EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH in Norway in the Twentiethcentury

O&44093 Bulletin 1963, No.41

. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH In Norway In the TwentiethCentury

.16

DR. JOBS. SANDVEN Institute for Educational Research University of Oslo

U.S. DEPARTMENT;OF HEALTH, EDUCATIQN, ANDWELFARE

Office ofEducation .4°

Contents Pan FOREWORD INTRODUCTION 1 Independent Research Workersto 1930 3 Pioneer Efforts 3 Child Study Begins 4 Organizjng Educational Research Duringthe 1930's 7 New Professorship of Education School Board ResearchCommittee 8 Norwegian CarnegieCommittee 9 Research by Individuals 9 War Years and Early PostwarDevelopments ,c 11 School Board Committeefor Research 12 histitute for EducationalResearch 13 Unsponsored Research i 14 Developments After 1950 16. Norwegian Resesirch Council 16 Group C.Psychology,Education, Youth Problems 17 Testa of Maturity 18 Other Council Projects 20 Norwegian Collegefor Teachers 21 Historical Studies 21 Ed ucationPsychology 22 Institute's PublicationSeries 22 Text References 25 wt. Ea

7 Foreword A

The evolution of educationas auniversity discipline andas an area for serious research is herein describedbyaneminent Norwegianpro- fessor of education, Dr. (Rills.Sandven. ResearchersonAmerican education will be struck by. certain obvious parallels betweenNorway and the United States.In bothcoun- tries educationas ascienceemergesaround 1900, though Professor Sandven citesasAmerican forerunners the work' of G.Stanley Hall and thd establishment of theNational Society for the Study of Educa- tionnearthe end of the 19thcentury. In both countries, developmentsby the 1920's had reached the stage where professors of educationwerebeing proposedasadditions to the traditional universities' faculties.In United States institutions of higher learningsuch professorswereactually formingauni- versity facultyorschool of education by the late 1920's.In Norway the suggestion thataprofessorship of education be createdat the University of Oslowasdiscussed in the 1920's, but finalapproval camelate in the 1930's. The first scholartooccupythis professorship of educationwisah eminenCresearcher, Dr. HelgaEng, whose scholarly workgoesbitck to her doctoral dissertation of 1912.Dr. Sandven succeeded Dr. Eng at the University of Oslo after World War II and iseminently quali- fiedto reporton pastandpresent educational research in Norway. GEORGE A. MALE Speciali8t in ComparativeEducation U.S. Office of Education Introduction

The acience of educationingorwaycovers awide field.It in- eludes child psychologyand the psychology of adolescents, educational psychology, educationalmethods, philosophy of education and the history of theschool syritem.It is scarcely possible to makeany sharp distinction betweeneducationas asubject and other social sciences. Educationalresearch has hadarelatively short period of developmentin Norway. Empiricalresearch, witha.view to clarifyingcon- ditions of importanceto eduiational activity,wasbegunatthe end of the 19thcentury. The rudiments of child psychology originated after the publication ofW. Preyer's book, Die Seek des Xindes (The Mind of the Chila) in1882, and Stanley Hall's basic research into the imaginative life ofthe child.There graduallyarose,inmany countries,akeen interest-in thathildas aresearch object, andanumber of organizationswerefoundedto further the study of children. The first of these, The Natiorial Societyfor the Study of Education,was established in the UnitedStates in1893. The results of themany research projectswithin the field of developmental psychology and educational psychologyeventuaHyaccurnkliatedto thepoint that,to achieve the value theydeserved for pmaica teachingpurposes,itwas necessary topresent themcollectively. Thus, E. Meumann's EverimektellePadagogikvaspublished in 1907, and inaftexpanded edition ins1914.hr the United States,g. L.Thorndikeissued his EducationalPsychology inonevolume in 1903, and in three volumesin 1913. InNorway,asinanumber of other centries, much time elapsed beforeanunderstanding of the importanA of educationalresearch became widespread.. Allowingforacertain degree of simplification, one maydesignate four mainsta!in the developmentipf educational 'researchin Norway in the 20thcentury. r. L Harty decades to 1930: Research by Independent workers withoutsupport ofanyscientific body and untelated tOanyinstitution for educational

research: e. 2. 19304940:)Independeitresearch continued andwasaided by the evolution of agenciesto promote educational research: reestablishment Of thepro- fessorship of education; thecreatiop of,anIwititute for Educational Resetichat the University of Oslo;formation ofacommittee for educa- 1

a 2 EDUCATIONALRESEARCH INNORWAY tional research bythe city ofOslo andnearbycommunities;and theestab- lishing of the NorwegianCarnegieCommittee tostudy schoolexaminations. 3. World War IIand earlyposttoar:Despiteobstacles,efforts continued which providedvaluableexperience forimmediate postwardevelopment. 4. Developmentsfrom 1950:Highlightedby theformation ofthe, Norwegian ResearchCouncilfor ,Scienceand theHumanities,one section of which deals withpsychology,education,and youthproblems. Independent ResearchWorkers to 1930

In the present study itis notpdssibletodescribe all the projects which could beincluded ina morecomplete analysis. Nor is iteasy todrawaline between workwhichcanbe describedasofapurely investigatory'nature, and that ofawider andmorepopularscope, with the dissemination ofinformationasits aim. Pioneer Efforts Rtitsearchin Norway within the field of thehistory of educationwas in the foreground prior to 1930, while,onthe other hand, little work wasbasedonempirical investigations. The history of theNorwegian school from 1739 to 1842, withspecial emphasisonthe general education of the people,wasthoroughly treated ina2-volume work by Torkein Hoverstad.1 Apart from this, onlyafew publications about the educator, OleVig,1orthose connected with theJubilee Year 1914, celebrating the 100th birthday ofmodern-day Norway,canbe said to have madeanycontribution to the history of the elementaryschool' Two notableworksonsecondary schools,* by A. E. Richsen,presented the history of twoofNorway's oldest Cathedral schools,in Bergen and Trondheim, and servedas a sourceof inspiration foi later research in thehistoryof education. From time totime, the histories of other schoolswerepublished, suchasI. F. W. Neuberth's bookon the Tordenskiold school," and E.Ass'sonthe Cathedral School in Stavanger.' In 1910, R. Stauri publishedanoutline of the history of the folk high schools in Scandinavia,' andin 1920, A. Bechholm broughtouthis historical workonthe education of elementary school- teachets in Norway." The subject of TrygveDokk's doctoral-Thesis, published in 1929;wasthe historical development ofreligious and ethical education. Thegeneral history of Norwegianeducation and the developmetitof the philosophy of educationwerediscussed insomewidely read works by Otto Anderssen,oneof which dealt with the relationbetween realism and classicism.10 Thegrammarschool in Norwaywasthe subject ofabook by Einar Sigmund."nelga Eng's bookonarteducation described-ibebeginning of the teaching of art inEngland, its further

