.V. (1989), Tribal Women in Agriculture, Metropolitan, New Delhi.
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WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF KOLLERU LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH
Ravi Kumar Katiki Prof. G. V. NarasimhaRao Research Scholar Department of Geography Department of Geography Andhra University Visakhapatnam Andhra University Visakhapatnam Vasudeva Rao Department of Geo-Engineering Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
INTRODUCTION Water is a precious and the most widely distributed natural resource of the earth. It gets annual replenishment from the atmospheric precipitation. 70 percent of the earth’s surface is covered with water (Gleick, 1993). Sources of surface water and ground water have become increasingly contaminated due to increased industrial and agricultural activities. The requirement of water in a developing country like India, where more than 90% of rural and nearly 30% of urban population depend on water for meeting their drinking and domestic requirements. Pollution is one of the most blazingproblems before the mankind. It causes damages to the human beings on the one hand and his property on the other by producing various kinds of pollutants resulting in various types of diseases and deterioration in the quality of the life(Trivedi, 2004). Nature is always positive and helpful to man even it is being polluted. Pollution is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristic of air, water and soil that have harmful effect on the life or create a potential health hazard of any living organisms (Freedman, Bill, 1989). The Indian fresh water ecosystems like, Kolleru Lake was under constant threat and the existing natural balance of ecosystem is degraded due to pollutants (Ramskrishnan 1988) (Dinges, Ray, 1982).
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The major type of pollutants includesdomestic sewage, infectious agents, plant nutrients, organic chemicals, insecticides, pesticides, detergents and petrochemicals, minerals, chemicals residues, salts, acid salts and sludge, sediments from land erosion, and heat from power and industrial plants.The public requires water that is low in hardness and total solids, non-corrosive and non-scale-forming. To provide such water, chemists, biologists and engineers must put their efforts together.Present paper is an attempt to analyse the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of KolleruLake, it’s in flows through surrounding drains which influences the water quality by prevailing environmental conditions (Singh D.N, 2000) (Sonal T &Kataria HC, 2012)..The physico-chemical environment of surface water functions in many ways and influences the biotic components. It gives a picture of environmental suitability of water for maintaining normal life(Ganpati, S.V, 1977),. Therefore, knowledge on physico-chemical characteristics of water is essential for proper utilization. STUDY AREA The study area spread across mostly in West Godavari district and
o o partly in Krishna district. It lies in the 16 30 – 16 45 N Latitude and o o 81 05 - 81 20 E Longitude as shown in Figure 1. Kolleru Lake is surrounded by 9 mandals, comes under West Godavari district, and the remaining two under Krishna district. The seven mandals falling in the West Godavari district are Unguturu, Bhimadole, Pedapadu, Eluru, Dendalru, Nidamarru and Akividu. The mandals under Krishna district are Mandavalli andKaikalur. The administrative map of the study area is shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 1: Location Map of Study area with Administrative regions MATERIALS AND METHODS Surface water samples were collected in one litre plastic bottles from 6 sampling sitesin the study area (Kumar, S.M. &Ravindranath, 1998) (R.K. Trivedy& P.K. Goel, 1986) as shown in the Figure 2.
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Figure2: Map showing the water sample collection points in the study area. S1- Water sample at wooden bridge, S2- Water sample at Agadallanka, S3- Water sample at Mondikodu, S4- Water sample at PeddaAtlagada Bridge, S5- Water sample at PenumakaLanka, S6- Water sample at Polraju Drain. Kolleru was almost dry during non-monsoon period; hence the samples were collected duringPremonsoon season i.e.in the month of May 2012 and Post monsoon season i.e. in the month of November 2013 and analysed for the properties namely pH, Colour, Total alkalinity, Salinity, Total hardness, Turbidity, Calcium as Ca2+,Magnesium as Mg2+,Ammonia as NH3,Sulphide as H2S,Nitrate as NO3-, Phosphates, Sulphates, Chlorides as Cl-, Iron as Fe, TDS, COD, and BOD. These results have been tabulated in Tables from 1-3 respectively.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1: Waterquality of Kolleru water at Wooden Bridge and Agadallanka S. PARAMETER REQUIRNEM WOODEN AAGADAL N ENT BRIDGE-S1 ANKA-S2 O 2012 2013 2012 2013 1 PH 6 to 8.5 6.3 5.3 6.2 5.7 2 Colour <5 H.UNITS 6.7 7.8 6.1 7.2 3 Total alkalinity <200 189 234 187 223 4 Salinity 0.2-6.9 Ppt 5.3 6.1 2.3 3.1 5 Total hardness <300 292 314 281 309 6 Turbidity <10 NTU 9.4 12.5 9.8 12.3 7 Calcium as Ca2+ 75 68 72 71 76 8 Magnesium as Mg2+ 30 26.7 29.4 27.5 30.5
9 Ammonia as NH3 5.0 3.9 4.8 4.3 4.8
10 Sulphide as H2S 2.0 1.2 1.7 1.7 1.8 - 11 Nitrate as NO3 45 23.4 31.3 24.8 32 12 Phosphates 5.0 1.01 2.9 1.04 2.8 13 Sulphates 150 61.3 94.8 89 114 14 Chlorides as Cl- 250 168 197 175 211 15 Iron as Fe <0.3 0.17 0.23 0.09 0.15 16 TDS 500 323 492 354 489 17 COD 250 145 191 156 192 18 BOD 30 36.4 40.3 31.3 39.7
Table 1 shows the water quality levels of KolleruLake at sampling locations namely wooden bridge and Agadallanka. The analysis indicates that pH values decreased during 2013 period from its permissible levels. Colour of the water increased. There was increase in Total alkalinity, hardness, turbidity, Calcium, Magnesium. However, Salinity, Ammonia, Sulphide, Nitrate, Phosphate, Sulphate, Chloride,
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TDS, COD and Iron were at their permissible limits WHO, 1971) (BIS, 1991). Table 2: Waterquality of Kolleru water at Mondikodu and PeddaAtlagada Bridge S. PARAMETER REQUIRNE MONDIKOD PEDDA NO MENT U -S3 ATLAGADA- S4 2012 2013 2012 2013 1 PH 6 to 8.5 6.1 5.9 6.6 5.1 2 Colour <5 H.UNITS 5.4 7.8 5.9 7.5 3 Total alkalinity <200 189 229 184 235 4 Salinity 0.2-6.9 Ppt 2.1 3.4 1.9 3.8 5 Total hardness <300 223 281 215 276 6 Turbidity <10 NTU 6.3 9.1 6.9 8.9 7 Calcium as Ca2+ 75 66 62 64 68 8 Magnesium as Mg2+ 30 27.3 28 21.2 29.4
9 Ammonia as NH3 5.0 4.5 4.1 3.9 4.8
10 Sulphide as H2S 2.0 1.4 1.9 1.4 1.8 - 11 Nitrate as NO3 45 28 32.3 23.3 36 12 Phosphates 5.0 1.05 3.1 1.1 2.96 13 Sulphates 150 79 95 77 115 14 Chlorides as Cl- 250 224 243 204 246 15 Iron as Fe <0.3 0.09 0.28 0.11 0.14 16 TDS 500 481 515 495 523 17 COD 250 157 191 146 195 18 BOD 30 32.1 41.4 33.4 37.8
Table 2 shows the water quality levels at Mondikodu and PeddaAtlagadaBridgeof Kolleru. The analysis indicates decrease in pH during 2013 when compared to 2012; However, It was in permissible limit when compared to standard value. Colour of the water increased. Total alkalinity, TDS levels are increased in 2013 when compared to
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2012. But, However, remaining parameters as shown in this table are in permissible limits according to its standards. Table 3: Waterquality of Kolleru water at Penumaka Lanka and Polraju Drain
S.NO PARAMETER REQUIRNEM PENUMAKA POLRAJU ENT LANKA-S5 DRAIN-S6 2012 2013 2012 2013 1 PH 6 to 8.5 6.2 5.5 6.3 5.3 2 Colour <5 H.UNITS 6.3 6.9 6.1 7.3 3 Total alkalinity <200 176 214 173 203 4 Salinity 0.2-6.9 Ppt 2.1 3.2 1.9 2.8 5 Total hardness <300 289 311 280 304 6 Turbidity <10 NTU 9.1 12.5 9.8 11.9 7 Calcium as Ca2+ 75 65 71 73 74 8 Magnesium as 30 26.5 29.1 24.5 31 Mg2+ 9 Ammonia as 5.0 3.1 4.1 4.3 4.1 NH 3 10 Sulphide as H S 2.0 1.1 1.4 1.4 1.8 2 11 Nitrate as NO - 45 24.3 33.3 25.1 33.1 3 12 Phosphates 5.0 0.95 2.98 0.91 3.15 13 Sulphates 150 78.3 93.8 86 112 14 Chlorides as Cl- 250 219 221 178 211 15 Iron as Fe <0.3 0.14 0.34 0.10 0.15 16 TDS 500 322 498 354 495 17 COD 250 147 194 159 191 18 BOD 30 36.6 40.7 31.9 39.1
In the above table, the water quality parameters of the two sampling points of KolleruLake namely Penumaka Lanka and Polraju Drain of RagumuduGuruv showed different values when compared with standard requirements. The concentration of pH was decreased in 2013 and the parameter namely Total alkalinity, Salinity, Total hardness, Turbidity indicated increase in concentration. The remaining
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parameters such as Calcium, Magnesium. Salinity, Ammonia, Sulphide, Nitrate, Phosphate, Sulphate, Chloride, TDS, COD and Iron were at their permissible limits. However, the Biological Oxygen Demand [BOD] was above the standard limit for 2012 and 2013. The pH in the study area ranges from 5.1 to 6.6. High pH (6.6) and low pH (5.1) is noticed inPeddaAtlagada. In general, the pH is more acidic in the post monsoon season of 2013.The colour of the water is turned into unusable range as per the standards observed with 7.8 HUnits and salinity levels also high with 6.1 at wooden bridge in 2013.Alkalinity refers to amount of carbonates and bicarbonates in the water and water hardness refers to the concentration of calcium and magnesium. Calcium is high (76) in Agadalalankaduring the 2013 pre monsoon season and magnesium with 31 mg/l at Polroju drain. Alkalinity and water hardness are closely interrelated and produced similar measured levels. It is observed that highest alkalinity (235mg/l) in PeddaAtlagada and hardness of water is high in wooden bridge with 314 mg/l. Water turbidity is important as it determines the amount of light penetration that occurs in the water column of a lake, the high levels swings at wooden bridge and Penumakalanka (12.5) where as low levels at Mondikudu (6.3). The Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is an essential parameter in water pollution control management. In the present study, it was observed high with 41.4 in Mondikudu and low in Agadalalanka with 31.3. The COD measures gross organic matter present in water and it is an important measure variable for characterizing water bodies, sewage, industrial water and treatment effluents. The COD ranges from 145 to 195 at Wooden Bridge and PeddaAtlagadain the study area. This is under permissible limit. The level of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is one of the characteristics which decide drinking water quality. The TDS value ranges from 322 mg/l to 523 mg/l in the study area. The low (TDS) is observed at
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Penumakalanka in 2012 whereas high content at PeddaAtlagada in 2013. Ammonia is produced by fish as an excretory product. High concentration of ammonia around wooden bridge, Agadalalanka, and PeddaAtlagada withas high as 4.8 during 2013 premonsoon season.Chemical parameters like sulphide, nitrate, phosphate, sulphate, chlorides,Ferrous are at permissible limits for drinking purpose as per Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).Tables 1-3. CONCLUSION From the results, it is observed that variation in TDS, salinity levels, colour, for samples collected from Kolleru Lake at different sampling sites (Figure 2). It is further indicated that the fresh water property of Kolleru Lake is degrading due to salt water intrusion. At present, industrial, Domestic, and agricultural wastes are being dumped into the lake and KolleruLake is under threat of pollution. Therefore, it is essential to identify landfill sites to dump wastes away from the lake which should be environment-friendly and also as per the norms suggested by Pollution Control Board. The present study is taken up to study the characteristics of water and asses water quality. This study indicates the status of Kolleru in terms of changing water quality. This study also suggests that in future Kolleru Lake may become biologically inactive if the similar condition will be continuing for longer period of time.
References 1. BIS, (1991) Indian Standards for Drinking Water, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, IS: 10500. 2. Dinges, Ray, (1982). Natural systems for water pollution control, Environmental Engineering Series Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.252.
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3. Freedman, Bill, (1989) Environmental Ecology, the Impacts of pollution and other stresses on Ecosystem structure and Function, Academic press Inc., New York. 4. Ganpati, S.V, (1977), Ecology of tropical water, Proc. Symp. Algology, ICAR New Delhi, 204-218, 5. Gleick, P.H., (ED). (1993). Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources. Oxford University Press. p. 13. 6. Kumar, S.M. &Ravindranath, S. (1998) Water Studies – Methods for monitoring water quality. Published by Center for Environment Education (CEE), Banglore, and Karnataka, India 7. Ramskrishnan, S, (1988) Ground water, Thriuvalluver Nagar, Chenni,.755. 8. Singh D.N (2000) Evaluation of physic-chemical parameters in an oxbow lake. Geobios, 27:120-124. 9. Sonal T &Kataria HC (2012). Physico-Chemical Studies of Water Quality of ShahpuraLake , Bhopal (M.P) with Special Reference to Pollution Effects on Ground Water of its Fringe Areas.Curr World Environ 7(1):139-144. 10. Trivedy R.K& P.K. Goel,(1986), Chemical and biological methods for water pollution studies, Environmental Publications, Karad, India 11. Trivedi PR, (2004) India’s Environment, APH. Publishing corporation, New Delhi.
rd 12. WHO,(1971) International Standards for drinking water, 3 Ed. Geneva, World Health Organization .
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SOUTHERN INDIA FAMINE OF 1876–78
Dr.Christopher Garnepudi Guest Faculty Dept of History and Archaeology Andhra University,Vishakhapatnam Introduction The Great Famine of 1876–78 ( Southern India famine of 1876– 78 or the Madras famine of 1877) was a famine in India that began in 1876 which affected south and southwestern India (Madras, Mysore, Hyderabad, and Bombay) for a couple of years. In its second year famine also spread north to some regions of the Central Provinces and the North-Western Provinces, and also to a small area in Punjab. The famine ultimately covered an area of 257,000 square miles (670,000 km2) .Sir Richard Temple, who was earlier Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal during Bihar famine controlled the relief measures and later went on to become was Famine Commissioner for the Government of India,[1] Reasons: The main reasons backsides the famine are firstly, an acute drought ensuing crop failure in the Deccan Plateau. Secondly, commodification of grain and the cultivation of alternate cash crops.[2] thirdly, the export of grain by the colonial government; during the famine viceroy, Lord Lytton supervised the export to England of a record 6.4 million hundredweight of wheat.[3] The famine happened at a time when the colonial government was seeking to cut down expenses on welfare after the Bihar famine of 1873–74. Relief Measures: The relief measures for the affected were not up to the mark. Temple insisted on policy of laissez faire with respect to the trade in grain, and stern criteria of qualification for relief and on more scrimpy relief rations.[1] Two kinds of relief were offered: "relief works" for able-bodied men, women and working children. Gratuitous relief for
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small children, the elderly, and the destitute.[4] The insistence on more rigorous tests for qualification, led to strikes by "relief workers" in the Bombay presidency.[1] In January 1877, Temple cut down the wage for a day's hard work in the relief camps in Madras and Bombay consisted of 1 pound (0.45 kg) of grain plus one anna for a man and a slightly reduced amount for a woman or working child,[5] for a "long day of hard labour without shade or rest." The rationale behind the reduced wage, which was in keeping with a dominant belief of the time, that any extra payment might create dependency among the famine affected population. Temple's suggestions were contradicted by William Digby and the physician W. R. Cornish, Sanitary Commissioner for the Madras Presidency. Cornish was in favor of a minimum of 1.5 pounds (0.68 kg) of grain in addition to supplements in the form of vegetables and protein, especially if, the individuals were performing strenuous labor in the relief works. However, Lytton supported Temple, who argued that "everything must be subordinated to the financial consideration of disbursing the smallest sum of money.[6] Finally, in March 1877, the provincial government of Madras, increased the ration halfway towards Cornish's recommendations, to 1.25 pounds (0.57 kg) of grain and 1.5 ounces (43 g) of protein in the form of daal (pulses). The Government of India spent around Rs. 8 1/3 crores in relieving 700 million units (1 unit = relief for 1 person for 1 day) in British India and in addition another Rs. 72 lakhs in relieving 72 million units in the princely states of Mysore and Hyderabad. Revenue (tax) payments to the amount of Rs. 60 lakhs were either not enforced or postponed until the following year, and charitable donations from Great Britain and the colonies totaled Rs. 84 lakhs. However, this cost was minuscule per capita; for example, the expenditure incurred in the Bombay Presidency was less than one-
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fifth of that in the Bihar famine of 1873–74, which affected a smaller area and did not last as long[7]. Consequences: This caused distress to a population totaling 58,500,000.[1] In other parts of India, such as the United Provinces, where relief was meager, the resulting mortality was high. In the autumn and winter of 1878, an epidemic of malaria killed many more who were already weakened by malnutrition. The mortality in the famine was in the range of 5.5 million people. The excessive mortality and the renewed questions of "relief and protection" that were asked in its wake, led directly to the constituting of the Famine Commission of 1880 and to the eventual adoption of the Provisional Famine Code in British India.[7] After the famine, a large number of agricultural laborers and handloom weavers in South India emigrated to British tropical colonies to work as indentured laborers in plantations. The excessive mortality in the famine also neutralized the natural population growth in the Bombay and Madras presidencies during the decade between the first and second censuses of British India in 1871 and 1881 respectively. The famine lives on in the Tamil and other literary traditions.[8] A large number of Kummi folk songs describing this famine have been documented.[9] The Famine was to have a lasting political impact on events in India. Among the British administrators in India who were unsettled by the official reactions to the famine and in particular by the stifling of the official debate about the best form of famine relief, were William Wedderburnand A. O. Hume. Less than a decade later, they would found the Indian National Congress and in turn influence a generation of Indian nationalists. Among them were Dadabhai Naoroji and Romesh Chunder Dutt for whom the Great Famine would become a cornerstone of the economic critique of the British Raj.
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In early 1877, Temple proclaimed that he had put "the famine under control". Digby noted that "a famine can scarcely be said to be adequately controlled which leaves one-fourth of the people dead.[6]
References : 1. Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. III 1907, p. 488 2. S. Guha, Environment and Ethnicity in India, 1200-1991 2006. p.116 3. Mike Davis, 2001. Late Victorian Holocausts: El Nino Famines and the Making of the Third World. Verso, London. 4. Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. III 1907, pp. 477–483 5. Washbrook 1994, p. 145, Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. III 1907, p. 489 6. Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts, El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World, Verso, 2001; calories for Buchenwald diet: 1750; Temple wage: 1627. Both involved hard labour (p.39); Temple's remark on financial considerations p.40 7. Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. III 1907, p. 489 8. Panchalakshna tirumugavilasam , a satire published in 1899, composed by Villiappa Pillai, one of the court poets of Sivagangai. This narrative piece full of humour and biting irony deals in ca.4500 lines with the conditions of the people suffering in the great famine of 1876... God Sunderesvara of Madurai pleads his helplessness in solving the problems of inhabitants hit by the famine..Kamil Zvelebil(1974). Tamil Literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 218–.ISBN 978-3-447- 01582-0. Retrieved 1 January 2013. 9. 9.Dina Mani ( Tamil). 20 June 2010. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
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THE ROLE OF INDIAN CHRISTIANS IN FREEDOM MOVEMENT
Dr.D.Mercy Ratna Rani Assistant Professor Dept.of History, Archaeology & Culture Dravidian University, Kuppam Chittoor District
There are millions of Christians across the globe. Today, the Christians come from many different countries and cultures. This makes Christianity a very exciting religion to study as there is such variety in the practice and expression of the faith. Despite all the differences, most Christians believe that they belong to one family. Christianity is one of the world’s major religions. India was the first Asiatic country in which Christian missionary was organised after the revival of the spirit of missions which culminated in the establishment of the society of Jesus. The name India was used by early Christian writers for several different countries. In 52 A.D. the apostle Thomas, one of the twelve disciples of Jesus Christ brought the gospel to India. Jesus Christ was a Jew within 100 years or so of the death of Jesus, Christian missionaries came to India by sea to preach and convert a large number of people. John of Monte Corvino and Sir John Mandeville prove the presence of Christians in India is considerable number before the coming of the Portuguese. In 1500 Cabral brought monks named Franciscans and Dominicans to Calicut, who were to conduct mission work under the patronage of the king of Portugal. Sir Francis Drake had shown the way for English to India. By 1612 they had wrested supremacy from the Portuguese. In 1698, the society for the promotion of Christian knowledge was organized.1 This society gave a subvention to the Danish-Tamil Mission in 1705. They converted a large number of people as the followers of Jesus Christ.
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There are many Hindu organisations that accuse the Christians in India did not participate in the national movements. M.S. Golwalkar who was the leader of the RSS says that the Christians in India are not merely irreligious but also anti-nationals and internal threats to the security of the nation2. Arun Shourie, a prominent BJP leader says that for over a hundred year thus missionary activity was interwoven with, and inextrically tied up with British imperial control of India, that the missionaries even those of Indian origin did not join the national movement.3 The accusation that Christians did not participate in the freedom movement is a very serious one against the Indian Christian community, and is a gross distortion of facts. But this distortion cannot be dismissed as mere ignorance, but deliberate and ideologically motivated. However, the true history of the national movement presents a different picture. In spite of their insignificant number they contributed their share in the freedom struggle. Indian Christians became prominent in the early stages of the nationalist movement. George Thomas, a well known Church historian maintains that the Indian Christian community played an influential role, especially in the early phase of the Indian National Congress founded by a retired English ICS officer A.O. Hume on 28th December 1885. Infact, the origin of the national movement in India is traced from the birth of the congress and as such the history of the national movement in India is the history of the India National Congress. It held its sessions every year at various places. In the third annual session of congress in 1887, out of 607 participants in the session, 15 were Indian Christians. Among those who addressed the assembly was Madhu Sudhan Das, popularly known as Utkal Gourab, a well known leader from the Christian community in Orissa. Kali Charan Benerjee a Bengali Christian and a great orator, regularly addressed the annual sessions of the National Congress. Joseph Baptista of Bombay was one of the early Christian leaders of the Indian National Congress. He was
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a personal friend of Lokamanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak and president of the Indian Home Rule League, Pune. In the congress session of 1889, among the ten women delegates, three were Christians namely Pandita Ramabai Saraswati, Mrs. Triumbuk and Mrs. Nikambe. The number and influence of Indian Christians continued to be impressive in the subsequent sessions of the National Congress. There are evidences of Christian participation in the Swaraj Movement of 1905, the Non Co- operation Movement of 1920, the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930 and the Quit India Movement of 1942. D. Arthur Jayakumar and Sarojini Regani noticed the names of Indian Christians who took part in the freedom movement. Arthur Jayakumar says that when the Non Co-operation Movement was started in 1920, there were Indian Christians in the whole of India who took part in it. In 1930 the editor of the Guardian said that a number of Christian young men have joined the Civil Disobedience movement. The All India Conference of Indian Christians who had suffered imprisonment as a result of their involvement in the national movement. N.H. Tubbs, the principal of the Bishop College, Calcutta wrote a confidential letter to his mission dated 23rd February 1921 stating “a very significant feature of the months have been interest of Christian students in the National Non-Co-operation Movement.” Alva Jacquin was a freedom fighter, nationalist and parliamentarian born on 21st January 1907 at Udipi in South Karnataka joined the national struggle after qualifying for the legal profession. Educated at the St. Xavier’s and Law Colleges, Bombay. He began his career as a lawyer. Leaving the legal profession he entered the freedom struggle in 1930 and was imprisoned several times. He was influenced by Mahatma Gandhi. As a student leader, he was the pioneer of youth movement in India. In 1943 he founded the Journal Forum with Socialism and human brotherhood as its aims. As an editor he wrote against the British Government. He had served as a member
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of the executive committee in the Bombay Pradesh Congress and in the All India Congress Committee. He was a member of the Bombay Legislative Assembly during 1950-52 and entered the Lok Sabha in 1952 from the South Karnataka constituency which position he held for fifteen years. In 1959 he was appointed as the sheriff of Bombay. In 1969 he was elected to the Rajya Sabha. Men and Supermen of Hindustan is his notable publication.4 He married Violet who was his classmate in the St. Xavier’s college and Law College, who also shared his political views. She was a member of the All India Journalist Federation and the Executive Committee of Parliamentary Congress wing. Vice-president in 1953 and President in 1962 of the Women Lawyer’s Federation, she later became a member of the Public Accounts Committee of the Parliament. She visited Nigeria, West- Germany, United Kingdom, Philippines and Austria as a member of the Parliamentary delegation. She was Deputy Minister of Home from 1957 to 1962 and on 19th April 1962 she became the Vice-chairman of Rajya Sabha. She held the position till her death on 20th November 1969. She was responsible for the growth of youth congress for which her husband gave all support. She was the president of Young Women Christian Association in 1964. V.S. Azariah, the first Indian Bishop in the Anglian Church, was against communal electorates and expresses his views against that system all through his life. When he went to Lambeth in 1930 to attend the conference of Anglican Bishops, he issued a letter on behalf of India to the famous newspaper London times. George Thomas (Brahmabandhab Upadhyaya) a catholic monk, editor and theologian played a leading role in the Swadeshi Movement. He edited Sandhya, a Bengali National Journal founded in1904 which advocated complete Indian National Movement. In 1923, a conference of leading Christians from all over India held at Ranchi, passed a resolution to give full support to the national movement.
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George Joseph was another outstanding Christian who engaged in the freedom struggle. He studied at Madras Christian College. He started legal practice at Madurai. He was attracted to the Home Rule Movement. He was one of the first batch of barristers who scarified their comforts to engage themselves in national movement and joined the Non-Cooperation Movement and boycott of foreign cloth shops. In 1920 he was arrested and kept in Allahabad prison. Later he became the editor of the young India, Gandhiji’s weekly and South Indian Mail. In 1922 he was arrested again and spent a year in the Lucknow district jail along with Jawaharlal Nehru, Mahadev Desai, Purushottamdas Tondon and Devdas Gandhi. In 1937 he was elected in the Central Legislative Assembly. John Jesudasan Cornelius (J.C. Kumarappa) a freedom fighter and Gandhian economist born in Madras in a Christian family on 4th January 1892 and educated in Madras was sent to the United States after graduation from the Madras University. In the United States he took M.A. in Economics from the Columbia University and B.Sc. in Business Administration from Syracure University. On returning to India, he was attracted by the policies and programmes of the National Congress and Mahatma Gandhi. He preferred to be in the Sabarmati Ashram with Gandhi. He was a strong supporter of Satyagraha and encouraged Christians to participate in the national movement. He was the editor of the young India for some time. His fiery writing gave him one and a half years of rigorous imprisonment in 1931. But he was released after a couple of days, because of the Gandhi – Irwin pact. He founded the All India Rural Development Association on the advice of Gandhiji and served as its General Secretary. He was the first foreign trained economist to turn to the rural India and its economic problems. Throughout his public career, he was studying, investigating and analysing the rural economy of India and presenting solutions to the ills of village. During the Quit India Movement, he took underground
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activities in Bombay doing with his congress colleagues. He was imprisoned at Jabalpur central jail until 1945. In July 1947 he joined the delegation nominated by Government of India to help India’s economic interest in maritime transport at the meeting of shippers in London. Since he was also a prominent figure in Congress affairs, he was given a chance to be a member of the All India Congress Working Committee in place of Jay Prakashnarayana in 1947. But he rejected the offer in spite of Gandhi’s persuasion. He was the author of Indian economics India’s Financial Burden and Philosopher of Rural Organisation. Nirad Biswas, the Bishop of Assam, Church of India, Burma and Ceylon joined the national movement in making salt outside Calcutta in 1932. Paul Ramasamy was another Christian who took part in the freedom struggle. In 1930 he joined the freedom movement during the Salt Satyagraha started by Mahatma Gandhi. He picketed the Bishop Herber College Tiruchirapalli. He was arrested and sentenced to six months of imprisonment and was kept at Thiruchirapalli and Alipuram jails. K.T. Paul the secretary of the National Missionary Society and the General Secretary of the YMCA was the Indian Christian freedom fighter. In 1930 he went to England to participate in the Round Table Conference. He criticized the advocate of separate electorates for Indian Christians and took an uncompromising stand on the question of separate electorates. C. Samuel Aaron was a great industrialist of North Malabar. He also participated in the national movement; His active participation in the national movement began with the Salt Satyagraha. On 16th April 1930 the local residents under the leadership of Aaron reached the village Chombal in Kerala. He had given the brighter hotel buildings at Cannanore belonging to him for temporary use by the Congress
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Satyagrahis intent on breaking the salt law from 22nd May to 1st June 1930. His wife Gray Aaron also participated along with women. Samuel Aaron was charged under section 157 and sentenced to pay a fine of Rs.1000/- or undergo rigorous imprisonment for six weeks. He refused to pay the fine; he was taken to the central jail at Cannanore. On 18th July the Payyannur police went to his weaving factory at Pazhayangadi with a warrant for claiming his movable property to realise the fine of Rs.1000/- imposed on him. The police took car-loads of things from the factory. It has been observed that his participation in the national movement was a unique importance for the Christian community. Another Christian Venkal Chakkari also participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Pandita Mary Ramabai, Mrs. Margret Pavamani, Miss, Mary Thomas and Miss Matilda Kalten were the leading Christian women leaders who took part in the freedom struggle. Pandita Ramabai was an eminent Indian Christian social reformer, national leader and activist. She was a poet, scholar and champion of improvement in the plight of Indian women. She had written many books. She was the first woman Bible translator and founder of the Mukti Mission. She was one of the few delegates in the Indian National Congress session of 1883 (?). She was born in an intellectual Brahmin family in April 23rd 1853. Her parents and sister were died of starvation during the famine of 1874-76. Ramabai and her brother travelled around and came back to Calcutta. When they were in Calcutta, once they were invited to attend a Christian gathering. They were given a copy of the Holy Bible in Sanskrit, which was different from the Sanskrit literature of the Hindus, and they did not understand the teachings. After her brother’s death, she married a Non-brahmin in 1880, and they were excommunicated because of their marriage. So, they started to live in Silchar in Assam and here she had her first formal tuteloge in the principles of Christian faith from a
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Baptist Missionary, Issac Allen. Six months after the birth of their daughter, she lost her husband. She went to England to study medicine. She promised her community that nothing would induce her to embrace Christianity. But, when her hosts encouraged her to read the New Testament. She was touched by the Gospel stories. She was baptized in the Church of England. In 1882 she established the Arya Mahila Samaj which led to the Sarada Sadan School in 1889, called Mukti Mission. In 1896, during a severe famine she rescued thousands of people. Raj Kumari Amrut Kaur led many processions during the Quit India Movement in 1942. She was also Gandhiji’s secretary for 10 years. Another prominent Indian Christians were Kali Charan Benerji, Bhavani Charan Benerji, Krishna Mohan Benerji, Raja Harman Singh, Kali Charan Chatterji, Colanath Chatterji, Dr.H.C. Mookerjee, Dr. Savariyayan, S.K. Rudra, S.K. Dutta involved in freedom movement. Sarojini Regani has also culled the names of Christian freedom fighters in Andhra Pradesh. Anthoni Damavarapu5, while a student he took part in the individual Satyagraha Movement. He was imprisoned in Nellore and Bellary jails. Adam Buse (Krishna district) offered Satyagraha in 1943 at Madunuru, Gannavaram taluk in connection with the Quit India Movement was arrested and severely lathicharged. Amosu Pasupuleti (Palacole, Narasapur Taluk) participated in the Quit India Movement. He was arrested and imprisoned in Alipuram (West Godavari district). Anjayya Anney was another freedom fighter and social reformer of Andhra Pradesh. He was born at Mudunuru village of Krishna district in 1905. He was an active participant of the Non Co-operation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement and Quit India Movement. He was responsible for opening a number of Khadi shops in Andhra
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Pradesh. Anjayya is remembered as the founder editor of two journals – Congress and Mathrubhumi. He was a leader of the Andhra wing of Forward Black founded by Subhash Chandra Bose. Geogre Ramakury from Khammam, while a student participated in the boycott and picketing of foreign goods shops at Machilipatnam, Krishna district during the Civil Disobedience Movement 1930-31. He was one of the delegates of Indian National Congress session at Amritsar in 1956. Jacob Parri from Buchireddipalem in Kovur taluk of Nellore district resigned his job as a teacher and started individual Satyagraha Movement in 1940. John Marpu from Repalle in Guntur district participated in the Quit India Movement and under went the imprisonment in Alipuram. Joseph Appikatla from Ventrapragada, Gudivada taluk took part in the Quit India Movement. Another person named as Joseph from Palnad in Guntur district was arrested on 27th January 1932 for distributing pamphlets in connection with Civil Disobedience Movement. Y.D. Joshi from Hyderabad was an editor, printer and publisher of Hindu Vijay. He was an Honorary Secretary and later President of Hyderabad State Hindu Sabha. He suffered imprisonment from 1938 to 1939 in central jail. Samuel Benedict Mesa from Nandikotkur, Kurnool district worked as Assistant Engine Driver, South Central Railways. He entered the British Indian Army in 1937 as a soldier. While serving in Egypt was captured by Germans in April 1942 and joined the Indian National Army in October 1942. Recaptured by the Allied Forces in May 1945 and imprisoned at the Bahadargad prison camp near New Delhi. He was dismissed from the military service in March 1946. Some Indian Christians lost their lives for their mother land. They were Amos Marianna and Obulesappa, Thomas Kurian and Anthony Nadar from Kerala, Syam Manohar from Uttar Pradesh, Anna Horey and Israel Allarakha from Maharasthtra and Ramdevo from Bihar, Ananda Rao and Asirvadam from Andhra Pradesh received
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Tamara Patras from the Government of India in recognition of their services during the freedom struggle6. Before the advent of the Britishers India had no press. Therefore, the Indian press is a great legacy of the British rule. Newspapers were started by the Anglo-Indians and the European nationals in the later half of the 18th century. The rise of modern journalism in Kerala gave a great impetus to the growth of political consciousness. Rajya Samaj (1847), Pacchimodoyam (1847), Pacchinataraka (1863), Satyanada Kahalam (1863), Satyanandan (1876), Nazarani Deepika (1887) Malayala Manorama (1888), and the Christian patriot, a weekly Christian Journal (1890, Madras) contributed to political awakening, educating and shaped public opinion and national consciousness were run by Christians. Thus, the Indian Christian contribution in freedom struggle is indeed commendable. The Indian Christians played a notable role in freedom movement.