All text references with English translation of titles arelisted at the end of this study. s. EDUCATIONALRESEARCHINNORWAY developmentby Germanteachers,and themethodsemployedin ScandiDaviancountries." As regardseducationalresearchofanempiricalnature, tively compara- fewprojectswerecarriedout in thedecadesup to 1930. Knowl- edgeof theextensive educationalresearchwork inothercountrieswas stilllacking.Thatthechild'sdevelopmentand learning peculiaritiesin the process could bemadethesubject ofscientific hadnotyet been investigation realizedto theextent thatorganizedresearch in fieldwas seriously this considered.Abeginningwasmadein 1899 with the :1 appeartplce of thefirstNorwegianworkin thefield ofchild ogy, a brief study psychol- of colorsenseinchildren,by K.B. R.Aars." 1904, E.Aars In publishedhisinvestigationof"thinking"and "will"in schoolchildren, basedon questionnairesansweredbyteachers."The endeavor,though somewhatfumblingand vague,showedthatempiri- calstudyof thechild was beginningto mature.In hisintroduction, theauthorindicated thatNorwaywas notunawareofdevelopments othercountries. in With theexception ofindividual workson school hygieneby doctors,investigations withschoolchildren as their subjectare little knownhere. Inotherparts of EuropeandAmericathere have beena greatmany investigationsofdifferent kindscarriedout.In spiteof this,itmust be its statedthatthe workis stillin infancy.Thescience ofeducationmust inthe its early sameway be saidto be in stages,even thoughboth hereand inlargercountries ofeducational there isa fund experiencewhich,individually,has beenorganizedinto (Comenius,Pestalozzi, systems Herbert).Theaccumulatedexperiencefromteaching must,however,beconnectedwithan examinationof the of thechild's mostvariedaspects spiritualandphysicallife,before,usingthis futureeducational as a basis,any theoriescan be builtup.Thetheoriesbeing bygenuineeducationalvalues determined and aimsmust againbeexaminedseparately or seen inrelationto theircontexts. ChildStudyBegins Modestasitwas,theeducationalresearchof the of this firsttwo decades century laida foundation forfurtherefforts.Helga thesis forher En's doctorate,in1912,wasthe firstextensiveandimportant work in 'Norwayin the field ofchildstudy.°Thethesiswasbasedon an investigationof the understandingofabstractconcepts byschool childrenaged10 to 14years. Around thissametime,A. Aallanalyzed afocaleducational problemofchildrenbetween 7and16yearsofage, namelytheimportanceof theattitudeof thechild of what concerpingtheuse he ,1 learns."M. L.Reymert,meanwhile,bymeansofthe inter- viewmethodhad 7 carriedthroughastudy ofthe idealsofchildren andpublishedthe 1 resultsin.1915."Researchontheintelligenceof schoolchildreninNorwaydates backto 1913whenthe of C.Looft investigations were publishedle but itwas a long timebeforemore sys, tematicworkwithin this fieldwascarriedout Interestindevelopmen- EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH IN NORWAY 5 talpsychology and educational psychologywasstimulated by the differentpublications of Siren Nordeide, particularly by his bookon psychological development from infancytomaturity, whichwas published in 1919.19 In 1921, Helga Eng's studyonthe emotional life of the child compared with that of the adultwaspublished."It described investigations of the changes taking place in the circulation of the blood and therespiratory system when emotionsareinvolved. Bymeansof systematic experiments she foundnodifferences between children and adults in these physiological changes, except that the feelings of childrenwere,by and large, connected withsensoryimpressions, and thoseof adultsmoreoften with personal spiritual experiences. An- other work by Engonconcepts and language of children at theschool entrance age waspublished in 1923.11Here she formulated the results ofacomparative study ofattitudesandconceptsamongurban and rural children.Helga Engwasalso keenly interested in the characteristics of children's drawings. She had %triple opportunity to observe this development in heryoungniece, from the first short, uncertain strokes at theageofone yearto the large colored drawings in her later childhood. Helga Eng presented the results of these studies inabook published in 1926." Other kinds of educational researchweregetting underway, such asthe experiments originated by B. Ribsskogonthe psychology of learning. He soughtto determine whethqr the time interval between the initial learning andarepetition' of the taskwasof significant importance. The results of his researchwerepublished inadoctoral thesis in 1931" Priorto 1930, therewere noscientific bodiesorresearch institutions specifically devotedto educational research.It is true that in 1909, Otto Andersen had been appointed professor of educationatthe Uni- versity of Oslo, where he remained Antil 1922.His positionwas, howeveti-morethat of director of the education seminar, whichpre- pared candidates for the teaching certificate.At that timenodegree wasoffered in education.After the death of Otto Andersen, the professorship in educationwasdiscontinued. an 1922, the Norwegian College for leachers in Trondheimwas foundedas anadvanced training college, only for teachers who had already obtained their teaching certificate and who hadsometeaching experience.Whilesomeimpetuswasgiven to the study of education, thenewcollege for teachers offered onlya1-yearprogram,thus ruling outany 'vs educational research. In 1 ,however, the Norwegian WomenTeachers'Association made applicationto the authorities toestablishaReadership in Child 6 EDUCATIONALRESEARCHINNORWAY Psychology andEducationalPsychologyat theUniversity Althoughthis ofOslo. applicationwas rejected, theeffort oftheassociation was proof ofagrowing realizationof theimportanceofscientificwork inthefieldofeducation.

.s OrganizingEdutationalResearch Duringthe1930's

A significantplea forsupport of educationalresearchcamein1933 inareport from theSchool Committeeof the TeachersAssociations, which includedrepresentativesfromthe elementaryteachers associations. In almost allfields, definiteresearch workis inprogress.It is becomingmore andmore apparent that thisis absolutelynecessary in order to obtainthe best possible results.The schoolisno exception in thiscase.It isjustasim- possible to findthe bestteaching methodsand educationalaids, themosb suitable materialand themost favourableschoolorganisationetc., frompure speculation,as it is in thesame way to,arrive atthe bestmethods andmeans of operationIn, for example,agriculture andindustry. True andcertainprogressin thecaseof the schoolcanonly beachieved by empiricalmeans,and firstand foremostbyexperiments ofvarious kinds. Thenext stepcamein1934 when theteachers'organizationsap- pealedto the publicto support Norwegianeducationalresearch.In this appeal,asin the1933report of the SchoolCommitteeof the TeachersAssociations,itwasstronglyemphasizedthat researchto promote reform ofthe schoolswas atleastas necessaryas anyother researchproject&Moreover, itwas nolonger sufficientto proceed accordingto suppositionsand estimations;educationalresearchwas needed. NewProfessorshipofEducation In January1935 the boardsof the teacheis'organizations(the Nor- wegianTeachersAssociation, theNorwegianWomenTeachers As- sociation,the NationalAssocationof thePhilologistsand Realists). sentanappealto the Ministry ofChurch andEducationtopropose. to theParliament(Storting)thataninstitute foreducationalre- search beestablished inOslo witha grantof Kr.20,000 (approxi- mately$2,800--U.S.A.)*for itsactivities. InJanuary1935, itwas furtherproposed thatthere be establishedaChair, ofEducational Psychologyat the Universityof Oslo.

7.16Norwegiancrowns ( H.R. ) 8 EDUCATIONALRESEARCHINNORWAY

TheMinistrycanvassed theopinions oftheUniversityof Oslo, the CouncilofSecondaryEducation,the Councilof TeacherEdu- cation andthe Councilof VocationalEducation,allgivinethlrfull supportto the plan.The Ministryalso agreedthatthereshould a state grant be toaninstituteforeducationalresearch,that itshould be affiliatedwith theUniversity,andthat itsdirectorshould be the futureProfessorof EducationalPsychologyin theUniversity. Incontrast to the teachersorganizations,whichhad givenpriorityto theinstitute ofeducation,the Ministfy, inagreement withtheSen- ate of the University,wasof theopinion thattheprofessorshiphadto comefirst,a view sharedby themembersof theParliamentduringthe ensuing debate. TheParliamentCommitteefor ChurchandEducationfully ported the sup- Ministry'sproposal,both fortheprofessorshipandthe institute.The committee'sreportwas acceptedunanimouslyby Parliament, andapplicationsfor theprofessorshipofeducationwere acceptedasof June1936. Thepositionwas announcedasconditional ontheprofessor becominghead oftheInstituteforEducationalRe- search, whichwas tobeestablished.Even thoughtherewaslittle of putting hope theinstituteintooperationduringthefiscalyear 1936-37, the Ministryhadset aside kr.5,000asthe firstcontribution. Thenew professor,Dr. HelgaEng,was not confirmedin herap- pointmentuntil January1, 1938,and sinceshewas immediatelyfaced with thetask ofestablishingeducationalpsychologyas a new subject in the university,theinstitute forresearchwasstill inaformative stage at theoutbreakof WorldWar II." SchoolBoardResearchCommiftee Duringthe 1930's otherattempts h: madeto formresearch bodies withinthe fieldofeducation..77rexample,in1935, the nicipal mu- schoolboards inOslo andin theneighboringcommunity Akerhad of collaboratedinfoundingacommitteeforeducationalre- search,withthe Inspectorof Schoolsin Oslo,Dr. B.Ribsskog,as chairman.Underhisenergeticleadershipthecommittee,with cial finan- support fromthemunicipalitiesof OsloandAker,immediately began researchwork ofwidescopeandcurrent interestto the schools. By1936 the committeewasableto issue thefirstin itsseriesof publications,a work byDr. Ribsskogand A.Aallonteachingplans in theelementary school."In1935-36,newlawshad beenenacted dealingwith theelementaryandsecondaryschools,therebyintro- ducinga completerevisionof thenormsforteaching.Hence, ations investi- reportedby Ribsskogand. Aallwere accordedgreat interest, andundoubtedly affectedthe teachingnorms developedat the endof EDUCATIONALRESEARCHIN NORWAY 9 the 1930's.Accordingto the authors,theinvestigations'showed first and foremostthat schoolmaterialhad beentoo difficult formost of the pupils.Theamount ofmemory work in school,according .to the authors, shouldbe reducedconsiderablyto the advantageof moreindependentandinteresting workfor thepupils. Anotherpublicationwasissued bythecommittee in1936,aNor- wegiannormof Rostad's"StandardTest" inproblemsolving."In 1937,astudyonthemeasurement ofintelligencein thefirstgrade of theelementaryschoolwaspublished byJ. Lofthus,A. Rasmussen and B.Ribsskog."Earlier,44ofthus,using theStanfordrevision of the Binettests, hadpreparedanintelligencescale forindividualtest- ing, adjustedto and withnormsforNorwegianconditions.He had presentedthisashisdoctoral thesisin1931.29In the1937 study, Lofthus,Rasmussen andRibsskogbuiltonthetest devised byMarie Pedersen,leader ofthe schoolfor mentallyretardedchildrenin Trondheim.Thistest had beenstandardizedby Pedersen,1928-31, onthe basisoftests administeredin thefirstto fourth gradesin the elementaryschool inTrondheim." itibsskog'sinvestigationof thereliabilityof marksand theirad- vantages anddisadvantageswaspublishedin1938as part of the series bytheOslo-Akerschool boardcommitteefor research."Ayear later, in1939, thecommitteepublishedastudy byOstlyngenn to throw lightonthe attitudeof pupilsto school,to the differentsub- jects taught,andto variousaspects of schoollife. NorwegianCarnegieCommittee Anotherattempt at organizingeducationalresearch inthe 1930's wastheestablishmentof theNorwegianCarnegieCommitteeto in- vestigatetheexaminationsystem. Thecommitteewas formed in 1937 withProfessorSem Saeland,and afterhis death,headmaster Joh.Hertzberg,aschairman.Variousinvestigationswereunder- taken,and theresults ofseveralwerepublishedin the formof articles and reports. TheCarnegiecommittee didnot, however,report toany great extent until afterWorld WarII, whenaninvestigationby Olav Sundeton examinations andschool workwaspublished.23The object of Sundet's researchwastheimportantquestionof the influenceof the matriculation examination,at the end ofthesecondaryschool,onthe day-to-day work inschools, andvaluableinsightswereadvancedin this book. ResearchByIndividuals Although the effortsmade inthe 1930'swere toa great extentcon- centrated ontheestablishmentof thenecessary research bodies,considerable workwas accomplished byindependentresearchworkers. 10 EDUCATIONALRESEARCH INNORWAY