References
1. Santhosh Thomas, “Christianity and Culture”, New Delhi, 2005. 2. M.S. Golwalkar, “Bunch of Thoughts”, 1996. 3. Arun Shovrie, “Missionaries in India”, 1994. 4. Visva Vignanakaram, Vol.I Kottayam, 1970. 5. Sarojini Regomi (ed.) “Who’s who of freedom struggle in Andhra Pradesh” vols. 1 and 2 Hyderabad.
th 6. SIHC. 29 Annual Session Proceedings, Tirunalveli, 2009.
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GREATER PARTICIPATION OF YOUNG VOTERS FOR A STRONGER DEMOCRACY
Dr. Jagadish B Deputy Manager Learning and Development Department Human Resources Division Toyota Kirloskar Motor, Bangalore
1. INTRODUCTION Let us visualize the election scenario wherein a candidate comes and files his nomination in a constituency. Election officer verifies the authenticity of the candidate from Aadhar’s (Unique Identification number) database containing biometric and other data through multifactor authentication. Candidate’s educational background comes from the University records. Employment track record flows from various employers with whom the candidate had worked. Income and wealth resources come from the Income Tax department. Candidate’s property record comes from the sub-registrar across the country. Credit history is known through various banks. Police crime records throw light on the candidate’s civic consciousness and citizenship behavior. Judicial system shares the legal track record. All these and relevant details arrive at the computer terminal of the election officer within few seconds automatically with the support of e-Governance software which crawls across the various state and central government web services directories through the network grid and collects the information automatically. All these facts are presented in real-time without any bias. Further, artificial intelligence software analyzes the credentials of the candidate and gives a rating on how successful he or she will be as a politician. Election officer sitting at the remote District of the country decides on-the-spot whether the candidate is suitable or not and the election process starts. All the voters vote from their home through virtual polling booths (Kalam, 2012). Is this a dream? Whether this
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dream can become a reality? This is a visualization made by Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam about his vision for conducting elections in India. If this becomes true, then India will be able to easily manage free, fair and transparent elections. India is the largest democracy in the world and has been witnessing successful conduct of elections from more than six-decades. The term Democracy originates from the Greek term Democratia which means “rule of the people”. Democratia is derived from two Greek words demos meaning “people” and kratos indicating “power” or “rule”. As Abraham Lincoln said, Democracy means ‘government of the people, for the people, and by the people’. The key role of citizens is to exercise their ‘right to vote’ and participate in the democratic process.
2. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS The Constitution of India (1997) has provided ample provisions to uphold the right to vote among citizens. Article 324 enumerates the superintendence, direction and control of elections to be vested with the Election Commission. Article 325 details that there shall be one general electoral roll for every territorial constituency for election to either House of Parliament or to the House or either House of the Legislature of a State and no person shall be ineligible for inclusion in any such roll or claim to be included in any special electoral roll for any such constituency on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or any of them. Further, Article 326 specifies that the elections to the House of the People and to the Legislative Assembly of every State shall be on the basis of adult suffrage. It means that every person who is a citizen of India and who is not less than 18 years of age on such date as may be fixed in that behalf by or under any law made by the appropriate Legislature and is not otherwise disqualified under this Constitution or any law made by the appropriate Legislature on the ground of non-
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residence, unsoundness of mind, crime or corrupt or illegal practice, shall be entitled to be registered as a voter at any such election. Thus, it is very important for every citizen to exercise the right to vote in this democratic country.
3. ELECTIONS IN INDIA: A GIGANTIC EXERCISE Conducting elections in the world’s largest democracy poses gigantic challenges with respect to identifying the eligible voters, enrolling them, preparation, updation and finalizing the voters’ list, preparation of elector photo identity cards (EPIC) creating awareness about the election process, use of electronic voting machines etc. Election in India is a mammoth exercise. According to the Election Commission (2014), following are the facts about Lok Sabha elections 2014: More than 814 million people (means a number larger than the population of Europe) will be eligible to vote in the world’s biggest exercise compared to 713 million in 2009. With this, nearly 100 million new electors have become eligible to vote now. Further, the Parliament had amended the Representation of the People’s Act, 1950 which allowed enrollment of Indian citizens living overseas as electors. About 11,844 overseas electors have been enrolled and there are 13,28,621 service electors in the electoral rolls. Nearly 11-million strong election machinery will be deployed to make sure the voting and counting processes happen smoothly. Approximately 9,30,000 polling stations in the country will be established as compared to 8,30,866 polling stations set up during Lok Sabha elections 2009, which constitutes a 12 per cent increase.
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In order to conduct the elections in a smooth manner, Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) play a pivotal role. EVMs broadly consist of Control Units and Ballot Units. About 17,20,080 Control Units and 18,78,306 Ballot Units will be used. 4. OBJECTIVES Key highlight of Lok Sabha election 2014 is that there has been a remarkable increase in the enrollment of electors in the age group of 18 to 19 years. Over 23 million electors are in this age group. Electors in the age group of 18 to 19 years now constitute 2.88% of total electors as against 0.75% in 2009. Thus, objectives of the study are: To analyze gender-wise newly eligible Indian electors in the age group of 18-19 years To identify States with adverse sex ratio among newly eligible Indian electors To categorize States based on “Others” section of newly eligible Indian electors To suggest measures, if any, for greater participation of young voters for a stronger democracy.
5. GENDER-WISE COMPOSITION OF NEWLY ELIGIBLE INDIAN VOTERS Gender-wise Composition Overview According to the Election Commission of India (2014), a total of 2,31,61,296 electors were enrolled into the electoral data, of which, 1,35,64,730 (58.57%) were male electors, 95,92,389 (41.42%) were female electors and 4177 (0.018%) belonged to “Others” category (Table 1). Gender-wise composition of newly eligible Indian electors of all 35 States and Union Territories is furnished in Annexure 1.
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Table 1: Newly Eligible Indian Electors (Age 18 to 19 years)
Sl. No. Particulars Number Percentage
1 New Eligible Male Electors 13564730 58.57
New Eligible Female 2 9592389 41.42 Electors New Eligible "Others" 3 4177 0.018 Electors
Total 23161296 100.00
Source: Election Commission of India, 14th February 2014 Despite a steady improvement in the sex ratio of India’s electorate, there are still more male voters being registered than female voters. Women formed just 41 per cent of first-time voters aged 18-19, though they make up 47 per cent of the population in that age group. This indicates that the electorate is still male dominated and adequate awareness is not yet created among the women folk. States with Adverse Sex Ratio Among the 28 States and seven Union territories, Nagaland with 50.04 per cent female electors in the age group of 18-19 years is the sole State where the number of newly eligible female electors exceeded compared to newly eligible male electors. Even though being a very small State, Nagaland has set a benchmark for bigger States as far as women participation is concerned. However, there are States having Adverse Sex Ratio (Table 2).
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Table 2: States with Adverse Sex Ratio - Newly Eligible Indian Electors % of % of No. of No. of State/Union Male Female Sl.No. Male Female Territory Total Total Electors Electors Electors Electors 1 Haryana 250495 71.73 98744 28.27 2 Maharashtra 694108 64.55 381268 35.45 3 Gujarat 605264 63.83 342964 36.17 4 Punjab 309861 63.82 175627 36.18 5 Chandigarh 11593 63.80 6577 36.20 6 Uttarakhand 102769 63.63 58743 36.37 7 Odisha 487234 62.09 297291 37.89 8 Dadra & Nagar 11560 61.97 7095 38.03 Haveli 9 NCT of Delhi 138484 61.05 88311 38.93 10 Uttar Pradesh 2304350 60.42 1509401 39.57 Source: Election Commission of India, 14th February 2014 There are 10 States/Union Territories where the proportion of females among newly eligible electors is less than 40 per cent. Haryana (28.27%) has the most adverse sex ratio followed by Maharashtra (35.45%), Gujarat (36.17%), Punjab (36.18%), Chandigarh (36.20%), Uttarakhand (36.37%), Odisha (37.89%), Dadra and Nagar Haveli (38.03%), Delhi (38.93%) and Uttar Pradesh (39.57%). States with “Others” Electors The Election Commission had allowed the enrollment of transgender persons with gender written as “Others” since 2012. The total number of electors enrolled as “Others” gender is 28,314. In the newly enrolled electors in the age group of 18-19 years, 4177 (0.018%) belong to “Others” category (Table 3). Karnataka has registered the
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highest number (2589) of “Others”, followed by Andhra Pradesh (496), Uttar Pradesh (429), Bihar (230), Odisha (152) and Tamil Nadu (124). Table 3: States/Union Territories with “Others” Electors No. of "Others" Sl. No. State/Union Territory Electors 1 Karnataka 2589 2 Andhra Pradesh 496 3 Uttar Pradesh 429 4 Bihar 230 5 Odisha 152 6 Tamil Nadu 124 7 Madhya Pradesh 47 8 West Bengal 45 9 NCT of Delhi 38 10 Gujarat 14 11 Chattisgarh 7 12 Jharkhand 3 13 Rajasthan 2 14 Puducherry 1 Total 4177 Source: Election Commission of India, 14th February 2014
6. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Catch Them Young About 23 million eligible voters have been enrolled in the 18 to 19 age group, which constitutes nearly three per cent of India’s votes. Thus, younger generation will play a key role in the election process. Effective partnerships with Universities, Colleges, Senior Secondary Schools, Vocational Training Institutes etc. has to be crafted carefully with the objective of educating the students on subjects related to democratic electoral practices and participation. Thus, catching them young will be
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fruitful in accomplishing the ideals enumerated in the Constitution of India. Focus on Enrolling Women Despite a steady improvement in the sex ratio of India’s electorate, there are still more male voters being registered than female voters. Hence, there is a dire need to enroll women in the electorate and election process. Voters’ Education Even after six-decades of independence, there is a lot of gap between what the voters ‘should know’ and what they ‘actually know’. This includes issues like registration as voters, use of Elector Photo Identity Cards, polling stations, use of Electronic Voting Machines, do’s and don’ts when Model Code of Conduct is in effect, use of money and muscle power or getting lured to incentives given by some candidates etc. (SVEEP, 2014). Imparting voters’ education is the most apt manner to improve enlightened participation of youth in democracy. Reaching the Unreached Apart from the mainstream society, there exist large segments of electorate who do not come under the ambit of the educational system. Further, many voters have developed an attitude of ‘nothing will happen’ and are not participating in the democratic process. Meanwhile, there are “others” voters who do not have the courage to declare themselves as transgender due to the social stigma attached to them. Such eligible voters must be reached through concerted efforts by Non-Governmental Organizations and Government Departments. There is a need to provide impetus for ensuring participation from all sections of the electorate. Awareness needs to be enhanced among the newly eligible youth, the uneducated, residents of remote and tribal areas, socially and economically deprived sections of the society.
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Involvement of Stakeholders Election Commission’s Systematic Voters’ Education and Electoral Participation (SVEEP) initiatives have yielded good results in ensuring enrollment of young electors. To further enlarge the scope and penetration, involvement of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), the corporate sector, educational institutions, media, spiritual organizations and other stakeholders are essential. Righteousness Where there is righteousness in the heart, There is beauty in the character. When there is beauty in the character, There is harmony in the home. When there is harmony in the home, There is an order in the nation. When there is order in the nation, There is peace in the world. - Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam
To conclude, voting is a fundamental right and every voter needs to exercise it. Voter is the fulcrum in a democratic country. Voters’ participation in the democratic and electoral processes is integral to the successful functioning and key to a healthy democracy. For achieving good governance and society, the starting point is righteousness in the heart and involvement of young voters. Through increased awareness about the electoral process and enhanced participation, the electoral process and democracy in India can continue to grow in strength and vibrancy. #
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ACRONYMS:
EPIC : Elector Photo Identity Card EVM : Electronic Voting Machine NGO : Non Governmental Organziation ECI : Election Commission of India NCT : National Capital Territory SVEEP : Systematic Voters’ Education and Electoral Participation
References
1. Chouhan, Shashank. (2014): Facts and Figures for India’s 2014 General Election, March 5, 2014, Reuters, India.http://blogs.reuters.com/india/2014/03/05/facts-and-figures-for- the-2014-general-election. Accessed 7th March 2014. 2. Election Commission. (2014): 4th National Voters' Day Celebrated across the Country; 3.91 Crore New Electors Registered across the Country; National Awards Presented for Best Electoral Practices: Total Electorate is about 80 Crore Now, 25th January 2014, New Delhi. 3. Election Commission. (2014): General Elections 2014, Schedule of Elections, General Elections to Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies of Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Sikkim, New Delhi.
st 4. Kalam, Abdul, A, P, J. (2012): Youth-Architects of the 21 Century Democracy, Election Commission of India, 25th January 2012, New Delhi. 5. Mukherjee, Pranab. (2014): Fourth National Voters’ Day, Election Commission of India, New Delhi, 25th January 2014. 6. PIB. (2014): Gender-wise Composition of Electors Aged Between 18 and 19 years, Electoral Data as per the Final Publication of Summary Revision 2014, Press Information Bureau, New Delhi. http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx Accessed 24th February 2014.