In1935 Helga Engpublished RolvRime's diary,with extensivecom- mentaries."K. Monneslandpublishedgroupintelligencetests in two series forchildren between8 and 14yearsof age."E. Aasissued the results ofacomparative study.ofeffort,growth andintelligence in Norwegianadolescents, andalso publisbedahistory ofKristiansand CathedralSchool." HansBergersencompletedastudy ofthema- terial usedin the teachingof the mothertongue, andgave an account of hisconclusionsinabook publishedin 1935"SignyArctander and SigurdDahlstrOmwereauthorsofawork basedon asocialsta- tisticalsurvey onthe conditionof childrencared for bythe councils for childwelfare." Onthe basis offurther socialstatisticalstudies undertaken afterthe death ofDahlstrOm,SignyArctander issuedan- other studyconcerning theeducationand upbringingof such children." War YearsandEarly Postwar Developments

With the administrativemeasuresinitiated in the1930's in partial operation, the conditions for educationalmsearch in Norwaywere comparatively good. The Institutefor Educational Research, how-- ever,couldnot yetbe expectedtohave such dimensionsas wereorig- inally envisioned when itwasestablished.The prerequisite for its effective functioningwasclearly that itstasks should be assumed by people with thenecessaryprofessional qualifications.Sincepre- viously there had been littleorganized scientificeducational studies underexpert leadership, itwasnatural that onlyafew individuals werepreparedto take part immediately in educat ional research work. At this crucial time, when preparationsforgreater tasks in educational researchwereabouttobegin, thewar catne.With thepre- /railinguncertainty, longtermplanning oftenseemed meaningless, eventhough during the earlypart of thewar nodirect restrictions wereplacedonstudies and researchwork. Thoughanygreat ad- vancementwaslimitedorprevented, students whoaimedat themaster's degree in education,orwho studied educationas amain subject, undertook such extensive tasks fortheir theses that theywereableto urriveat results of far-reaching importance. Someof the completed theseswereprinted with the help offinancialsupport from the In- stitute for Educational Research. As earlyas1941 the Institute publishedathesisonsilent reading by Karl Bakke," in whichhe discussed psychologicaland educational probleths in reading, and his resultswithareadingtest which he had workedoutand standardized.In 1942, the secondin the series of the Institute's publications appeared,astudy by LeivH. Wettre of reading interestsamongpupils in the highergrades ofthe secondaryschools." On the basis ofpersonal investigationsWettre had set out to discover what kind of literature thepupils choseto read outside school hours, which booksthey appreciatedmost, and which qualities in these books caused themto be valuedsohighly.In 1943 the Institute succeeded in publishingathird book,areport by Jolts. Sandvenonthemeasurementof intelligencebygrouptests."This -11 684643-43 3 "12 EDUCATIONALRESEARCHIN NORWO

workdiscussedanumberofproblems inintelligencegrouptesting, andpresented theresults oftests carriedoutonpupils in thelag, form of theelementaryschool,using thetest Sandenhad constructed. When,at the beginningof theautumn t 943, all teaching ceasedat the Universityof Oslobecause of 'war, conditions for educationalresearchbecameeven more difficult.Also, thescience ofeducati*minNorway sufferedaheavy blowin thesame year in the lossofoneof themost promisingpersonalitiesin education,Dr. Einarthsigard,Reader inEducat ionat the University.The losswas sorelyfelt,even moresobecauseNorwayat the time stoodonthe brinkofaperiod ofexpansionin thefieldof educition.Before his deathDr. Hoigardhadsucceededinpublishinghis extensive workonthe historyof OsloCathedralSchool,"in whichthe clarity of thoughtandmetd ofpresentationsocharacteristic ofthe author