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7. Sampath, V, S. (2014): Address by the Chief Election Commissioner on 4th National Voters’ Day, 25th January 2014, New Delhi. 8. SVEEP. (2014): Systematic Voters’ Education and Electoral Participation, Compendium of Instructions, Election Commission of India, February 2014, New Delhi. 9. The Constitution of India. (2007): Government of India, Ministry of Law and Justice, New Delhi. 10. The Hindu. (2014): Young Male Registered Voters Still Outnumber Females, Saturday, February 22, 2014, Bangalore, P.15.
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Annexure 1: Gender-wise Composition of Newly Eligible Indian Electors
% of % of % of No. of No. of No. of Sl. State/Union Male Female Others Total Male Female ‘Others’ No. Territory Total Total Total Electors Electors Electors Electors Electors Electors Electors 1 Uttar Pradesh 2304350 60.42 1509401 39.57 429 0.01 3814180 2 West Bengal 1193818 57.40 885861 42.60 45 0.00 2079724 3 Rajasthan 1194036 58.49 847233 41.51 2 0.00 2041271 4 Jharkhand 963842 53.48 838403 46.52 3 0.00 1802248 5 Bihar 897009 54.21 757363 45.77 230 0.01 1654602 6 Madhya Pradesh 861333 54.05 732139 45.94 47 0.00 1593519 7 Andhra Pradesh 925709 59.95 617998 40.02 496 0.03 1544203 8 Tamil Nadu 692597 57.75 506588 42.24 124 0.01 1199309 9 Maharashtra 694108 64.55 381268 35.45 0 0.00 1075376 10 Gujarat 605264 63.83 342964 36.17 14 0.00 948242 11 Chattisgarh 500585 57.73 366507 42.27 7 0.00 867099 12 Karnataka 479418 59.57 322779 40.11 2589 0.32 804786 13 Odisha 487234 62.09 297291 37.89 152 0.02 784677 14 Assam 370550 56.38 286640 43.62 0 0.00 657190 15 Punjab 309861 63.82 175627 36.18 0 0.00 485488 16 Kerala 229389 54.94 188101 45.06 0 0.00 417490 17 Haryana 250495 71.73 98744 28.27 0 0.00 349239
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18 NCT OF Delhi 138484 61.05 88311 38.93 38 0.02 226833 19 Uttarakhand 102769 63.63 58743 36.37 0 0.00 161512 20 Jammu & Kashmir 88210 59.41 60270 40.59 0 0.00 148480 21 Tripura 69185 57.12 51929 42.88 0 0.00 121114 22 Meghalaya 32764 51.99 30254 48.01 0 0.00 63018 23 Himachal Pradesh 36621 58.94 25512 41.06 0 0.00 62133 24 Manipur 20144 50.12 20047 49.88 0 0.00 40191 25 Mizoram 18725 50.10 18650 49.90 0 0.00 37375 26 Nagaland 17934 49.60 18225 50.40 0 0.00 36159 Arunachal 27 15335 50.45 15064 49.55 0 0.00 30399 Pradesh 28 Puducherry 15501 53.11 13685 46.89 1 0.00 29187 29 Goa 12458 51.94 11527 48.06 0 0.00 23985 Dadra & Nagar 30 11560 61.97 7095 38.03 0 0.00 18655 Haveli 31 Chandigarh 11593 63.80 6577 36.20 0 0.00 18170 32 Sikkim 6416 54.77 5299 45.23 0 0.00 11715 33 Daman & Diu 4860 55.37 3918 44.63 0 0.00 8778 Andaman & 34 1529 52.74 1370 47.26 0 0.00 2899 Nicobar 35 Lakshadweep 1044 50.93 1006 49.07 0 0.00 2050 2316129 Total 13564730 57.36% 9592389 42.63% 4177 0.01% 6 Source: Election Commission of India, 14th February 2014
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LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA) AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
D.Udayakumar V.RajaBabu Department of Human Genetics Department of Biology Andhra University, Visakhapatnam College of Natural Sciences Arba Minch University, Ethiopia
T.Mahankali Department of Human Genetics Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
I. INTRODUCTION
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is also known as Ecobalance. Many industries and firms , due to increased environmental awareness and consciousness, are appraising their activities and impacts on the environment. Society is also interested and involved due to the natural resource exhaustion and environmental deterioration. Because of wide propaganda, many industries and firms responded and involved in developing “greener” products and implementing “greener” processes. Many industries are developing technologies to minimize their impact of their processes during production and their products on the environment.
The word “life cycle” explains all activities in the development of the product’s life-span in industry, usability and maintenance, to its final disposition, including from raw material to the final product. According to EPA (2006) Life cycle assessment (LCA) is described as a “cradle-to- grave” approach. It begins with the collection, accumulation of raw materials to the final product and ends when all materials are returned back to the nature. Below diagram explains the life cycle of a detergent
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product of Proctor and Gamble Company, from cradle to Gate and cradle to Grave cycles.
(Above diagram is retrieved from http://www.scienceinthebox.com/en_UK/sustainability/lifecycleassessme nt_en.html)
II. Definition of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a method or analytical tool for quantification and interpretation of systems inputs and outputs of life cycle of a product or procedure concerned with environmental and ecological issues. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a comprehensive environmental assessment tool, recognizes material, energy resources, flow of wastes of a product and their effects on environment. It begins with cradle to grave evaluation of design of the product, from raw material to finished product.
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Areas covered by LCA
Above diagram (ascitedin www.lboro.ac.uk/research/.../Life%20Cycle%2 0Assessment.ppt) explains the fields covered by the Life Cycle Assessment. Materials, Energy and Transport etc., input for the system and material processing, product manufacturing, reusing , recycling, disposal are some main processing steps. Most systems or manufacturer’s shows water effluents, air emissions, solid wastes, and other releases etc as wastes.
Objectives of LCA:
The major objectives of Life Cycle Assessment are like
1. To provide entire image of the relations of an activity with the environment. 2. To accommodate maximum understanding of all the activities and interconnected environmental effects of human activities.
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3. To assist in decision making with information and evaluation of environmental effects. 4. To recognise options for improvements of environment.
III. Origin and Historical development of environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
During the 1960’s and early years of 1970s, the environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) ideas conceptualized in USA. During the same period, similar ideas were also developed in Europe. In the same year 1960, the elaboration and complications of environmental issues were comprehended by the scientific community.
Robert G. Hunt, et al., (1996) described that in the year 1969, internal study of analytical scheme of Coca-Cola Company of Harry E. Teasley, Jr, the manager, laid the foundation and conceptualized his analytical scheme as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in the United States. Harry E. Teasley, Jr, of Coca-Cola Company, made an attempt to study, the Life Cycle of packaging, including quantification of the raw material, energy, mainly environmental consequences from the manufacturing processes and other important issues like usage of plastic refillable bottles in comparsion with disposable containers. During this period, energy has been included in natural resource category, but there was no emphasis on ecological issues of energy. Harry E. Teasley, Jr, observed and studied the inter relation and inter dependence between energy resources and raw material usage, their associations in various packaging alternatives or choices. For Example, hydrocarbon energy resources can be used to minerals to manufacture the glass bottles.
Historically, from 1970, Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis (REPA) is a term for the environmental life cycle studies. But, from
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1990 onwards, the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) came into practice in USA. In 1976, Coca-Cola Company, as the result of its research work, developed confidence to switching from glass bottle to plastic bottle. Many studies of REPA conducted at Midwest Research Institute (MRI), showed that people were very attracted and involved in the total life cycle manufacturing system which attributes solid waste in contrast with postconsumer solid waste.
The other important study by REPA conducted at Midwest Research Institute (MRI), as cited in Robert G. Hunt, et al.,(1996) , the usage of polystyrene foam meat trays and this study is supported by the Mobil Chemical Company. Most employees assumed that polystyrene foam meat trays ,as the "environmental villain." But the findings showed favorable and positive results for plastic tray.The LCA computer program was sponsored by one of the Midwest Research Institute (MRI), client, in 1973 and informs and identifies the card error. The modern concept of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) shaped during the period 1970 to 1974 and plan of impact assessment was also developed. Historical pattern of Environmental Strategies
Historical pattern of Environmental Strategies
Time and Historical pattern of Environmental strategies Space
Business-as-usual Compliance with regulation Process oriented Pollution prevention
EIA, Energy audits, Envir. audits Extended product responsability
Eco-efficiency Product oriented Design for Environment Life Cycle Assessment LCA
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(Above diagram retrieved from Paulo Ferrão(2003) www.ce.cmu.edu/~hsm/nato-arw/pres/PauloFerrao.ppt 1-3, )
Above diagram explains the historical evolution of pattern of Environmental Strategies from business-as –usual to extended product responsibility which includes the eco efficiency,design for environment ,and life cycle assessment.
During 1972, EPA as cited in Robert G. Hunt, et al., (1996) conducted many meetings for discussing methodology, data sources and analysis procedures of many industries like glass, steel, aluminum, paper, and plastic industries, and environmental organizations. EPA developed environmental data for national fuel, transportation, and electricity operations. In 1988, in USA, there was an arousal of environmental consciousness, with media episode "garbage barge” for public action. During the period of 1975 to 1980’s, there was many comprehensive studies at rest, because of oil crisis, and the shifting of focus to dangerous, poisonous and domestic waste managements. In 1990 , the first workshop conducted by Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) discussed on REPA and resulted in the adoption of the term "LCA (life cycle analysis)" to designate the REPA concept. After 15 years, EPA activity in LCA and published inventory guidelines document in 1993. EPA in collaboration with U.S. Department of Energy in developing many LCA concepts and databases on vital issues of environment. Conceptual Framework on LCA: According to the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards, as cited in www.wind-energy-the-facts.org explains Conceptual Framework on Life Cycle Assessment which occurs in four phases. Phase1: Goal Definition and Scope; Phase 2: Inventory analysis
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Phase 3: Impact assessment and Phase 4: Interpretation.
Conceptual Framework on LCA
(Source: ISO 14040 as cited in http://www.wind-energy-the- facts.org/en/environment/chapter-1-environmental-benefits/concept-of- lca.html) 1. Goal Definition and Scope of Life Cycle Assessment: The life cycle assessment process begins with specific ,precise purpose with goal and scope of the proposed study. This step gives the frame work of the study and demonstrates how and to whom the results of the study are to be informed .The life cycle assessments the goal and scope that is presented and compatible with the proposed application. It inlcude the information about the technical aspects ,in related work.This step describes product, functional unit of system, the system limitations, environmental loads of the process and impacts etc. In this
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phase, basis and scope of the evaluation are defined before hand with a purpose, So that the model can develop the effective decision criteria, time and place for the Life Cycle Assessment. Evaluation process is one of the important steps in decision-making processes of life cycle assessments (LCA). The decision-making processes are very important for setting of priorities for product and service system. The priorities of system are finalized before the evaluation process and evaluation is done in comparison with the existing or required status of the process. According to Giegrich und Mampel (1993) as cited in Birgit Grahl, Eva Schmincke (1996), the objectives were combined with the subjective values for the evaluation, basing on the logical rules. The decision- making process in life cycle assessments (LCA) process is strategic and operational in nature. According to Nebel (2007) decision-making process involves major stages like defining alternatives, evaluation of alternatives and making the decision. The definition of the alternatives includes a wide range of options as alternatives that cannot be excluded until after their evaluation. The evaluation of alternatives is based upon evaluation criteria like as aesthetics, cost, availability, environmental impact, etc. and are combined with objectives of life cycle assessments (LCA) process in making decision process.
Grahl, Lohse, Schmincke, (1992) as cited in Birgit Grahl, Eva Schmincke (1996) explains that Scientific, technical, social, economic and ethical issues were considered while defining the objectives of life cycle assessments (LCA) process and before the evaluation process. Birgit Grahl, Eva Schmincke (1996) suggested that the main aims of life cycle assessments (LCA) is Evaluation of effect of environmental influences and assist in the processes decision-making. 2. Inventory analysis of Life Cycle Assessment Inventory analysis phase is a most important step that emphasis on work and takes more duration in life cycle assessment compared to
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other phases. It is due to quantitative and qualitative data collection about every unit in the functional unit. The Inventory analysis validates the collected data in th system and system limitations. The data is collected with help of questionnaire ,which covers inputs and outputs,product mass, and energy consumed during production etc.In this phase, all life-cycle inputs and outputs are identified in terms of material, mass and energy of the product system. In Inventory Analysis, a flow chart of all inputs and outputs of life-cycle process and their interrelation are considered, in relation with the wastes and emission effect on environment.
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Above flow chart is retrieved from www.srl.gatech.edu/education/ME4171/LCA.ppt The above flow chart of Coffee Machine Life-Cycle Inventory identifies inputs and outputs and explains about the inputs like coffee beans, paper, polystyrene, aluminum and sheet metal and environmental wastage like organic waste of coffee, filters, and municipal wastage.Inventory analysis of Coffee Machine Life-Cycle focuses on work like filter production ,injection moulding, extrusion, stamping forming,assembly ,transport,energy and duration for each activity in the functional system and their interrelation are considered, in relation with the wastes and effect on environment.
3. Impact assessment of Life Cycle Assessment: The impact assessment in LCA is the evaluation of environmental effects of the material, resources and energy flows in inventory analysis The impact assessment in LCA is concerned with identification, encapsulating, and quantification of environmental effects of inputs and outputs of the systems. Impact assessment Life Cycle Assessment consists of three successive steps like classification, characterization, and valuation. In Classification step, identification and categorization of environmental problems and environmental effects. All input/output data from the inventory of Life Cycle process are characterized. Valuation is the last step impact assessment which initiates comparison and ranking of different impact categories of the Life Cycle process
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LCA Step 3 - Impact Assessment
• The impact assessment focuses on characterizing the type and severity of environmental impact more specifically. Material/impact Environmental effect depletion of biotic resources copper depletion of abiotic CO2 resources CFC greenhouse effect Weighting of effect? SO2 NOx ozone layer depletion phosphorous acidification volatile organic compounds eutrophication (VOCs) heavy metals (summer) smog PCB human toxicity There are different pesticides ways to assess and styrene eco-toxicity weigh the (example) odour environmental effects.
Georgia Institute of Technology Systems Realization Laboratory
Above diagram is retrieved from www.srl.gatech.edu/education/ME4171/LCA.ppt The diagram above explains the different impact categories of the Life Cycle process in an industrial system. As tool for sustainability, it assesses effects of impact of material or process on environment .Many industries show various kinds of environmental imapacts like depletion of biotic resources , depletion of abiotic resources ,greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion ,acidfication,eutrophication,smog,human toxicity,ecotoxicity and odour etc.due to emission of different kinds of gases and materials like carbon dioxide, chloro fluro carbon , carbon monoxide sulphur dioxide ,heavy metals, pesticides ,styrene , volatile
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organic compounds chloro fluro carbon etc. As tool for sustainability, it assesses the above impacts. By using value stream mapping , in Life cycle process of material , elements etc.the maximum wastage and environmental loads can be reduced to a maximum extent.
4.Interpretation Life Cycle Assessment.:
Interpretation Life Cycle Assessment is the last phase of the cycle. This technique is used for observation ,recognition , quantification, checking , and evaluation of the data. The inventory analysis results and the impact assessment results are presented and discussed in the interpretation phase.In this phase, the results of inventory analysis and impact assessment are compared in relation to the objectives of the study. Validation is one important factor in this phase. Validation is done by the performance of sensitivity analysis approach and independent, external review approach. According to Udo de Haes et al., (1997) as cited in D. A. Georgakellos identified areas for improvement like a) load analysis (b) identification of improvement alternatives and (c) ranking and selection of the alternatives, of the life cycle assessment.The conclusions and recommendations from LCA and VSM , provide route map for implemenation . The interpretation phase is used to draw conclusions and recommendations for the proposed study.
Applications of LCA : Life cycle assessment in construction industry: The life cycle assessment in construction industry, enable us to reduce the whole impact on the environment, by considering all stages in construction activity, major tasks like construction and deconstruction. The construction activities include , planning, materialisation activities ( i.e project, material, production, execution) and maintenance,
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management of construction or building. In Deconstruction activity, planning, and reintegration ( i.e re-use, recycling, demolition) are important for LCA inventory, assessment in life cycle assessment. By using life cycle assessment in construction and deconstruction activities effectively, the environmental loads can be reduced to a maximum level. In construction industry Value Stream Mapping is a lean tool , which plays a very important role in Life cycle assessment .
VSM tool generally contain both current state map and future state maps for the development.The current state mapping include steps like Select a Product Family , Form a Team ,understand customer demand ,map the Process Flow,map the material Flow ,map the Information flow ,calculate Total Product Cycle Time ,and detail Off-Line Activities. The current state mapping is the starting point for transformation and shows baseline condition and progress of the company. The Future State Map is to be prepared by modifying the Current State Map. The future state map can be prepared , basing upon the efficiency ,technical implementation with the use of Lean tools.
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Stages of a Life Cycle Above diagram is retrived from the Alejandro Josa
(2004).www.slidefinder.net/6/6__20Environmental_20Thinking.../803073 Above diagram ,describes the various stages in cycle from mining of raw material ,transportation of material,manufacture of concrete ,placing it on site ,use and maintainence in the construction industry . There are many possibe environmental impacts from mining of raw materials, transportation,dismantling, reuse etc can be assessed in LCA with the help of value stream mapping (VSM).
According to Salem and Zimmer (2005) lean construction is stated as “the continuous process of eliminating waste, meeting or exceeding all
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customer requirements, focusing on the entire value stream and pursuing perfection in the execution of a constructed project.” In the construction industry, to know the value and waste, a value stream mapping (VSM) is used .This analysis provides an information about the value stream of the product and also helps to recognize all types of wastage ,that do not add value to the project. According to Lauri Koskela(2000 ) as cited in Robert J.Arbulu et al., (2002) reduce the share of non value added activities (wastage), reduce lead time , reduce variability, simplify by minimizing the number of steps, parts and linkages, increase flexibility and increased transparency. A damaged isolated construction may have a less environmental impact than completed construction building. The completed construction building will have more environmental impact in production (i.e more energy consumption).
In construction industry, the value of product (building ), is generated when it fulfils the requirements of the customer (buyer) ,like cost , quality ,in time completion of the project. By VSM in construction industry , value of the product (building ), is evaluated at every step of execution of the project. so that lean construction goal is achieved .By using VSM in construction industry wastage which have environmental efffects at various stages of execution were eliminated so that the various cost and time in life cycle assessment of the project are saved .Ultimately by using VSM, in life cycle assessment , the manager can visualize the condition ,progress and has a scope for the improvement of the project.
Conclusion: Life cycle assessment (LCA) is described as “cradle-to-grave” approach. It begins with the collection, accumulation of raw materials to the final product and ends when all materials are returned back to the nature.
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Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool for holistic environmental assessments of products and Processes in many industries construction, energy production etc. The distinct characteristic feature of Life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology emphasizes on the whole life cycle of the product from raw material to final stageof the product. LCA is identified as a valuable procedure in environmental management, which is capable of analysing and assessing environmental loads, impacts, in a systematic and more scientific way and their consequences of various activities and products in various kinds of industries. VSM tool generally contain both current state map and future state maps for the development.. The current state mapping is the starting point for transformation and shows baseline condition and progress of the company. The Future State Map is to be prepared by modifying the current state Map by using Life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology . The future state map can be prepared , basing upon the efficiency ,technical implementation with the use of Lean tools and provide maximum scope for reduction of wastages , environmental loads, gases , accumulation of substances in the environment. In construction industry , the combination of Life cycle assessment (LCA) and value stream mapping (VSM) in activities like repairing, renovating, transforming, abandonment, demolition, landfill and recycling defines a new life cycle and effectively reduces the environmental Loads on environment.
References:
1. Alejandro J (2004). Environmental Thinking in the Construction Industry. .www.slidefinder.net/6/6__20Environmental_20Thinking.../803073 2. Birgit G, Eva S. (1996). Evaluation and Decision-making Processes Life Cycle Assessment. Int. J. LCA 1 (1) 32-35 .
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3. Georgakellos et al., (2002) Lca as a tool for environmental management:a life cycle inventory case study from the greek market global nest: the int. j. vol 4, no 2-3, pp 93 -106, 4. GtlINFF, .1., R. I-II'tltlN (1993}. A Proposal for the Classification of Toxic Snbstanccs within the Framework of Life Cycle Assessment of Products. Chcmosphcrc, 1925-1944 5. GRAIII, B., J. l.OllSl[, E. SCIIXIINCKE (I 992). Analyse nacrhodischcr Ansfitzc zurKlassifikation wm Stoffcn trod Produktcn aus dem Hausm611 im Hinbtick auf dercn Rclcvanz f6r die Vcrmeidung. Gutachtcn im Rahmcn dcr Vorsrudic zur TAAbfallvermcithmg nnd I lausmiillcnrst)rgung im Auftrag des Biiros fiJr Tcchnik folgcnabschStzung tics l)cutschen l.~undcstagcs. Matcrialicn zum TABArbcitsbcricht Nr.16, Bonn, Juli 1993 6. Jaqueline, H (1996). Environmental and Development in the Social Compatible Car Industry Int. J. LCA 1 (1) 22. 7. Konrad Saur, Johannes Gediga, Jens Hesselbach, Manfred Schuckert, Peter Eyerer(1996) Life Cycle Assessment as an Engineering Tool in the Automotive Industry. Int. J. LCA 1 (1) 15-21. 8. LCA in Wind Energy. LCA in Wind Energy: Environmental Impacts through the Whole Chain. Retrieved August 20th 2011 from: http://www.wind-energy-the- facts.org/en/environment/chapter-1-environmental- benefits/lca-in-wind-energy.html 9. Nebel, Barbara, (2007). The Role of LCA in Decision Making in the Context of Sustainable Development A report prepared for Beacon Pathway Limited October. Retrieved from ttp://www.beaconpathway.co.nz/images/uploads/Final_Report_TE201(3 )_The_Role_of_LCA_in_Decision_Making.pdf 10. Paulo F (2003). ARW: Life Cycle Analysis for Assessing Energy and EnvironmentalImplicationsof Information Technology Budapest, Hungary. Retrieved from www.ce.cmu.edu/~hsm/nato- arw/pres/PauloFerrao.ppt 1-3, 2003 11. Robert G. Hunt, William E. Franklin (1996). LCA- How it Came About.Int. J. LCA 1 (1) 4-7
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12. Udo de Haes, H.A., Bensahel, J.-F., Clift, R., Fussler, C.R., Griesshammer, R. and Jensen, A.A.(1997),Guidelines for the application of life cycle assessment in the EU Eco-Labelawarded scheme,Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg. 13. Womack J, Jones E, and Roos D(1992). The Machine That Changed the World. Harper Perennial. 14. Hugh L. McManus et al., (2002).Proceedings of the International Council of the Aeronautical Sciences 23rd ICAS Congress, 8-13 September, 2002, Toronto Canada 15. O. Salem and E. Zimmer (2005).Implementing Lean Construction: Understanding and ActionLeanConstructionJournal.http://www.au.af.mil/au/aul/school/aw c/electives/6474_17_Value_Stream_Mapping.pdf 16. Robert J .Arbulu et al., (2002)Proceding IGLC-10,Aug,2002 ,Gramado,Brazil
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LIFE INSURANCE IN RURAL INDIA
Dr.G.Syamala Rao Associate Professor Department of Management Studies G.V.P.College for Degree & P.G. Courses Rushikonda, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India
Introduction Insurance as an industry has secured a vital position in the development of the nation’s economy. An efficient insurance market is essential to achieve integration into the global economy and sustainable strong economic growth. One of insurance's key roles is safeguarding the financial health of small and medium-sized enterprises. In addition to the protection provided by social security systems, insurance cover is crucial for people to insure themselves against inability to work, set aside money for retirement or protect themselves against the loss of their assets. Insurance reduces the investment risk faced by companies and the state. Many companies find it far more expensive, if not impossible, to take out a loan without purchasing the requisite insurance protection. Hence Insurance has a huge potential to have a greater market share. All factors are in place for the Indian insurance industry to blossom into one of the fastest growing financial services markets in the world.
Indian Insurance in the Global Scenario In the life insurance business, India ranked 10th among the 156 countries, for which the data is published by Swiss Re. During 2011-12, the life insurance premium in India declined by 8.5 per cent (inflation adjusted). During the same period, the global life insurance premium declined by 2.7 per cent. The share of Indian life insurance sector in
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global life insurance market stood at 2.30 per cent during 2011, as against 2.54 per cent in 2010.
Table 1 INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF INSURANCE PENETRATION* (In per cent) Countries 2010** 2011** Total Life Non- Total Life Non- Life Life Australia 5.9 3.1 2.8 6.0 3.0 3.0 Brazil 3.1 1.6 1.5 3.2 1.7 1.5 France 10.5 7.4 3.1 9.5 6.2 3.3 Germany 7.2 3.5 3.7 6.8 3.2 3.6 Russia 2.3 0.0 2.3 2.4 0.1 2.3 South Africa 14.8 12.0 2.8 12.9 10.2 2.7 Switzerland 9.9 5.5 4.4 10.0 5.5 4.5 United 12.4 9.5 2.9 11.8 8.7 3.1 Kingdom United States 8.0 3.5 4.5 8.1 3.6 4.5 Asian Countries Bangladesh 0.9 0.7 0.2 0.9 0.7 0.2 Hong Kong 11.4 10.1 1.4 11.4 10.1 1.4 India # 5.1 4.4 0.7 4.1 3.4 0.7 Japan 10.1 8.0 2.1 11.0 8.8 2.2 Malaysia 4.8 3.2 1.6 5.1 3.3 1.8 Pakistan 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.4 0.3 PR China 3.8 2.5 1.3 3.0 1.8 1.2 Singapore 6.1 4.6 1.6 5.9 4.3 1.5 South Korea 11.2 7.0 4.2 11.6 7.0 4.6
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Sri Lanka 1.4 0.6 0.9 1.2 0.6 0.6 Taiwan 18.4 15.4 3.0 17.0 13.9 3.1 Thailand 4.3 2.6 1.7 4.4 2.7 1.7 World 6.9 4.0 2.9 6.6 3.8 2.8 Source: Swiss Re, Sigma Volumes 2/2011 and 3/2012. * Insurance penetration is measured as ratio of premium (in US Dollars) to GDP (in US Dollars) ** Data pertains to the calendar year 2010 and 2011. # Data relates to financial year 2010-11 and 2011-12.
From Table 1 we can found that Taiwan have maximum penetration in case of total insurance and life insurance also, after Taiwan next place occupied by South Africa and Hong Kong maintaining the same penetration levels in total insurance, life insurance and non-life insurance.
Table 2 INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF INSURANCE DENSITY* (In US$) Countries 2010** 2011**
Total Life Non- Total Life Non- Life Life Australia 3369.2 1766.3 1603.0 4094.0 2077.0 2017.0 Brazil 327.6 169.9 157.7 398.0 208.0 189.0 France 4186.6 2937.6 1249.0 4041.0 2638.0 1403.0 Germany 2903.8 1402.2 1501.6 2967.0 1389.0 1578.0 Russia 296.8 6.4 290.4 303.0 8.0 295.0 South 1054.7 854.6 200.1 1037.0 823.0 215.0 Africa Switzerland 6633.7 3666.8 2966.9 8012.0 4421.0 3591.0 United 4496.6 3436.3 1060.2 4535.0 3347.0 1188.0
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Kingdom United 3758.9 1631.8 2127.2 3846.0 1716.0 2130.0 States Asian Countries Bangladesh 5.8 4.4 1.4 7.0 5.0 2.0 Hong Kong 3635.5 3197.3 438.2 3904.0 3442.0 462.0 India # 64.4 55.7 8.7 59.0 49.0 10.0 Japan 4390.2 3472.8 917.4 5169.0 4138.0 1031.0 Malaysia 421.1 282.8 138.3 502.0 328.0 175.0 Pakistan 6.1 3.2 2.9 8.0 4.0 4.0 PR China 158.4 105.5 52.9 163.0 99.0 64.0 Singapore 2823.4 2101.4 722.1 3106.0 2296.0 810.0 South Korea 2339.4 1454.3 885.1 2661.0 1615.0 1045.0 Sri Lanka 34.2 13.7 20.6 33.0 15.0 18.0 Taiwan 3296.2 2756.8 539.3 3371.0 2757.0 614.0 Thailand 199.4 121.9 77.5 222.0 134.0 88.0 World 627.3 364.3 263.0 661.0 378.0 283.0 Source: Swiss Re, Sigma Volumes 2/2011 and 3/2012. * Insurance density is measured as ratio of premium (in US Dollar) to total population. ** Data pertains to the calendar year 2010 and 2011. # Data relates to financial year 2010-11 and 2011-12.
Table 2 depicts that Switzerland has maximum density of insurance in total insurance, life insurance and non-life insurance second place occupied by Japan and the least density is in Bangladesh. Insurance penetration & density in India: The measure of insurance penetration and density reflects the level of development of insurance sector in a country. While insurance penetration is measured as the percentage of insurance premium to
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GDP, insurance density is calculated as the ratio of premium to population (per capita premium). Since opening up of Indian insurance sector for private participation, India has reported increase in insurance density for every subsequent year and for the first time reported a fall in the year 2011.
Table 3 Insurance Penetration And Density In India Year Life Non- Industry Life Density Penetration Density Penetration Density Penetration (USD) (percentage) (USD) (percentage) (USD) (percentage) 2001 9.1 2.15 2.4 0.56 11.5 2.71 2002 11.7 2.59 3.0 0.67 14.7 3.26 2003 12.9 2.26 3.5 0.62 16.4 2.88 2004 15.7 2.53 4.0 0.64 19.7 3.17 2005 18.3 2.53 4.4 0.61 22.7 3.14 2006 33.2 4.10 5.2 0.60 38.4 4.80 2007 40.4 4.00 6.2 0.60 46.6 4.70 2008 41.2 4.00 6.2 0.60 47.4 4.60 2009 47.7 4.60 6.7 0.60 54.3 5.20 2010 55.7 4.40 8.7 0.71 64.4 5.10 2011 49.0 3.40 10.0 0.70 59.0 4.10 Source: Swiss Re, Various Issues. 1.Insurance density is measured as ratio of premium (in US Dollar) to total population. 2. Insurance penetration is measured as ratio of premium (in US Dollars) to GDP (in US Dollars). 3. The data of Insurance penetration is available with rounding off to one digit after decimal from 2006.