out, during thislastpaof hislife,an investigation of thecorrelation between themarksgiven forthematriculationexaminationand Mose fortheuniversitydegreeand theteacer'scertificatefrom the ArtsFaculty.Theresult oftheinvestigation,aninteresting contributionto the discussiononmethodsof selectionfor highereducation,waspublishedafter theend of thewar." School BoardZomatteeforResearch Thewaralsoputabrakeonthe activitiesof theOslo-Aker scillool board committee for educationalresearch,althoughin1941 thecom- mittee issueditwork byB. Ribsskogonintelligencetesting inthe first gradeof theelementaryschool."Ribsskog'sbook includedan account of it revisionandstandardizationofKuhlmann-Anderson's group test.In thesameyear,thecommitteepublishedathesis by Karsten lielionpupils whofell behindin thesecondaryschools," but didnot produceanyfurtherworksduringthewar. Thecommitteesponsoredanumberof studiesin theearlypostwar period, starting in1946 withEmilOstlyngen'sdoctoralthesison twins,47aworkconcernedprimarilywithgeneralpsychologybut also of importanceto education.In1947, thecommitteepublishedAugust Lange's book"9 whichanalyzedtheresults ofapoll takento throw lighton the questionof whypeoplechooseteachingfor theircareer. The following year,1948, anotherstudy byRibsskogand hisassociates appeared.5°Itascertainedthepercentage ofpupilsforcedto repeat classes andanalyzed thebackgroundsof thepupils,the effectonthem of repetitionofclasses, andproposedpossibleways to help such students. EDUCATIONALRESEARCH IN NORWAY 13 Institute for Educational Research Just after the end of thewar,in 191,onthe .f)ecasion of Professor Helga Eng's 70th birthday,someof the earlier studiescarriedout atthe Institute for EducationalResearchwerereprinted inasingle volume. Ayearearlier, in1944, Dr. Eng's latest workhad been published,acontinuation of her1926 studyonchildren's drawings." The work of theInstitute from thebeginningwasrelatedto the teaching of educationat the University ofOslo.'In 'July1945 Johs. Sandveninsappointed Readerin Educationatthe University,a position that had beenvacantsince the deathof Einar Hoigard. Professor Eng, who hadreached mtirementagein 1910, continued asprofessor in the Universityandasdirector of the instituteuntil her retirement, in July1948.The duties of actingprofessor and director then fellto Johs. Sandven, and his appointmentto the dual positionwasconfirmed in March1950.Apart from ProfessorEng and Dr. Sandven,noresearch workers liadnnypermanent, connection with the Instituteduring the firstpostwaryears.It is obvious, therefore, that duringthis time the workof the Institutewasof necessity limited inscope. Various projects didget underway,however, and graduallythe Institute's publicationsserieseras resumed.In 1946, number4 in this serieswasissued, Johs.Sandven's doctoral thesison"Thinking and its Development inAdolescence."" Basedoninvestigations ofagreat number of pupils representativeof allstages in the seomilry schools, Sandven's main conclusionwas,that the development of theabilityto think,at least forpersonsin theupper partof the distributioncurve, is gradual throughoutadolescence and appearedtobe in the direction of increased abilityto analyze critically complicated problems. In 1947, the Institutepublishedadoctoral thesis byKathrine Simonsenonthe vocabulary in textbooksin the secondaryschools." Word tests had been giveninanumber of subjectsto pupils in the secondary schools. Onthe basis of thesetests, comparisonsweremade between the pupils' understandingof theconcepts,ontheonehand, and the vocabulary inthe textbooksonthe other.In 1948,awork by Gunnar Husabowaspublishedonvocational interestsamongchil- dren of high schoolage."Pupils in the secondandtop forms,or grades, in the secondaryschool, which liad five formsaltogether,were askedto tell what profession they intendedtotakeup,if theyhad madeuptheir minds, andtoanswer anumber of relatedquestions. The results showed that" theengineering professionand workastech- niciansweremost popularamongthe boys bothin the lowerand 14 EDUCATIONALRESEARCHINNORWAY higher formsin thesecondaryschool,whileteaching, child missing and nursingprofessionsandclericalworkwere most populanamong the girls. In1949, nothingwasissuedin theInstitute'spublicationsseries, but two numbers were published in1A50onebyJohnIlofsethon dren's chil- understandingofarithmeticalexpressions,"the otherby Kjell- fridBjarvin on reading."Hofsetit'sbook isbasedonempirical investigationsof pupils'understandingof the.differentarithmetical expressions astheyappearintextbooksfor thedifferent Kjellfrici grades. Bjarvin'swork isanhistorical stuayof howthe tell-lookfor beginnersin readinghasdevelopedfrom thetime ofthe first.reading- boardto thepresent. Amongotherstudiescarried,outinconnectionwith but the Institute, publishedoutsideitsseries, isEvaNordland'sbookonthepsy chologyof adoletrents,withspecialemphasisontheproblem ofad- justmentin adolescence."bierthesisfor themaster'sdegreeon growth of the thepersonalityideal inadolescence,istoa great extent in- corporatedin thisbook. UnsponsoredResearch Outsidethe Institute's pui)licationsseriesJobs.Sandven'sbook analyzedtheclashof ideasineducationin theUniteil out of the States,"arising changing afidmny-sidededucationaldebatein thecountry in the20thcentury. In the postwar periodanumberofhistoricalstudies which appeared greatlyenriched,A,Noray'sliteratureon education. 1947,'Einar Tim, in Boyesen's2-volumeworkonHartvigNissen form ofthe and there- Norwegianschoolsystemwas published,"a won a doctorate work which fortheauthor.Anotherdoctoralthesiswas Nilseti's lialkild workonchurchandschoolconditionsin of Bishop Bergenin thetime Neuman."Furthermore,in1949,a 2-volume Dr. edition by AsbjOrnOveraasonFredrikMoltkeBuggeand the hisefforts for promotionofculturalworkin the1830's,attempted aplace to give Bugge as one of theleadingpersonalitiesof ,the19th Otherhistorical century." workswithinthefieldofeducationintheearly warperiodare: post- L.Solvberg'sbookonJohanAntonLippestad hispork;°' E. and Tjfinneland'sbookon Plotalozzi;°' E. Ruge's 110igardand H. historyof theNorwegianschool;63 T.Dokk's tionaltraits in studyof educa- Norwegianliterature;" K.Foss'sbook education.;" and0. ton general Hoprekstad'sanalysisofschoolsinBergen theirstaffsup to 1889." and EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHIN NORWAY 15 Amongempiricalworkscompletedby individualresearch workers outside thepreviouslymentionedresearchorganizations,maybemen- tioned the bookby P.Kolstadonfatigue andlearning." Even thoughthe periodimmediatelyafter thewardidnotseethe effective andsystematicextension ofeducationalresearch whichhad been anticipated,therewasincreasedunderstandingof theneed for educationalresearch, andtraining ineducationon ahigh level.In the 1950'simportantstepswerotakento meet this need.

14 DevelopmentsAfter1950

Theevent having themost importanteffectonthedevelopment of research inthe periodafter1950wasthe decisionof theNorwegian Governmentto allocateaconsiderablepart of theprofits fromfoot- ball lotteriesto support research.Of tilethreeresearchcouncilsset up toutilize themoney,one was the NorwegianResearchCouncil for Scienceand theHumanities,establishedin 1949. NorwegianResearchCouncil The Councilconsists of32 membersrecruitedfromthe following five fieldsfor itsactivities A.Languages andhistory B. Socialsciences 0.Psychology,education andyouthproblems D. Naturalscietices E. Medicine The NorwegianResearchCouncilfor Scienceand theHumanities hasasits missionthe"Promotionandencouragement ofscientific research in Norway inthehumanities,socialstudies,education, tural na- sciencesand medicine."'"Morespecificallythemoney made availableto the Councilis usedfor: A. Thesupport of Oentistsand scientificinstitutionsincarryingout specific researchprojects. B. The support ofscientifIC*1-nstitutionsInestablishing institutes. new research C. Researchprojectsinitiatedby theCouncilitself,eitherat existing tutionsor at laboratories insti- or instituteswhich the.Councilitselfestablished andoperated. D.Scholarshipsfor scientists. E. Thesupport ofthe publicationof scientificandsemi-scientificpapers, in some cases publishedby theCouncilitself. Upto thepresent time theCouncilhas inthemainlimitedits activitiesto supporting alreadyexistinginstitutionsin theirresearch projects,or to giving grants to individualresearchworkers.In addition, themembersof the Councilhavebeenableto influencethe selec- tion ofprojects and theirformulation,-byconsultingwithinstitutions andindividualscientists. Gradually thescope of theCouncil'sactivitieshasbroadened.Ex- pansionofresearchin psychology,educationandyouthproblems 16 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHINNORWAY 17 has been somewhat less than that in otherfields, due in considerable degree to lack of sufficient facilitiesand researchpersonnelto keep pacewith the projectsenvisaged.It takes timeto train theneces- saryresearch personnel;moreover, tomakeproper useof yearly research grants, it isnecessarythat thepermanent staffs of academic institutions have sufficientfree time for researchprojects. The recentyearshaveseen amarked improvementin facilities, but not until the current plans fornewresearch buildingshave beencar- ried through in Oslo,Bergen and Trondheimcanthere be adequate educational researchcenters.Moreover, inrecentyearsthe marked increase in students in highereducation has hadalimiting effecton research work. A numberof the studentscarryingout advanced research withgrants from the ResearchCouncil have hadto be divertedto teaching positions. Group CePsychohwy,Education, YouthProblems Activity of the CouncilingroupC (psychology,education, youth problems)centers mainly in institutions in Oslo.Outside Oslo, large scale research is pursuedonlyat the College for Business Administra- tion in Bergen, underthe Institutefor IndustrialPsychology and Personnel Work, andat the Norwegian Collegefor Teachers and the Norwegian TechnicalAcademy inTrondheim.In Oslo efforts have been concentratedat the University of Oslo,where projectsareunder developmentat the Institute for EducationalResearch andatA the Psychological Institute.Researchprogramshave also beendeveloped at the Psychological Departmentof the MilitaryForces andat the Institute forSocial Research. A tabulation ofthegrants fromgroupC for theperiod 1950-60 givesanimpression of themagnitude of theresearch undertakenby institutesorresearch workersassociated with Minion br. 1. The Universityof Oslo 1.30 2. The NorwegianCollege for Teachersand the NorwegianTechnical Academy 0.19 3. The NorwegianCollege forBusiness Administrationand Person- nel Work 0.85 4. The PsychologicalDepartment of theMilitary Forces 0.39 5. The Institutefor SocialResearch 0.38 8. Otherinstitutions 0.35 7. Specialprojects 0.51 Thegreater part of the researchcarriedout undergroupC has been of theempiricaltype, with the period ofadolescence receiving

According to thecurrent exchange valueaU.S.A. dollarIs 7.16 Norwegiancrowns (kr.). 18 EDUCATIONALRESEARCHIN NORWAY

considerableattention.Group Cgrants for the period1950430 and subjectfieldsare Millios kr. Adolescence 89 Adult life 86 Elementaryschoolage 54 Empiricalresearchnot attachedtoany definiteage phase 51 Historicalresearch 22 Preschoolage 21 Practicalactivitiesrelatedto research 16 It isarich an&variedactivity thathas takenplace undergroupC. At thesametime theresearch hasnot keptpacewith theconstantly increasingneed forunderstandingofmaturation andlearning,per- ..*sonaladjustmentandhumanrelatiOnships,and cooperation.The increasingnumber ofchildrenandadolescents ineachage group;the remarkablymore pronounceddemand forfurthereducation inall types of schoolsat the adolescentstage,aswellasat the university and collegelevel;thereorganizationin Norwayinrecentyearsof the structure,content andmethodsof theschool;theattempts gradually to introduceapsychologicalservice; theincreasingawarenessofper- sonnelproblems inindustriallife; thebroadening ofservices andaids introduced inthesocialsectorallof thesefactors haveresulted in conditionsthat.necessitatemoreintensiveresearch effott.With finan-, cialsupport from theNorwegianResearchCouncil, existingagencies have risento the challengeand haveextendedtheir researchactivities ,intoseveral importantareas. Tests ofMaturity Thanksto yearlygrants fromtheNorwegianResearchCouncil, the InstituteforEducationalResearchof theUniversityof Oslo embarked,in1950,on alarge-scaleprojectto constructthree seriesof maturitytests for childrenbetween theagesof 6 and15years :(1) 6-8 years;(2)9-11years; (3) 12-15years.Thetestswereadjusted and standardizedfor ruralaswellasurbanpopulations.This projectwas broughtto conclusion in1-953, whenall threeseries,constructed by Johs.Sandvenandanumber ofcollaborators,werecompleted and printed.nEachoneof theserieswasworkedout in two forms,one foreach ofthetwo dialects oftheNorwegianlanguage,bokmal and nynor8k.Thecorrespondinginstructionsfor thesetests in eachseries werealso workedout in thetwo language forms.Thenormsfor the firstage groupwerethe resultof thetesting of2,800 children;for the secondage group, 3,600; and forthe thirdgroup, 3,900 children. Aftertill) workonthe constructionandstandardizationof the maturitytestswascompleted, theInstitutefor EducatipnalResearch EDUCATIONALRESEARCH INNORWAY 19 madeafollowup studyof thesamechildren whohad takenpart in the previous investigation.Thenewproject hadatwo-fold aim (1)to discover to whatextent maturity testing ofthe differentagegrdups predicted later performancesontests ofasimilar character;and (2) tofind out to whatextent the maturitytests could giveaprognosis of future school performances. Special interestwasattachedto prediction of futureperformance in school. As these.test series had beenconstructed with preciselythe mental maturity factors relatedto school in mind, itwashoped that predictions could be macewithgreater confidence than fromordinary intelligence testing.The maturitytestswerealso of specialinterest in connection with guidanceand differentiationat school entranceage, and in relationto the question of furthereducationortraining after completion of elementaryschool.Itwasalso regardedasimportant toclarify,asfaraspossible, whatfunction maturitytesting could serveinasystematicprogramof guidance. From the data collectedsofar from thefollowup studythere is ,reasonto believe that maturity testingmight be ableto playan important part in guidance workin school, andbecomeavaluable meansof preventing failure inschool." TS The first series of the maturitytests hasalreadybeen used fora number ofyearsby various schoolpsychologists incollaboration with the Institute of EducationalResearch.The experiencesupto the present timeare,toalargeextent, encouraging. For prediction purposes,it has been shown thatthe intellectualcapacity of the student inageneralsenseis the safest basisuponwhichtojudge.Itappears from the investigationsthat the personalitytoahigh degree functions as awhole. Study of the intellectualprofiles of the individualstu- dents has broughtto light that the possibility ofveryspecific predic- tiononthe basis of such profilesis limited. The thinkingcapacity of the studentmaybe utilized in differentdirections, whichdepend toagreater extentuponthe channels intowhich the interestsareled through influences in home andschool thanuponpossible differences in the fundamentalstructure of abilities. When usingmaturitytests in school psychological workit is of considerableimportanceto be awareof these circumstances. On the basis of the experiencegained during theprediction studies, aprojectwasstarted at the Institute inthe late 1950'stosecureinsight into thenature of' functional interrelations inthe individual.Par- ticularcare wastaken to bring into the picturenot only intellectual functions, but also reactiontendencies that haveto do with character, social characteristics,and the inner harmonywhatmaybe called 20 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH IN NORWAY theemotionalconsonance.As farasthe socialareais concerned, the work has beenconcentratedon atraitorfunction that,asfarasis known, hasnot earlier been subjected to scientific study.It is given the name of "coreactivebehavior"orsimply "coreaction." Thecon- ceptindicatesadimension havingto do with the degree to which the subjectreacts with anotherperson or a groupof otherpersons present inasituation. As regards the inner harmony, the worksofar has concentratedon afunction termed "security .tendency," havingto do mainly with the degree of self-confidenceinanindividual. As the methodological problemsin connection with theinvesti- gationswereunusually difficult,aconsiderable amount of the work wasdevotedto the development and trying out ofnewmethodological principles. Asaresult, fruitful attacksonthe problems of psychological interrelationsare nowwithin the realm of possibility."T." Other Council Profits The projectsat the Institute for Educational Researchare among themost extensive efforts within the educational sector classified under groupC of the Norwegian ResearchCouncil'sprogram.But other projects which the Councilhas supported have also been broad in scope, somehaving been carriedout inassociation with the Institute. In thisway,Eva Nord land, foranumber ofyears,receivedsupport foraninvestigation of the correlation between methods ofeducation and social attitude and behavior of children of preschoolage.Sys- tematic observations of the child'sbehavior in thenurseryschoolwere undertaken and,at the-same time, the latitude of the parentswasalso studied, through visits and observation in thehomes. The investi- gationwascompleted accordingto plan, andanaccoutit of the results has been published." The Council also supportedastudy of reading difficultiesamong beginners in the elementary school.Before entering school, the childrenwereexamined inanumber of tests, including the first series of the maturitytests. The childrenwerelater observed and evaluated during their time in school.Comparisonswerethen made with the results of the previous examinations, for thepurposeof arriving at abasis for prediction and prevention of reading difficulties. Further,aninvestigation of the factors impeding the learning of arithmetic during the firstyearsat schoolhas been inprogressfora number ofyears,with financial support from the Council. Under the direction of Per Rand, the project has soughtamethod of diagnosing difficulties in arithmetic study, and remedial teaching proceduresto overcomethe difficulties.From the results of his studies, Randhas publishedabookonproblem-solving and selective memory." EDUCATIONALyRESEARCH IN NORWAY 21

Norwegian Collegefor Teachers Research has alsobeen accomplishedat theNorviegian College for Teachers; underSiguard NOrstebo, who is in chargeof the education department.NOrstebo has issuedareportonthe background ofJohn Dewey's educational theoryand its development,"and has also made astudy of religiouseducation in Americanschools.81In addition, NOrstebo has completedinvestigationsonstereotypes amongchildren astotheir conception ofpeople belonging todifferent nationalities," andonthe attitude andthinking of children.83 Another study completed atthe College forTeachers is by Sverre Sletvoldonchildren's attitude toliterature."Martin StrOmnes, also attached to thecollege, has publishedanaccountof the development of Norwegianteachingprogramsand problems related tothose in the United States." In 1960 theNorwegian College forTeachers moved intonewbuild- ings, and thereisreasontobelieve tat theimprovement inworking conditions willmake it possible tointensify research work atthe college. Historical Studies The history ofNorwegian educationcontinues to beasubject of interest to researchers.For example,aninvestigation' of the historical developmentof adult educationhas beenundertaken," which complementsastudy done byEgil Nilsenoncurrentinterest patterns amongadults." HelgeDahl has madeastudy of thedevelopment of educationin Finnmark (Norway)in the last century,witha special view to thelanguage problem."The same authorhas also given anaccountof Norwegianteacher educationfrom 1814uptothepres- enttime." Comprehensiveinvestigations withinthe historical sector,by Hans- JOrgen Dokka,aimed at clarifyingthe lines ofdevelopment in the Norwegian elementaryschool in thelast part ofthe 19th century. Bjarne Bj0mdalconcentrated hisstudyon oneof the outstanding.Nor- wegian educators of the sametime, P. Voss." Among other historicalworksmaybe mentionedHalkild Nilsen's bookonthe school systemand adulteducation inthe Bergenarea, 1800-1850.9' A thesison oneof the centralfigures ineducation in the last century,Ole Vig,wascompleted byTorstein 110verstad." Another aspect of thehistory ofNorwegian educationin the lastcen- turywasRoar Sanderud'sworkonthe controversycaused by theintroduction of readersin schools."Trygve Dokkmadeastudy of education under theold industrial system,and publishedaworkon this subject." Anumber ofanniversary publicationswith contentsof 22 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHIN NORWAY