Table 3 shows that the insurance penetration in India, which surged consistently till 2009-10, has slipped since 2010-11 on account of slowdown in life insurance premium as compared to the growth rate of the Indian economy. Life insurance penetration had consistently
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gone up from 2.15 per cent in 2001 to 4.60 in 2009, before slipping to 4.40 per cent in 2010 and further slipping to 3.40 per cent in 2011. India has reported consistent increase in insurance density every year since the sector was opened up for private competition in the year 2000. However, for the first time in 2011, there was a fall in insurance density. The life insurance density in India has gone up from USD 9.1 in 2001 to USD 49.0 in 2011 though it reached the peak of USD 55.7 in 2010.
Major milestones of insurance regulations of this century: 1912 – There was a loud demand to regulate the affairs of insurance during the first decade of the 20th century after five hundred provident fund societies that ought to cater to the needs of small income groups failed miserably in the task. The government realized the need of regularization and passed. The Indian Life Insurance Company Act' and 'The Provident Insurance societies' Act to regulate the affairs of insurance companies and to avoid failures and check malpractices. It mandated for the companies to submit certain records to the government. As a result several companies which conducted insurance business on unsound actuarial principles were closed. 1928- The Indian Insurance Companies Act was enacted to enable the government to collect statistical information about both life and non life insurance business. The bill provided that the surplus shall be allocated to shareholders and to policyholders in certain proportion. Every insurance company has to submit annual statements showing details of business both in and outside India.
1938 - The Insurance Act: It is a comprehensive act to regulate insurance business in India. It was due to the strenuous efforts made by J.C. Setelvad who was the founder president of the Indian insurance companies. This act forms the basis for the most current insurance
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laws. This act was passed with a view to establishing closer supervision and control in matters of investment of funds, expenditure and general management of insurance companies. The act facilitated for the establishment of the Department of Insurance under the authority of the Superintendent of Insurance. The act was amended in 1950 and The Controller of Insurance was held responsible for the orderly business of insurance in India. An Insurance Year Book (Blue Book) is published by the Controller of Insurance every year giving information relating to progress of life and general insurance business in India.
1956 - Nationalization of life insurance business in India. The Executive Committee of the Insurance Councils that was set up in 1950 by the government of India made serious efforts to ensure high standard of conduct and sound business practices. The study conducted by the committee found that the concept of trusteeship which should be the cornerstone of life insurance seemed entirely lacking and most managements had no appreciation of the clear and vital distinction that exists between trust monies and those belonged to joint stock companies owned by the shareholders. The government of India thought it fit to nationalize the life insurance industry. The nationalization of the life insurance brought to an end for the private operators and 170 insurance companies and 75 provident societies that were issuing life insurance policies were amalgamated to form the Life Insurance Corporation of India, with a capital contribution of Rs 5 crore by the government of India.
1972 -Nationalization of general insurance business in India. 1993 -Setting up of Malhotra Committee to suggest structural reforms in insurance sector with a view to improving the functioning of LIC and GIC and to make recommendations on regulation and supervision of the insurance sector in India.
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1994 Recommendations of Malhotra Committee, recommending for opening up of insurance sector to private players and for professionalizing of agency force by compulsory inductive training. The committee insisted that the insurance companies should pay special attention to the rural insurance business. For entry of private players, it suggested minimum capital requirement of 100 crore rupees and also suggested norms relating to promoters' equity and equity capital by foreign companies. The report suggested that postal life insurance should be allowed to operate in the rural market.
1995- Setting up of Mukharjee Committee to make concrete plans for the requirements of the newly formed insurance companies.
1996 -Setting up of (Interim) Insurance Regulatory Authority. 1997- Mukhajee Committee Report submitted, but not made public. 1997 -Greater autonomy to LIC, GIC and their subsidiaries with regard to the restructuring of boards and flexibility in investment norms aimed at channeling funds to the insurance sector. 1999- The standing committee headed by Murali Deora decided that foreign equity in private insurance should be limited to 26%. The IRA bill is renamed as Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA) bill. On 7thDec, 1999, the government passed IRDA act. 2000- President gives his assent to IRDA Bill. 2002 – Banks were allowed to sell insurance plans. 2005- Micro Insurance Regulations notified by the IRDA. 2007- Govardhan Committee was constituted to study the manner in which the distribution channels are functioning and to recommend changes, if any, for making them more effective.
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2008- Govardhan committee submitted its report in April, 08 and the recommendations are under consideration of IRDA.
2009- A Government appointed Panel on Investor Protection & Awareness chaired by D. Swarup, the Chairman of Pension Funds Regulatory & Development Authority (PFRDA) submitted its report to the Government of India recommending, inter alia, for phasing out Agents‘ commission by April, 2011 for ULIPs and allow investors to negotiate the fees. The proposal is under the consideration of the Finance Ministry.
2010 – Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) banned the sale of ULIPs by the life insurance companies without getting its approval and claimed that the ULIPs are more of mutual fund entities rather than insurance entities. IRDA asserted its own authority on the governance of ULIPs and permitted the companies to resume selling the ULIP products. The matter is therefore referred to the Court of Law. Meanwhile the Finance Ministry has given directions in June, 2010 that they should be regulated by IRDA only.
Micro insurance Micro insurance In an effort to ensure a balanced and speedy expansion of insurance coverage in the country, the IRDA has put in place the regulatory framework laying down the obligations of insurers to the rural and social sectors. These regulations impose obligations on insurers towards the rural population - to sell a specified percentage of policies and underwrite specified percentage of gross premium underwritten for life and non-life insurance companies respectively; and cover a specified number of lives/assets belonging to people below poverty line or those pursuing certain traditional occupations. These
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obligations have been linked to the number of years of having been in operations of the respective insurer.
The rural sector has been defined as the places or areas classified as ―rural‖ while conducting the latest decennial population census. People in the rural areas are largely engaged in agricultural pursuits such as cultivation, agricultural labor, and work in livestock, forestry, fishing, hunting, plantation, orchards and allied activities.
The social sector is defined as including the unorganized sector, the informal sector, the conomically vulnerable or backward classes and other categories of persons, both in rural and urban areas. The unorganized sector will include self employed workers such as agricultural labor, bidi workers, brick kiln workers, carpenters, cobblers, construction workers, fishermen, hamals, handicraft artisans, handloom and khadi workers, lady tailors, leather and tannery workers, papad makers, powerloom workers, physically handicapped self employed persons, rikshaw pullers, safai, karmacharis, salt growers, seri-culture workers, sugarcane cutters, tendu leaf collectors, toddy toppers, vegetable vendors, washerwomen, working women in hills or such other categories of persons.
Rural India is the next frontier for life insurance companies. India's life insurance market is booming. From a single company a decade ago to 24 active players today, The increase in competition is forcing insurance providers to look beyond urban centres and take their trade to the more challenging rural hinterlands of the country.
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Table 4 New Business Under Micro Insurance Portfolio (Premium in ` lakh) Insurer Individual Group Policies Premium Schemes Premium LIVES covered Private 793660 964.22 112 1150.67 750555 LIC 3826783 10603.49 5461 9831.63 9444349 Total 4620443 11567.71 5573 10982.30 10194904 Note: New business premium includes first year premium and single premium.
In the life insurance business of the micro insurance, the Individual New Business premium in the year stood at Rs.115.68 crore for 46.20 lakh new policies, the group business premium amounted to Rs.109.82 crore covering 1.02 crore of lives. LIC contributed most of the business procured in this portfolio by garnering Rs.106.03 crore of individual premium from 38.26 lakh lives and Rs.98.32 crore of group premium underwriting 94.44 lakh lives.
Conclusion The need of the hour is more of inclusive insurance where the rural masses are to be further educated and empowered. All rural financial activities need to be inter-twined with insurance for added protection and for meaningful success of all government activities. The IRDA framed certain guidelines for popularization of insurance in the rural areas and the results are encouraging. Still the progress is not sufficient as most of the companies lack focus on the rural sector and the tendency to view the rural customer as extension of urban customer. The success of micro insurance in India is still in nascent stage. The full potential is not tapped. The life insurance industry excepting LIC of India has not taken micro insurance seriously. For the success of micro insurance, the marketing departments of the life insurers need to reassess their strategies and start appointing micro
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insurance agents on a large scale. The help of NGOs and SHGs need to be utilized .
References
1. Aggarwal, V. (2004), ―Bancassurance: Concept, Framework and Implementation, The Journal of Insurance Institute of India, Vol. 30, July–December, pp. 34–51.
2. Balachandran S(2007), Life Insurance – IC33, Insurance institute of India.
3. Bodla, B.S., Garg, M. C. and Singh, K. P. (2004), Insurance: Fundamentals, Environment, and Procedures, Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
4. Gupta P.K(2009), Insurance & Risk Management, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai.
5. IRDA Annual Report 2011-12 6. Kandampully, J. (2002), Services Management: The New Paradigm in Hospitality, Pearson Education, New Delhi.
7. Manvendra Pratap Singh, MS. Arpita Chakraborty and DR. Raju G, Contemporary Issues In Marketing Of Life Insurance Services In India, International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, Vo.1 Issue7, Novermber, 2011, pp 47-60
8. Neelamegam, R. and Veni, K.P. (2008), Bancassurance–An Emerging Concept in India, The Journal of Insurance Institute of India, Vol.34, January–June, pp. 49–54.
9. Periasamy, P. (2005), Principle and Practice of Insurance, 1st Edition, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai.
10. http://profit.ndtv.com/news/corporates/article-rural-markets-still- under-penetrated-in-life-insurance-aviva-313736
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11. http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and- economy/banking/insurers-turn-to-rural-india-for- cover/article5052890.ece
12. http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2009-12- 16/news/27662775_1_rural-areas-canara-hsbc-aviva-life
13. http://www.celent.com/reports/selling-life-insurance-rural-india 14. http://www.hindu.com/biz/2005/07/04/stories/2005070400241800.htm.
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A STUDY ON AWARENESS REGARDING WORK SIMPLIFICATION AMONG HOME MAKER ACROSS INCOME GROUP
Nabat Arfi Dr.Shalini Agarwal Department of Human Development Assistant Professor & Family Studies Dept. of Human Development & School for Home Science Family Studies Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar School for Home Science University, Lucknow Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow
I. INTRODUCTION Work simplification is scientific approach to study work processes with view to simplifying the process such that the work process becomes more efficient and effective thereby raises productivity and reduces wastage of labor effort, material, space, time & energy in the process of producing a good or delivering a service. Work simplification is defined as a managerial tool for improving an individual performance and is an organized use of common sense to eliminate waste of different resources. A home maker may wish to free work time for other activities or simply to fit work time available to required work. She may on the other hand have a liberal supply of time, but need to conserve her energy. A homemaker that is knowledgeable and skillful can save more time and effort in doing the task. II. METHODOLOGY
Aims and Objectives- The aim and objective of the study is to know the awareness regarding work simplification among home maker across income group. Research design- A research design is the specification of methods and procedure for acquiring the information needed. The research
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design for the present study was cross-sectional research design. Cross- sectional method was used because this method is extensive and can be used to collect data from a large sample at a particular point of time. Sampling Design- The sample for the present study consisted of 120 makers (40 Home maker from high income group, 40 home maker from middle income group and 40 home maker from low income group). The purposive random sampling technique used to select the sample from the selected area. Methods of Data Collection- A self constructed questionnaire was given to the subjects for their response. Data Analysis- For the analysis of data the following steps were followed: (A) Coding- A coding plan was developed in which code numbers were given to every question and its responses and then tabulated on the coding sheet. (B) Tabulation- The coded data was transferred from the coding sheet to comprehensive tables to give a clear picture of the findings. (C) Statistical Analysis- The descriptive statistic applied was ANOVA test. Table.1: To study the level of awareness of respondents regarding work simplification, a questionnaire (YES & NO) was developed to get the response of the respondents. S.No. STATEMENTS 1 Work simplification is a managerial tool for improving an individual performance. 2 Work simplification is an organized use of common sense to eliminate waste of different resources. 3 Work simplification may be defined as accomplishing more work with a given amount of time and energy. 4 Resources are committed to best possible use with the
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help of work simplification. 5 Work simplification can also be defined as a process of behavior modification. 6 Work simplification reduces physical as well as psychological stress. 7 Work simplification motivates the worker to do more. 8 Controlling of budget & reduction in cost is the major success of work simplification. 9 Work simplification enhances time management. 10 Work simplification enhances energy management. 11 Work simplification saves more of your time than energy. 12 Proper lightning & ventilation in the kitchen helps in simplifying work. 13 Work simplification reduces the chances of injury & re- injury. 14 Work simplification reduces frustration and fatigue. 15 Peak load time of the home maker can be reduced by work simplification. 16 Work simplification gives a feeling of flexibility & spaciousness. 17 Knowledge about work, worker & work place is important for effective work simplification. 18 Work simplification is very effective in improving flow of work. 19 Work simplification leads to work organization. 20 Steps of management process contribute a lot in work simplification.
III. RESULTS & DISSCUSSION
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Table.2: F- value (ANOVA) between independent variable income group and awareness. S.No. Income N Mean S.D. F(cal) Sig. Group 1 High income 40 14.30 7.046 group 0.292 0.956 2 Middle 40 10.83 8.623 income group 3 Low income 40 14.55 6.567 group Significant at 0.05 level The above table reveals that no significant differences were found between awareness and income group of the respondents (F-value= 0.292) at 5% level of significance, therefore the null hypothesis has been accepted. Hence, the awareness of respondents may not vary according to income group. It has been concluded that if a home maker is knowledgeable and skillful she knows how to simply her work in best possible manner whether she is from high income group or middle income group or low income group.
References 1. Kitaw D. & Belachew T. (2007), “Work simplification for productivity improvement (A case study: katili metal products factory), Journal of EEA, vol.24:43-57. 2. Work simplification and family resource management. http://www.familyresourcemanagement.org/services/work- simplification/ . Accessed on February 2014. 3. Work simplification. http://healthymeals.nal. usda.gov/hsmrs/ Personal%20Skills
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%20Trainer%20Manual/Work%20Simplification%20Master%20File. pdf. Accessed on February 2014. 4. The Work Simplification in the Preparation of Foods. file:///C:/Users/nabat/Desktop/The%20Work%20Simplification%20in %20the%20Preparation%20of%20Foods.htm. Accessed on February 2014. 5. Definition of work simplification. http:// www.businessdictionary .com/definition/work-simplification.html#ixzz2tFf2a3q4. Accessed on February 2014. 6. Steidl, R.E & Bratton, E.C. (1966). Work in the Home. Newyork. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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INFLUENCE OF INTERNET ADDICTION ON MENTAL HEALTH AND ADJUSTMENT OF COLLEGE STUDENTS
Neeta Sharma Assistant Professor Department of Education SRM University, NCR Campus, Modinagar
1.1 Introduction Internet is a ‘network of networks’ that links computers around the world. It is a network of millions of computers across the world and thereby it is the vast collection of resources people, information and multimedia. It enables efficient and effective communication. It is easy to communicate with people in the next building. After the invention of computer the world has become a global village. The internet provides significant benefits for students, such as research access, socialization, entertainment and a communication tool with families and friends. Recent developments in technology have significantly changed human lifestyles. It is a sort of revolution in true sense. The scientific achievement technological advancement, satellite communication and super computerization have revolutionized the communicative system in the contemporary world and have led to incredible change in human behavior and professional world. Information and communication technology has wiped out the boundaries between the nations and converted the world into global village. On one hand information revolution in cyber age has so many positive characteristics that make human life so comfortable but on the other hand the adverse effect of Internet has also been identified which may be known as compulsive. Internet usage or Internet Addiction Disorder {IAD} or cyber space addiction or pathological computer use. Internet is extremely attractive and has positive impact on the user initially, as it is a kind of fun and help giving facility, gives
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a sense of controllability and allows on inhibited person to venture in a free space {cyber space}. These initial positive impacts have varied influence on different on different people with respect to their self concept, body image, mental health, adjustment and so on, through cognition 1.2 NEED OF THE STUDY Internet has facilitated its influence on the way of life of people. Frequent use of the Internet brings the Internet addiction among its users. Particularly college students are the vulnerable group for problematic Internet use. Internet addiction is an individual’s inability to control his or her use of the Internet. It causes psychological and interpersonal problems in a person’s life. Even it also effects the mental health and adjustment of students. Mental health reflects the ability of an individual to make adequate adjustment to the environment on the plane of reality. On the other hand adjustment reflects that process by which living organism maintains a balance between his needs and circumstances that influence the satisfaction of these needs. Hence, the research in this area is very much needed to identify the impact of Internet addiction on Mental health and adjustment of students. 1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM: “Influence of Internet Addiction on Mental health and adjustment of college students”. 1.4 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS USED: Internet : An international network of well over ten thousand networks linked using the TCP/IP protocols also used more loosely to mean either the worldwide information net or the conglomeration of all computers and networks that can be reached via an Internet E-mail address. Mental health: Mental health means the ability to balance feelings desires, ambition and ideas in one’s life. It means the ability to face and concept the realities of life.