historical interesthave also been issued.For example,onthe occasion of the 800thanniversary of theCathedral School inTrondheim, A. Overaas, incollaboration withJ. Due, publishedA. E. Erikesen's "Trondhjemekatedralskoles hiltorie"inarevised andextended edition." EducationPsycholog Within theeducational psychologicalfield,two major workswere published bythe Oslo-Akerschoolboard committeefor educational research in1951. One of these isconcerned with thecorrelation between ability andperformance inschoolwork; 96 theother seeksto throw lightonthe peculiaritiesof those childrenwhoare truants, andto find factors in theirenvironment influencingtheir actions"' Further, KathrineSimonsen,as aresult of continuedstudies of the vocabularyin textbooks, haspublishedabookonthemost important and frequentwords used intextbooks." HelgaEng has carriedonwith herstudiesondrawing inchildhoodand youth, in her book,The Psychologyof Child andYouthDrawing." Ruth FrOyland Nielsenhas publishedananalysis ofsocialdevelopment in children.1"OyvindSkard's bookonaptitude foruniversity and high schoolstudies,"1 andRagnar Rommetveit'sanalysis of social normsand roles,'"both have theirorientation ingeneral psychology, but,nonetheless,areof interest fromaneducationalaspect. It isnot possible hereto giveafullaccount of all theindividual researchworks thathave been carriedthrough. Someare onthe borderlinebetweeneducational researchin theproper sense andmore general psychologicalresearch. This isthecase,for instance,in the investigationsof theinfluence of educationonthedevelopment of intellectualabilities,undertaken byV. CoucheronThrane inthe psychologicaldepartment ofthe MilitaryForces. Thesame maybe ( said aboutthe work of AssGruda Skardat the Institute ofPsychology at the University ofOslo, who foranumber ofyearshas engagedin aninvestigation ofthe influence ofenvironmentonthedevelopment of childrenin theeast-side districtsof Oslo. To thisgroupalso belong the experimentalinvestigations withinthe psychologyof learning, by JanSmedslund,"3 andthe investigationsby SverreBrun Gul- brandsenconcerning juveniledelinquency.1" Institutes PublicationSeries The results ofthe researchat the Institute forEducationalRe- search of the Universityof Oslo have beenpublishedpartly in two series editedby the Institute. Thefirst, publishedin1951asnumber 9,was acontinuation of this seriesbegun in1941, dealingwith reading interestsin the lower andmiddle gradesof thesecondary EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH IN NORWAY 23 schoo1.1"Number 10 of theseries, published in 1952,10'was a reporton aninvestigation into cinema-goinghabits and film interests amongthe youth of Oslo. In thesame year,number 11 in the serieswaspublished,aworkonmathematics in the first grade ofthe secondary schoo1.1" Number 12wasthe previously mentionedwork by Gjessingonreading, and number13,awork by A. St Olen, dealt with students' reactionsto two different methods of teaching about the effects of alcohol,oneemphasizing objective information, the other making special appealto the emotions.'" In 1954 the Institute began seriesII. As the series of publications uptothis time had been limitedto larger worls published separately, he needwasrecognized for studies ofrathernarrower scopeand moresuitable for publication-inacollected form-,orinextracts. TheJ first volume in this series contains sixsuch subjects, namely 1. The teaching ofthe beginners in reading in theU.S.A. and Norway. 2. Children's reading of weekliesandnewspapers. 3. Interest in essay-writingin the higher forms in the secondary school:an investigationamong pupils in the top forms. 4. Environmeptandprogress in school. 5. Hymns ana religioussongs in the elementary school: astudy of the attitude to, and the understandingof theseamongchildren. 6. The attitude ofyoung people to their own education:the main feature ofan investigation amongyoung people at school in Oslo, aged 12-18 years. The second volumeappeared in 1956 and containedthe following subjects:

1. Society and the choice ofvocation:aninvestigation conducted inthe seventh grade of the schools in Oslo andAker, 1948. 2. The monitorialsystem and itsusein the Norwegian school 3. Spelling, learningmaterial and results. 4. Understanding ofcause and effect in history in the top grade of the elementary school. 5. Bound -filmas a means in teaching. 6. Minnesota multiphasicpersonality inventoryas an aid in personality diag- nosis in adolescence.11° In 1958twonewvolumes in the second seriesappeared. Thecon- tentswere 1. On the formation of numberconcepts in retarded children aged 10-14years. 2. Strauss' and 'Werner'sFinger Schema Test: adescription of the test anda small experimental contributionto throw lightonits usefulnessas an educational-diagnostic aidin the teaching of arithmetic, andas anaid to sort out students with difficulties in arithmetic. 8. contribution to the clarification of the problemof centralisation in the rural pchool:general exposition andastudy of the examination results in Norwegian and arithmeticfrom schools divided into respectivelyseven,four, and two consecutive grades. 24 EDUCATIONALRESEARCH INNORWAY

4. Geographicunderstanding andoverview inthe top gradeof theelementary school in the ruraldistricts. 5. Theintroduction of theteaching ofEnglish inthe elementaryschool: the status of foreignlanguage teachingand how it isorganized. 6. Thevocabularyinthree textbooksin Englishfortheelementary school.ul In1960 the fifth of thevolumes in theseries appearedand contained 1. Teachertraining in relationto the work in scho61. 2. Musicalityand musicalinterests. 8. Thedevelopment of numberconceptsas viewed by Piaget. 4. Childrenand their readingof comics!' Finally,itmust be mentionedthat theInstituteforEducational Researchput ina great amount ofworkontheestablishmentofa NorwegianadaptationofTermanMerrill'sStanford-revisionof the Binettests.Because of themanyindividualtests whichwere necessary,and the extensivework withtheadjustmentof theforms ofthe subtexts,the projectrequiredseveralyears,butwas completed in 1954.1" In1961 the Institutemoved intonew quarters, muchto the satisfac- tion of all concerned.With thenewpremisescentrallylocated inthe city,foundationshave beenlaid foraconsiderableextensionof activi- ties, thoughthere is alreadyafeeling thatevenhere lackofspacewill soonbeahamperingfactor.In thecourseof thenext 5years,the InstituteforEducationalResearch willbe movedtonewandmodern buildingsaboutIo beerected inthenewUniversityarea atBlinders, onthe outskirtsof Oslo.

Prospects forthe futureofeducationalresearch in Norwayareencouraging.Theunderstandingof theim- portance of educationalresearch,markingthe firstyears after theend of thewar, mustbe saidto have beenpresent inahigh degreeinrecentyears.It isto be hopedthat this understanding willbecomeso strong and widespreadthat Norwaygraduallymayembarkon aprogram of extending andintensifyingthe workof research,therebyraising teaching andeducationtoales;e1whichwillfulfill thede- mands ofthe time. TextReferences

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15. Eng.H.Abstraktebegreper tbarneta tank.og tale.Paykologiske under- okelser p4grundlagav takttagelsoop ekaperlmenter medskolebarn. Kristiania1912.(AbstractConcepts in theChild's Thoughtand Speech). ie.Aa 11, A."Einneues GedAchtnisgesetsrZeitschrift fir Psychologie mod Physiologieder Sinneeorgane,1912.( New Principleof Memory). 17. Reymert,M. L."Zur Fragenach denIdea len desKindel, eine statistisch- pAdagogischeUntersuchungan norwegischenVolkschulkindern."Zeit- schrift fireeperimeostellePildagogik.Leipzig 1915.(The Ideals of Chil- dren:a Statistical-educationalInvegtigationon Norwegian Elementary SchoolPupils). 18. Looft,C. "IntelligensundersOkelserav oskolebarn."Medicinskrevue,1913. p. 560-585.(TheMeasurementof Intelligencein School Children). 19. Nordeide,8..Prd barntiI vaktes.Kristiana 1919.(From Childto Adult). 20. Eng, H.BarnetefOletsesttv tsoommentigningmed denvoksnes. mentalundersokelie.Kristiania1921.(The EmotionalLife oftileChild as Compared withthat of theAdult). 21. Eng,H. Begynnernesforeslillingskretsog sprog ved optagelsen tskolen. Hristiania1923.(Conceptsand Languageof Childrenat the School En- trance Age). 22. Eng, IL Barnetegising.Oslo 1926.(Children'sDrawings). 23. Ribaskog,B.RkeperimentelieWrap 1UMet-Owens psykotogi.Tides for repetision.Olso 1931.(ExperimentalContributionsto the Psychologyof Learning.The Timefor Repetition). 24. /miatillingfraLaererorganisasjonenesBkolenevnd.Opposevni 1931etter fra Kirke-op undervisningsdepartementet.Oslo 1933.Se& 158-9.( Report fromthe SchoolsCommittee ofthe Teachers'Organisations. Seep. 158-59). 25. Sandren,J. Ompedagogikkensattlitnptom studiefogog tom forikaingigren. I "Frapedagogikkensarbeidsfelt.Skrift til professordr.Helga Eng pA TO Arsdagen."Olso 1945.p. 35-53.(The Positionof Educationas a Subject forStudies andResearch,in "From theWorking Fieldof Educa- tion"). 26. Ribsskog,B.og Aal1, A. medeta rekke medarbeidere:Underviestingolaseite folkeskolen.Etpedagogiskpsykologiskforabeide titnye plaster t oriels- teringsfagene.Oslo 1936.( TeachingPlans in theElementarySchool. An EducationalpsychologicalWork ofPreparation, forthe New Plansfor Orientation Subjects). 27. Ribaskog,B.StandpunktprOvert regning.Norsk standardav Rostads slandardprovIprOblemilisning.Oslo1938.(Achievement'restsin Arithmetic). 28. Lofthus,L., Rasmussen,A.,Ribsskoe,B.meden rekke medarbeidere: BvsemdUngerfolkeskolens I.Masse.Dearborn,gruppeprove. Oslo 1937. (Measurementof Intelligencein theFirst Gradeof theElementary School-Dearborn/8Group Test). 29. Lofthus,J.bilelligensmdling.I Tekst,II Tabeller.Oslo 1931.(The Measurement ofIntelligence). W. Pedersen,M. hiteIligensprOvingav barn.Oslo 1933.(TheMeasurement of Intelligencein Children). 81. Ribsakog,B. medenrekkemedarbeidere:Karaktererog karaktergivisag. Oslo 1938.(Marks and theirAwarding).

b. EDUCATIONALRESEARCHINNORWAY 27 32 Ostlyngen, E. Bkoless fraelevatesstandpunkt.UndersOkingerblant folkes- kolebarn iOslo.Oslo1939.(The Schoolfromthe Point of Puplls). View ofthe 33. Sundet, O.Eksamenog skolearbeid.Tiiskotailgranakingane verknadene av dei som avgangsprOvenei deishOgreskokm Aarpd detdogleg. skolearbeidet.Oslo 1947. (ExaminationsandSchoolWork). 31. Eng. H.Rolv Rime, dagbokfro del10. aildet 24dr.Oslo1935.(The Diary ofRolv Rime,fromtheage of 10 to 24). 35:Monnesland,K. GruppeprOver.Osloma.(GroupTests). 36. Ass, E. Norskskoleengdoni.Essammenlignevtdeandersokelse vekat over flit!, og intelligens.Oslo1935.(NorwegianYouthat School. parativeStudy of A Com- Industry,GrowthandIntelligence).Aaa, E.Kris- liataondKatedralskoleshistoric1642-1908. of the Oslo 1932.(TheHistory CathedralSchoolinKristiansand). 37.Bergersen, H.Moresidisopplayringett.EftundersOkelse: av kerestoffel. Oslo 1935.( TheTeachingof theMotherTongue). 38piirctander,S. og Dahistrgm,S.Hvordasgdrdet vdrevergerd-dabarn. Oslo 193'2.(WhatHappensto theChildrenunder the cils). ChildCare Coun- 39.Arctander,S. Vergerddsoppdragelsenop densresultater.Saitrykk staisokonorniak av tidoskrift.Oslo 1938.(Educationunder theChildCare Councilsand itsEffect). 40. Bakke,K. Stilklesning.Esorienteringog tin enders/king.Oslo (SilentReading). 1941. 41. Wettre,L.H. LeseisiteresserIgymtunaideres.Oslo 1942.(ReadingIn- terests inthe SeniorHigh SchoolAge). 42. Sandven,J. httelligentemdlitsgvedgruppeprOver.Olso 1943.(Intelli- gence Measurementwith GroupTesti). 431HOlgArd,E. OslokatedralskolesMatorie.Oslo1942.(TheHistory of the CithedralSchool inOslo). 44. BeNorsk Pedagogisk Arbok1946-47. (See theNorwegianPedagogical YearBook for1948/47. ) 45. Ribaskog,B.Evneproverfor 1.Masse iforkeskolet). grunsilag ktondardisertpd av Kulamonts-Asdersonsgruppeprove. Oslo1941.(Intelligence Measurementin theFirst Gradein theElementarySchool). 48. Hell,K.. Elever *OM kommer titkort 1den hogreskoleit.Oslo 1941.( Pupils Who FallShort intheSecondarySchool). 47.Ostlyngen,E. Psykologisk tvillingforskningog dens probtemer.Oslo 1946. ( Psychological TwinResearchand itsProblems). 48. Lange,A.Byer* 611r lastrere-oghvorforlOslo 1947.(WhoBecome Teachersand Why?) 49. Det samme spOrsmiler senere opalundersOktav Nets Minnsog Joha. Sandven. Be NorskSksleblad,nr. 44-45, 1951.Dessutener spoirsmillet OM utvelgingav aspirantenebehandletav Henry Havin. //vets BeFlavin, H.. passer tit Wier?Oslo 1949.(Thesame problem hasalso been thesubject of investigationsby NelsMinne andJoh&Sandven,see Nortik Skukblad,nr. 44-45, 1951.See alsoHavin, H.:Who isSuited to bea Teacher?) 50.Ribeskog,B. teedes rekke medarbeidereOfensittere Ifork4skoleli.Oslo 1948.(Those WhoAreRepeatingGrades inthe ElementarySchool). 28 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHIN NORWAY

51. Pra pedafrogikkenoarbeidsfelt.Bkrift protestor dr. Helga Eng pd70 drodagen.Utgitt vedenkornite.Oslo 1945.( From the Working Field of Education.A Book Issuedon the °cola Ion of Dr. H. Eng's 70th birthday).

52. Eng,H. Margrelkestegnitog fra det 9.til det t4. &et. Oslo 1944.(Mar- grethe's Drawingsfrom the Ageof 9 to 24 Years). Sandven, J.Teta-mincesog dens nivdotvaling i overgangsaideren.En psykologiskpedagogiskondersoking. Oslo1948.(The Thinking Proems and its Developmentin Adolescence). 54. Simonsen,K. Omkerebokrokabularet t den A4ereokote.Oslo 1947.(On the Vocabularyin Text Books in theSecondsSchool). 55.HusabO, G.Yrketinteresser 4realskulew alderen. Oslo 1948.(On VocationalInterests In theHigh School Age 1StIlaseth, J.Barnsforsideleeav regneettry Oslo 1950.(Children's Understanding ofArithmetical Expressions). 57.Bjarrin, K.Pro libelbretttit modemsabo-er. 01950.(From Reading- board to theModern A.B.C.). 5&Nord land, E.Ungdonaptykologi.Ttlpaa+rtitproblemert ungdomsaideres. Oslo 1940.(The Psychologyof Adolescence 59.Sandyen, J.,Pedagogialc iddbrytningi U En studieover stviklitsgen Qg derddende awnsrpulter i (lag.Oslo1019.(The Clash of Ideasin Ameri- can Education. A Study of theDevelopment and thePrevailing Views of Today ). 60.Boyesen, E.Efartvig Nissen1815-1874og del noroke okolevesens reform. Rind Iog II.Oslo 1947.(Hartvig Nissen1815-1874 andthe Reform q( the NorwegianSchool Sitstem,Vola. I andII). 61Nilsen, H.Kirkeog skoleforkold t Berge,. tbiskop Neumann*lid.Oslo MS. (Churchand SchoolConditions in Bergenin the Time ofBishop Neumann), 62.Overaas,A..Predrik MoltkeBogue.kultorabeid ofkulturstriid t 1830-40 dratBind IogII.Oslo 1949.(FredrlkMoltke Bugge.The Struggle for Culturein the 1830'sand 40's). 63.Soilvberg, L.Johan AntonLippestadog hang verk.Et bidrag dndo- ivakeokolens historiegjennorn 100 dr.Oslo 1945.(JohanAnton Lippe- stad and HisWork. AContributionto the History of theSchools for Mentally RetardedChildren). 64.TiOnneland, E.Pestalozzi. Endernokratietemoon t kamp for menneaket mot tynanniet.Oslo 1948. 65.Holgard, E.og Rage, H. Den norake skoleshistorie.Oslo 1947.(The History of theNorwegian School). 66.Dokk, T. Pdokuleveg.Pedagogisko drag 4bokkeionen vdr.Oslo 1947. (On the Wayto SchooLEducational Traitsinour Literature). 67.Foss, K. Alfflat donning i skolen.Oslo 1949.(GeneralEducation in School). 68.Hoprekstpd, CO.Patigoktde, dimegeskuleog lerarotand I Bergen fromto 1889.nergen 1950.(The Paupers' School,the Board Schooland the Teaching Staffin Berge9up to 1889). 69.Kolstad, P.Tretthetog toning. En overoiktover tidligere undersOkelser og beolcrivelseav egne forsook. Drammen 1944.(Fatigueand Learning). 70.Vedtekter forNorge, AlmenvitesskapOigeForsktaingsrdd,No. 2.(Regu- lations ofthe NopvegianResearchCouncil for Scienceand the Humanities). EDUCATIOALRESEARCH INNORWAY 29