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Adjustment : The process of adjustment starts right from the birth of a child and continues till his death. The problem of adjustment is related arriving at a balanced state between the needs of the individuals their satisfaction. 1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY: The study has the following objectives: 1. To study the Internet addiction of college students. 2. To Find out significant difference in Mental Health of mildly Internet addicted and severely Internet addicted college students. 3. To find out significant difference in Adjustment of mildly Internet addicted and Severely Internet addicted college students. 4. To study the influence of Internet addiction on mental health of college students. 5. To study the influence of Internet addiction on Adjustment of college students. 1.6 HYPOTHESIS
1.6.1 There is no significant difference in Mental health of mildly Internet Addicted and severely Internet addicted college students. 1.6.2 There is no significant difference in mental health of mildly internet addicted & severely internet addicted students. 1.6.3 There is no significant difference in level of overall adjustment of mildly internet addicted and survey internet addicted students. 1.6.4 There is no significant difference in level of emotional stability of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. 1.6.5 There is no significant difference in level of level of autonomy of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted.
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1.6.6 There is no significant difference in level of felling of security & insecurity of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. 1.6.7 There is no significant difference in level of self concept of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. 1.6.8 There is no significant difference in level of intelligence of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. 1.6.9 There is no significant difference in level of adjustment of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. 1.6.10 There is no significant difference in home adjustment of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. 1.6.11 There is no significant difference in social adjustment of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. 1.6.12 There is no significant difference in health & emotional adjustment of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. 1.6.13 There is no significant difference in college adjustment of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. 1.6.14 There is no significant Influence of Internet addiction on Mental Health of College Students. 1.6.15 There is no significant Influence of Internet addiction on adjustment of college students. 1.7 METHOD OF THE STUDY Expost-facto Research Methodology had been used for present study. 1.8 POPULATION OF THE STUDY All the students pursuing graduation and post-graduation in professional college of Ghaziabad District. 1.9 SAMPLE OF THE STUDY: First of all a list of all government and self-financed professional colleges was prepared with the help of Internet and then two professional colleges of Ghaziabad District were selected randomly
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through lottery technique. 150 student from government college and 150 student from self finance college. 1.10 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES: 1. “Mental Health Battery (MHB)” constructed by Arun Kumar singh and Alpana Sen Gupta. 2. “Adjustment Inventory” by V.K. Mittal. 3. "Internet Addiction Questionnaire” construted by Dr. Kimbrley Young. Random selection technique was used to collect the data by researcher. 1.11 STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES: 1. 1.Mean
2. 2.Standard Deviation 3. Correlation TABLE 1.1 Ho1 There is no significant difference in Mental health of mildly Internet Addicted and severely Internet addicted college students.
Percentage (%) of Category N Mean S.D. Moderat Mild Severe e Girls 50 44.58 10.41 32 30 38 Boys 50 49.56 13.08 40 10 50 Total Students 100 47.02 14.75 36 20 44
The above table reveals that average students are moderately internet addicted 32% girls are mildly internet addicted, 30% girls are moderately internet addicted and 38% girls are severely internet addicted on the other hand, 40% boys are mildly internet addicted, 10% boys are moderately internet addicted, while, 50% boys are severely internet addicted. As the mean of boys is higher than the girls, this
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Fig: Sample Selection Strategy INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.735; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 3, ISSUE 4(1), APRIL 2014
clearly indicates that boys are more internet addicted in comparison to the girls. TABLE 1.2 Ho2 There is no significant difference in mental health of mildly internet addicted & severely internet addicted students. Showing Mean, S.D. and 't' values of mild internet addicted and severely internet addicted students. Total Mean Value Groups N S.D. t of Mental Health Mildly internet addicted 36 57.8 8.9 1.69 Severely Internet 44 53.5 9.7 addicted
Above table reveals that Mean value of Mildly internet addicted students is 57.8 and mean value of severely internet addicted students is 53.85. Thus, it can be interpreted that the Mildly Internet addicted students are more mentally healthy in comparison to the severely internet addicted students. TABLE 1.3 Ho3 There is no significant difference in level of overall adjustment of mildly internet addicted and survey internet addicted students. Showing Difference between Mean Score of OA in Mildly Internet addicted and severely internet addicted Students. Groups N Mean Score of S.D. t OA Mildly Internet addicted 36 11.2 3.6 Severally Internet 44 7.4 3.0 5.4* addicted Result: Above table reveals that the calculated 't' value is lesser than the table value at both levels is significance. So, the null hypothesis is
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rejected. It has been concluded that there is significant difference in mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students and the mildly internet addicted students with higher mean (11.2) have more level of overall adjustment in comparison to the severely internet addicted students with lower mean (7.4). It can be further interpreted that for mildly internet addicted students mean is high, It means if internet addiction is low, level of overall adjustment is more. TABLE 1.4 Ho4 There is no significant difference in level of emotional stability of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. Showing Difference between Mean Score of ES in Mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students. Groups N Mean Score of S.D. t ES Mildly Internet addicted 36 7.70 4.2 Severely Internet addicted 44 7.35 3.9 0.38
Result: The above table reveals that the calculated 't' value is lesser than the table value at both levels of significance. So, the null hypothesis is accepted. It has been concluded that there is no significant difference between the mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students and the mildly internet students with higher mean 7.70 are more emotionally table in comparison mildly internet addicted students with higher mean 11.2 have more level of overall adjustment in comparison to the severally internet addicted students with lower mean 7.4.
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It can be further interpreted that for mildly internet addicted students mean is high. It means of internet addiction is low, emotional stability is high.
TABLE 1.5 Ho5 There is no significant difference in level of level of autonomy of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. Showing Difference between Mean score of AY in Mildly internet addicted and Severely internet addicted students. Groups N Mean Score of S.D. t AY Mildly Internet addicted 36 5.9 4.9 Severely Internet addicted 44 7.1 4.5 1.2
Result: Above table reveals that calculated 't' value is lesser than the table value at both levels of significance. So, the null hypothesis is accepted. It has been concluded that there is no significant difference between mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students. and the severely internet addicted students with higher mean 7.1 have more level of autonomy in comparison to the mildly internet addicted addicted students with lower mean 5.9. It can further be interpreted that for severely internet addicted students mean is high. It means if internet addiction is more, level of Autonomy is high.
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TABLE 1.6 Ho6 There is no significant difference in level of felling of security & insecurity of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. Showing Difference between Mean score of SI in mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students. Groups N Mean Score of S.D. t SI Mildly Internet addicted 36 11.2 8.9 4.1* Severely Internet addicted 44 9.2 8.7 * Significant
Result: Above table reveals that the calculated 't' value is higher than the value at both levels of significance. So, the null hypothesis is rejected. It has been concluded that there is significant difference in mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students and the mildly internet students with higher mean 11.2 have more feeling of security & insecurity in comparison to the severely internet addicted students with lower mean 9.2. It can further be interpreted that for mildly internet addicted students mean is high. It means if internet addiction is low, then feeling of security & Insecurity is high. TABLE 1.7 Ho7 There is no significant difference in level of self concept of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. Groups N Mean Score of S.D. t SC Mildly Internet addicted 36 13.4 6.7 Severely Internet addicted 44 12.6 2.6 0.68
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Result: Above table reveals that calculated 't' value is lesser than the table value at both level of significance. So, the null hypothesis is accepted. It has been concluded that there is no significant difference between mildly interest addicted and severely internet addicted students and mildly internet addicted students with higher mean 13.4 have more self concept in comparison to the severely internet addicted students with lower mean 12.6 It can further be interpreted that for mildly internet addicted students mean is high. It means if internet addiction is low, then there will be high self concept. TABLE 1.8 Ho8 There is no significant difference in level of intelligence of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. Showing Difference between Mean score of I.Q. in mildly internet addicted and severely Internet addicted students. Groups N Mean Score of S.D. t IQ Mildly Internet addicted 36 11.2 3.6 0.68 Severely Internet addicted 44 7.4 3.8
Result: Above table reveals that calculated 't' value is lesser than the table value at both levels of significance so, the null hypothesis is accepted. It has been concluded that there is no significant difference between mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students and the mildly internet addicted students with higher mean 11.2 have more Intelligence in comparison to the severely internet addicted students with lower mean 7.4.
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It can further be interpreted that for mildly internet addicted students mean is high. It means if internet addiction is low, intelligence level is high.
TABLE 1.9 Ho9 There is no significant difference in level of adjustment of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. To test this hypothesis 't' test was used. the following tables shows the result in this relations. Total Mean Groups N Value of S.D. t Adjustment Mildly Internet addicted 36 174.34 14.22 Severely Internet 44 147.61 18.51 1.71 addicted
Above table reveals that Mean Value of Mildly internet addicted students is 174.34 and Mean value of severely internet addicted students is 147.81. Thus, it can be interpreted that the mildly internet addicted students are more adjusted in comparison to the internet addicted students. TABLE 1.10 Ho10 There is no significant difference in home adjustment of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. Showing Difference between Mean score of HA in mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted college students. Group N Mean Score of S.D. t HA Mildly Internet addicted 36 48.93 46.3 Severely Internet addicted 44 34.2 49.2 3.2*
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* Significant Result: The above table reveals the calculated 't' value is greater than the table value at both the levels of significance. So, the null hypothesis is rejected. It has been concluded that there is significant difference between mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students and the mildly internet addicted students with higher mean 48.93 are more adjusted at home in comparison to the severely internet addicted students with lower mean 34.2. It can further be interpreted that for mildly internet addicted students mean is high. It means if internet addiction less, adjustment at home is high.
TABLE 1.11 Ho11 There is no significant difference in social adjustment of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. Showing Difference between mean score of SA in mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students. Group N Mean Score of S.D. t SA Mildly Internet addicted 36 46.5 34.1 Severely Internet addicted 44 34.9 38.6 1.4
Result: The above table reveals that the calculated 't' value is lesser than the table value at the both revels of significance. So, the null hypothesis is accepted. It has been concluded that there is no significant difference between mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students and the mildly internet addicted students
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with higher mean 46.5 are more socially adjusted in comparison to the severely internet addicted students with lower mean 34.9 It can further be interpreted that for mildly internet addicted students mean is high. It means if internet addiction is less, more will be the social adjustment. TABLE 1.12 Ho12 There is no significant difference in health & emotional adjustment of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. Showing Difference between mean score of H&E in mild adjustment addicted and severely internet addicted college students. Group N Mean Score of S.D. t H&E Mildly Internet addicted 36 47.11 31.0 Severely Internet 44 31.4 49.6 4.02* addicted *Significant
Result: The above table reveals that the calculated 't' value is higher than the table value at both the levels of significant. So, the null hypothesis is rejected. It has been concluded that there is significant difference between mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students and the mildly internet addicted students with higher mean 47.11 have more health & emotional adjustment in comparison to the severely internet addicted students with lower mean 31.4 It can be further interpreted that for mildly internet addicted students is less, health and Emotional adjustment is more.
TABLE 1.13 Ho13 There is no significant difference in college adjustment of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted.
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Showing Difference between Mean Score of CA in Mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students. Group N Mean Score of S.D. t CA Mildly Internet addicted 36 47.11 31.1 Severely Internet addicted 44 31.8 50.2 0.98
Result: The above table reveals that the calculated 't' value is lesser than the table value at both the levels of significance. So, the null hypothesis is accepted. it has been concluded that there is no significant difference between the mildly internet addicted students and severely internet addicted students and the mildly internet addicted students with higher mean value 47.11 have more college adjustment in comparison to the severely internet addicted students with lower mean 31.7 It can be further interpreted that for mildly internet addicted students mean is high. It means if internet addiction is less, more there college adjustment.
TABLE 1.14 Ho14 "There is no significant Influence of Internet addiction on Mental Health of College Students." Correlation between Internet addiction and Mental health of college students. Size of Calculated Levels of Df Result Sample r Significance 0.05 0.01 0.05 level 0.01 level 100 98 -0.93 0.195 0.254 significant significant
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Result: The above table reveals that the obtained value of r = -0.93 is significant at both he levels of significant (0.05 level & 0.01 level) for 98 degree of freedom. It shows that there is a significant negative correlation between Internet addiction and Mental Health of College Students, null hypothesis is rejected. It can be further interpreted that if internet addiction increase, mental health decreases of internet addiction decreases, then mental health increases.
TABLE 1.15 Ho15 "There is no significant Influence of Internet addiction on adjustment of college students". Size of Calculated Levels of Df Result Sample r Significance 0.05 0.01 0.05 level 0.01 level 100 98 -0.15 0.195 0.254 significant significant
Result: The above table reveals, that the obtained value of r=0.15 is significant at both the levels of significance (0.05 level & 0.01 level) for 98 degree of freedom. It shows that t here is a significant negative correlation between Internet addiction and adjustment of college students. Hence, null hypothesis is rejected. It can be further interpreted that if interest addiction increases, adjustment decreases, if internet addiction decreases then adjustment increases.
FINDINGS OF THE STUDY Findings of the present study are given according to the objectives and concerning hypothesis mentioned below:
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INTERNET ADDICTION OF STUDENTS FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.1 The results indicate that average students are moderately internet addicted are boys are more severely internet addicted in comparison to girls 32% girls are mildly internet addicted, 30% girls are moderately internet addicted and 38% girls are severely internet addicted. While 40% boys are mildly internet addicted, 10% boys are moderately internet while 50% boys are severely internet addicted. Thus, it can be concluded that boys are more severely internet addicted than girls. The reason behind this this may be that boys have less commitment at home when compared to the girls. Hence they spend more time for Internet usage even at home.
FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.2
The hypothesis stated "that there is no significant difference in mental health of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted. The result reveals with regard to different dimensions of mental health indicate- FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.3 That there is no significant differences between emotional stability of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students. As mean value of mildly internet addicted students. As mean value of mildly internet addicted is higher. This indicates that mildly internet addicted students are emotionally more stable than severely internet addicted. FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.4 That there is significant difference in overall adjustment to mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students. The results further indicates test severely internet addicted students have less level of over all adjustments.
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FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.5 That there is no significant difference in level of Autonomy of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted and severely internet addicted students. The result further indicate that severely internet addicted have low level of Autonomy than mildly internet addicted.. FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.6 That there is significant difference is mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted in terms of feelings of security & insecurity. The result indicate that mildly internet addicted students have more feelings of security & insecurity. FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.7 That there is no significant difference in mildly internet addictive severely internet addicted in terms of self concept. The results further indicate that severely internet addicted students have less self concept than mildly internet addicted students. FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.8 That there is no significance difference in intelligence of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students. The results further indicate that mildly internet addicted students have more intelligence than severely internet addicted students. ADJUSTMENT OF STUDENTS The result indicate that mildly interest addicted students are well adjusted in comparison to severely internet addicted students.
FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.9 The hypothesis stated, that there is no significant different in adjustment of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students. The result reveals with regard to different areas of adjustment.
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FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.10 That there is significant difference between severely internet addicted and mildly internet addicted in terms of home adjustment/ The result further indicates that mildly internet students are well adjusted at home than severely internet addicted students. FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.11 That there is no significant difference in social adjustment mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students. The result further reveals that mildly internet addicted students are well adjusted in society. The reason behind this may be that mildly internet addicted students have much time to interact with other people, they talk with them on different matters and participate in social activities.
FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.12 That there is significant difference in health & emotion al adjustment of mildly internet addicted and severely internet addicted students. The result further reveals that mildly internet addicted have better health & emotional adjustment. The reason behind this may be that mildly internet addicts are not the excessive users of the internet, this does not affect the psychology of the students.
FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.13 That there is no significant difference in college adjustment of mildly internet addicted and severely addicted college students. The result further indicate that mildly internet addicted are well adjusted at college than severely internet addicted. The reason behind this may be that mildly internet addicted have much time to participate in co-curricular activities of college.
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FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.14 The hypothesis stated, that there is no significant influence of internet addicted on Mental health of college students. The results reveals that there is significant negative correlation between internet addiction and Mental health of college students. This means that there in significant influence of internet addiction on Mental health of students.
FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 6.1.15 The hypothesis stated, that there is no significant influence of Internet addiction on adjustment of college student s. The result reveals that there is significant negative correlation between Internet addiction and adjustment. It means that there is significant influence of Internet addiction on adjustment of college students.
CONCLUSIONS OF THE STUDY
Internet has become an indispensable tool in business and academia and personal use is increasing day by day. For better of worse, Internet has infiltrated every aspect of our lives. Society has reached such a level that it is difficult rather impossible to live without the Internet. Moreover college students are the greater users of the Internet. Excessive use of the Internet lead the students to become addicts and effect the psychology of the students. In fact the present study concluded that greater use of the Internet leads to decrease the mental health and adjustment level among college students. Hence Internet addiction and Mental health and Internet and adjustment are closely related. It can also be stated that Internet plays a major role to change the psychology of the students.
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References
1. Chouhan V.L. Golwalkar A, (2008). Internet use among university students. Edu. Tracks, Nov. Vol-No. 3, 0972-9849 2. Chouhan V.L. Golwalkar A, {2008}, “Internet addiction-A new trend in cyber-age next a kin depression”. Gujarat Journal of Psychology, vol-28, Oct- Dec. 3. Das, Mohaptra J (1989). A study of the mental health of teachers serving in the primary schools of Puritown. Fifth survey of educational research (1998-92) Vol. II, Page 964, Dr. Buch. 4. Das, Mohaptra J {1989}, “A study of the mental health of teachers serving in the primary schools of Puri town”. Fifth survey of educational research {1988-92} vol-II, page no. 964, Dr Buch. 5. Francisca S, Rani Mary (2010). Internet Knowledge of research scholars and their usage, Edu. Tracks, October, Vol-10, No.2, page No. 38, ISSN: 0972-9844. 6. Francisca S, Rani Mary {2010}, “Internet knowledge of research scholars and their usage, edu. Traks, October, vol-10, no-2, page no-38, ISSN: 0972-9844. 7. Gupta, A. and Bonnell, P (1993). Options about Mental illness among College students. Journal of personality and clinical studies, vol. 9, Page no. 63-64.
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COMMUNICATION STRATEGY FOR CLIMATE CHANGE
Dr. Challa Ramakrishna Mr. Krishnaveer Abhishek Challa Assistant Professor MA Student , D ept. of English Dept of Journalism Andhra University Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Visakhapatnam
Introduction: World is seeing a case of ‘apocalypse fatigue’ . This state of public opinion raises critical questions as to the effectiveness of twenty or more years of public education, outreach, and engagement approaches used to render a complex scientific issue meaningful and actionable for lay audiences (Oreskes, 2004). A growing body of literature on public attitudes, as well as on other aspects of the communication process, can help us understand not only the larger trends in public opinion, but also the challenges and opportunities for more effective approaches to climate change communication. Before we detail some of the common approaches to climate change communication, we should make several assumptions and understandings explicit. First, what do we mean by ‘engagement’? If communication succeeds in bridging the science-action gap, it does so by fostering public engagement with climate change. This involves a cognitive, an affective, and a behavioural dimension, i.e. people grapple mentally with and gain understanding of the issue; experience an emotional response, such as interest, concern, or worry; and actively respond by way of changes in climate-relevant behaviour or political action. (Moser, 2007) While we do not promote particular responses to climate change or advocate for particular policies here, our goal is to present insights from the multidisciplinary research literature on how communication can be shaped and carried out to assist in the task of engaging the
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public more effectively on climate change. While communication alone may not close the science-action gap, communication—cognizant of the pertinent literature that tells us what works and what doesn’t—offers a better chance of reaching the goal of effective and meaningful public engagement. We claim that communication of climate change has been less effective than one might wish for four main reasons. Communicators have assumed that: 1. a lack of information and understanding explains the lack of public engagement, and that therefore more information and explanation is needed to move people to action (‘Inspiration with information’); 2. fear and visions of potential catastrophes as a result of inaction would motivate audiences to action (‘Motivation by fear’); 3. the scientific framing of the issue would be most persuasive and relevant in moving lay audiences to action (‘One size fits all’); and 4. mass communication is the most effective way to reach audiences on this issue (‘Mobilization through mass media’). (Takahashi, 2009)
Inspiration with Information: Climate change is a challenging issue to convey. One reason lies in the fact that its principal culprits—carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping greenhouse gases—are colourless, odourless gases, and the long-term average changes set in motion by them have emerged only recently from the daily, seasonal, and inter-annual ‘noise’ of variability. Relative to human perceptual capacities, the problem is building far too slowly to be noticed by the lay eye, and the early environmental impacts of climate change have mostly occurred (and are clearly noticed) in regions far from where the majority of mid-latitudinal audiences live. The lack of direct experience makes climate change—at least for now—
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fundamentally a problem that requires signalling, illustrating, and explaining by those who have expert knowledge to those who don’t. Communication is essential (Antilla, 2005). This model can also be called as Information Deficit Model. The information deficit model, however, is problematic in a number of ways, foremost because this deep-seated, if flawed belief assumes that information and understanding are necessary and sufficient conditions for behavioural or political engagement. Those guided by the deficit model believe that better problem understanding by way of more or ‘better’ information automatically eliminates any scepticism, raises concerns, and inevitably leads to the appropriate behavioural or policy response. At worst, it assumes people have to be ‘little scientists’ to make effective decisions. Doran & Zimmerman (2009) Instead, deeply held pro-environmental values and beliefs, incentives, perceived benefits, skill and a sense of efficacy, social support, peer pressure, and practical assistance have been shown to foster behaviour change. Even concerned individuals ready and willing to act on their conviction that climate change is a problem may encounter obstacles. For example, getting an energy audit for one’s house but no help in prioritizing, how to select a contractor, finance the work and navigate other problems involved in retrofitting a home can thwart the intentions of even the most committed. Information has even been found to undermine concern and action: learning more about climate change may feel like ‘having done something,’ may feel overwhelming and disempowering, or even reinforce the desire to hold on to the status quo. (Weber, 2006) Mobilization by Fear: So maybe it is not that lay audiences need more information about climate change; maybe it’s a matter of grabbing their attention? If people are not interested in the more complex or dry scientific questions about a global, difficult-to-visualize, seemingly distant issue,
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maybe a few pictures of fear-evoking weather-related catastrophes will do? Maybe what is needed are some hard-hitting fear appeals—images and projections of negative climate change impacts that evoke worry, feelings of loss, or dread—to bring the putatively distant risks of climate change closer to home and thus motivate people to take action. (Sterman, 2008) In fact, there is plenty of evidence that communicators resort to these evocative means of communication: A Time Magazine cover in 2006 featured the now emblematic picture of the polar bear on melting ice and the headline warned in big bold letters, ‘Be worried. Be very worried.’ Countless news clips in papers, on television, or in ad campaigns use imagery of catastrophic flooding, drought, or people suffering in heat. Many climate change communicators believe that a sufficient dose of fear can serve as an effective motivator to increase the issue’s urgency and get people to ‘do something.’ The principal problem with fear as the main message of climate change communication is that what grabs attention (dire predictions, extreme consequences) is often not what empowers action. Numerous studies have documented that audiences generally reject fear appeals (or their close cousin, guilt appeals) as manipulative. Conservative audiences—at least on climate change—have been shown to be particularly resistant to them. Jost & Hunyady (2005) Fear appeals or images of overwhelmingly big problems without effective ways to counter them frequently result in denial, numbing, and apathy, i.e. reactions that control the unpleasant experience of fear rather than the actual threat. This is particularly important in light of the fact that individuals have been shown to only have a ‘finite pool of worry,’ in which issues rise and fall. An excessive focus on negative impacts (i.e. a severe ‘diagnosis’) without effective emphasis on solutions (a feasible ‘treatment’) typically results in turning audiences off rather than engaging them more actively.
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In the end, communicators must temper their own temptation to persuade with fear by recognizing that issues have attention cycles. Climate change is not always going to be on the top of people’s agendas. But communicators can make important gains by framing climate change and solutions in ways that link them to more salient (local) issues people consistently care about—the economy, their children, their health and safety. One Size Fits All: The science and scientists have been central to climate change communication. As we discussed above, however, knowledge is not sufficient to motivate action; to the contrary, as the focus of much debate it has been used to delay action. The importance of identifying the audience that has decision-making power or influence over an intended outreach goal cannot be overstated. Many communicators, however, are primarily concerned with the message or information they want to convey and rush over the critical question who they are trying to reach with it. Once the relevant audience is identified, communicators must try to understand what people care about, what they value and how they think about climate change and related matters (e.g. energy, environment). Lima & Castro (2005) Trying to better understand the audience will reveal what issues and language resonate with individuals and groups, which values are important, what aspirations they have (as parents, as professionals), as well as any pre-existing knowledge of the climate change issue, common mental models, and possible misconceptions. Deeper understanding of the audience also helps identify the best ways to frame an issue. Framing—through words, images, tone of voice, messengers, and other signals—provides essential context for people to make sense of an issue; it triggers a cascade of responses and can prime an audience for action or not.
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Extensive research in risk perception, cognitive psychology, and the influence of cultural world-views on both, suggests that individuals view incoming information through a ‘cultural’ lens, i.e. they understand and evaluate information through a filter that is coloured by their general beliefs about society, the world, and right or wrong. According to some communication scientists, ‘culture is prior to facts in the cognitive sense that what citizens believe about the empirical consequences of [certain actions or] policies derives from their cultural worldviews.’ Incoming information—however framed—may be rejected upon very quick (intuitive) judgment if it evokes some kind of threat to the listener’s sense of self, i.e. if it challenges his or her deeply held beliefs or those of the group he or she most identifies with. (Hanson, 2009) Messengers—those who convey a message—are part of the framing. It is thus important that the messenger is consistent with the way the message is framed or else the importance and credibility of the message is undermined. Historically, climate change—predominantly framed as a scientific issue—has been communicated by experts, or else scientists were the primary sources and voices in media reports. (APA, 2009) Mobilization through Mass Media: All too often, communication campaigns assume that mass media is the most effective way to reach the wide audiences needed for mobilization around climate change. The appeal of reaching large numbers through television, newspapers, and the internet glosses over the fact that information passed along through media-ted channels is often ‘consumed’ without great attention, quickly discarded or ignored. It also tempts us to ignore the structural changes occurring in the media landscape that affect the quality and diversity of news, and social divides. Abroms & Maibach (2008) Research in the health field, where public service announcements and behaviour change campaigns promoting healthy behaviour have been
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used for some time, is relevant here. While mass media channels can sometimes reach millions of people, persuasive media campaigns only evoke a change in health behaviour in a small percentage of the audience. Health issues tend to be more personal than climate change, thus we might find climate change messages to be even less effective at engaging the audience through media channels. Not surprisingly, many advocates focus not on climate change at all, but on more tangible issues, such as household energy use, cost savings, or energy security, and employ social marketing campaigns to affect behaviour change. (Nagda, 2006) One of the limitations of mass media channels is the inability to tailor messages to particular audiences, although certainly strategic choices can be made about the publication used, the timing and placement of ads, and so on. Several recent studies suggest that different audiences relate to distinct frames, goals, messages, and messengers and have preferences as to the communication channels they frequent. Thus, choosing the appropriate channel with a tailored message is more likely to reach and actively engage a specific audience.
Conclusion: In some sense, communication on climate change has been spectacularly successful. Across nations, nearly everyone in surveyed populations has at least heard of the issue and many can identify at least some important climate change impacts. However, upon deeper exploration, we find that understanding is superficial, personal concern is relatively low and ever-susceptible to be overwhelmed by more immediate, salient threats and interests. And while a majority favours generic ‘action,’ support for those that affect people’s pocketbook such as carbon taxes or increased gasoline prices declines sharply, especially during economically difficult times.
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Faced with these facts, communicators tend to resort to well-worn strategies to raise concern and elicit active engagement. First, they attempt to increase public understanding and provide more information on the assumption that knowledge is the major stumbling block to action. Second, they resort to fear tactics to motivate action, if often only to achieve the opposite effect. Third, in banking on the credibility and overall consensus of thousands of scientists, they insist on the scientific framing of climate change as the most compelling story, regardless of the differences among audiences. And finally, they try to reach the masses through traditional communication channels, while disregarding the power and advantages of different channels, especially interpersonal ones.
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8. Lima, M. L., and Castro, P. 2005. Cultural theory meets the community: Worldviews and local issues. Journal of Environmental Psychology 25(1): 23–35. 9. Nagda, B. R. A. 2006. Breaking barriers, crossing borders, building bridges: Communication processes in intergroup dialogues. Journal of Social Issues 62(3):553–76. 10. Weber, E. U. 2006. Experience-based and description-based perceptions of long-term risk: Why global warming does not scare us (yet). Climatic Change 77(1–2): 103–20. 11. Takahashi, B. 2009. Social marketing for the environment: An assessment of theory and practice. Applied Environmental Education and Communication 8(2): 135–45. 12. Doran, P. T., and Zimmerman, M. K. 2009. Examining the scientific consensus on climate change. EOS, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 90(3): 22–3. 13. Jost, J. T., and Hunyady, O. 2005. Antecedents and consequences of system-justifying ideologies. Current Directions in Psychological Science14: 260–5. 14. Hanson, F. 2009. Australia and the world: Public opinion and foreign policy. The Lowy Institute Poll 2009. Sydney: Lowy Institute for International Policy. 15. Antilla, L. 2005. Climate of scepticism: US newspaper coverage of the science of climate change. Global Environmental Change15(4):338–52. 16. American Psychological Association (APA). 2009. Psychology and Global Climate Change: Addressing a Multi-faceted Phenomenon and Set of Challenges. A Report by the Task Force on the Interface between Psychology and Global Climate Change. Washington, DC: APA.
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