Sandven, J.og medarbeidere Modenhettprove.Serie I, 1950;Serie II, 1951;Serie III, 1952.(Maturity Test,series I by J. Sandven in collaboration with P.Rand and H. Ostby;series H by J. Sandvenin collaboration with P. Randand J. Oen; series III by J. Sandven in collaboration with P. Randand L. Nordgaard). Sandven, J.Forebyggingav taortkomming I stolen.I "Festskrift til B. Ribsskog".Oslo 1953p. 207-Z26.(Prevention of Retardationin School). 73. Sandven, J.Prediksjonog rddgiing pd grkunstiagav modenhettprOving I "OstlandskLwrerstemme1931-1956."Oslo 1950.p. 95-129.(Predic- tion and Counsellingonthe Basisof Maturity Testing). 74. Sandven, J."Pedagogisk mAlsetningog psykisk funksjonssammenjeng." Sko lcog Barrsfunn, 1958.p. 130-142og p. 164-178.(Educational Aims and Interrelationsof the PsychologicalFunctions). 75. sandren, J."Elevenesreaksjon pAskolensprogram, arbeidsmetodeog arbeidsorden."Pedagogisk Forakning,1959.p.181-213.(The Stu- dents' Reactionto the Program,Working Methodand Discipline in the School). 76. Sandven,J."FOrhAllandetmellan begivningoch prestation."Folk- skolan, 1960.p.25,32.(The RelationBetween Capacityand Achieve- ment). 77. Nordiand,E.Ramp enhengmellows sosfalatferdog oppdragelse reeden studioav foreldreholdningensons satrskiit faktor.Oslo 1955.(The Correlation BetweenSocial Behaviorand EducationwithaStudy of the Attitudeof Parentsas a Special Factor). 78.djessing,H.J.En studieav lesemodenhet redakolegangens begynnelse. Avhandlingerfra Universiteletapedagogiske fora/ming/tins/J(0Cnr. 12. Oslo 1958.(A study ofthe Maturityfor Readingat the School En- trance Age). 79. Rand, P.OppgavelOsningog selektivt nsinne. Enlitteratiiregjennofin- gdelse.Oslo 1960.(Problem Solvingand SelectiveMemory ). BO. Norsteb0, S.John Deweilsoppsedingsteori.Opphavog utvikling.Trond- helm 1953. ( John Dewey'sTheory ofEdueation). P 81. Norsteb0,S.Stridenopts religionAoppictringai den atnerikanake8kulen. Kyrkjeakuieeller offentleg Auk.Trondheim 1955.(The Contest Concerning ReligiousEducation inAmerican Schools). 82. Nfirsteb0,S.;'Stereotype-studiar.",Pedagogisk Forakning,1959.p.148- 175.(Studies inStereotypes). 83 NOrsteb0,S.: Innstillingog tenkning.To psykologiskeetterrgkingar. Det kongeligcnorake pidenskaberssclskaps skrifter,nr. 1.Trondheim 1959.(Attitude andThinking). 84. Sletvold, S.Barnaog litteraturen. En analyseav utviklingen av 'Wenz vurdering hosnorake akolebarn.Oslo 1958.(The Childrenand the Literature). 85. Stromnes, M.:Laireptanutviklingog kereplanprobletn 1 U.SA.Oslo 1954. (The Developmentof TeachingPrograms and ProblemsConnected with those in U.S.A..). -- 80. Folkeligkulturarbeld.Det frivilligefolkeopplysningsarbeidt Norge, ved R.N. Nettuns, B.StrOmme, L. HoneogO. Foss.Oslo 1958.(Cultural Work Amongthe People). 30 EDUCATIONALRESEARCHIN NORWAY

87. Nilsen,E.Interesser hosvokstse. Fnkartleggingav fritidsintercressne innen dennorske befollotingi alderen15-69 dr.Oslo 195&(Interests AinongAdults). 88. Dahl,H.:Sprdkpolitikkop akolestell i Finnmark1814-1905.Oslo 1957. (LanguagePolicy andSchool in Finnmark1814-1905). 89. Dahl,H. NorskLaTerutdanningfra 1814til i dap.Oslo 195g.(Nor- wegian TeacherTraining from1814 to thePresent). 90. BjOrndal,B.P. Vossog hans aamtid. Pedagogiakebrytningar 1869-1896. Oslo 1959.(P. Vossand hisTime). 91. Nilsen,H. Skolestellog folkeopplysningaarbeidbygdeneBergen* stilt 1800-1850.Oslo 1953.(The SchQolSystem andthe Work forAdult Education inthe BergenArea1800-1850). 92. HOverstad,T. Ole Vig.Binnorron uppaedar.Hamar 1953. 93. Sanderud,R.Fra P. A.Jensen tilNordahiRolfsen,Etskole-historisk bilde.Oslo 1951.( From P.A. Jensen'sto NordahlRolfsen'sReader). 94. Dokk,T.Oppsedinga idet gamicarbeidslivet.Oslo 1953.(The Educa- tion under theOld IndustrialSystem). 95. Overaas,A., Erichsen,M. E.og Due, I.Trondhjetnskatedralskoleshistoric, 1152-1952.(The Historyof the CathedralSchool inTrondheim,U52-- 1952). 96. Ribsskog,B.Santsvar mellomevner og dyktighet iskolearbeid.Under- sOkinger ved Oslofolkeskole.Oslo 1951.(The Correlationbetween Abil- ity andSchoolPerformance). 97. Haavardsholm,B.Skulkere ifolkeskolen.Oslo 1951.(Truants inthe Elementary. School). 88. Simonsen,K. Lererensordbok. De titusen viktlgsteordenektrebOkene. Oslo 1953.(The Dictionaryof theTeacher.The TenThousand Most ImportantWords in theTextbooks). 99. Eng.EL ThePsychology ofChild andYouth Drawing.London 1957. 100. Nielsen,R. FrOyland.Ledevelopementde la sociabiliti4chez rentant. Paris 1951. 101. Skard,0. Anleggfor universititeta-og hOgskolestudier. Oslo1951.(Abil- ity forUniversity and HighSchool Studie4). 102.Rommetveit, R.Social Normaand Roles.Oslo 1953. 103. Smedslund,J.: Multiple-probabilityLearning.An Inquiryinto the Origins of Perception.Oslo 1955. 104. BrunGulbrandsen, S.Ifjonnsrolleog ungdomskriminalitet.Oslo 1958. ( See Roleand JuvenileDelinquency). 105.Magnussen, E.Leseinteresseri realskolealderen.Oslo 1951.(Reading Interests in theHigh SchoolAge). 100. TOnnesen, H. 0.Ungdomog kino. En undersOkingover kinovanerog Illminteresser hosOslo-ungdom ialderen 12til 18 dr.Oslo 1952.( Young Persons and theCinema). 107. Kraugerud,T.Ett drmatematikk.EnstandpunktprOvei elementwralge- bra.Oslo 1952.(One Yearof Mathematics.An AchievementTest of Algebra). 108. StOlen,A.Edruskapaundervisningog elevreaksjon..Avhandlingerfra Universitetetspedagogiskeforskningsinatitutt,nr.13.Oslo1958. ( Teachingabout theEffects ofAlcohol andStudentReaction). 109. Totallingog danning.UndersOkingerover utvikling,keringog tilpasning i barne-og ungdomsalderen.SamleskriftIraUniversitetetsPedagogiske Poranimsinstitutt.Nr. 1.Oslo 1954.(Researchand Education.No. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHIN 'NORWAY 31 1.IniestigationsConcerning Development,Learning andAdjustment in Childhood and Youth.Edited byJ. Sandven incooperation with 0. Vormeland.Contributions by 0.Larsen, fiL8letvold,IL Wergeland,0. Laukli, M. Rykkvinand C. Hambro). 110. .Forakningog donning.UndersOkingerover utvikling, keringog tilpasning barns-og ungtomsalderen.Samleskrift fraUniversitetetsPedagogiske Forskningsinstitutt,Nr. 2.Oslo 1956.(Researchand Education, No. 2.Investigations ConcerningDevelopment, Learningand Adjustmentin Childhoodand Youth.Edited by J.Sandven incollaborationwith S. Ranch.Contributions by D.Vier0, 0. Vormeland,J. Thori, H. OstbitJ. Helgheim and G. Rand). 111. Forskningog donning.Underagkinger verdrOrendestvikling,keringop akotearganisasjon.Samleskriftfra UniversitetetsPedagogiske Forsk- ningsinstitutt, Nr. 3.Oslo 1958.(Research andEducation, No. 8.In- vestigations ConcerningDevelopmdnt,Learning andthe Structure of the 'School System.Edited by J. Sandvenin collaborationwith 8. Stensaasen. Contributions by 0.Steinsholt, P. Rand,L. Motad andH. Johnsgard). 112. Forskningog donning.Undersokinger vedrorendeengelskundervisningen foikeskolen.Samleskrift fraUniversitetetsPedagogiskeForsknings- institutt, Nr. 4.Oslo 1958.(Research andEducation, No. 4.Inves- tigations Concerningthe EnglishStudy in theElementary School.Ed- ited by J.Sandven incollaboration with B.Stensaasen.Contributions by S. Stensaasenand R. Sivertsen). 113. Forakiningog donning.UndersOkingervedrOrende kerernesaympd aM utdanning, musikalitetog musikkinteresse hos barn,tallbegrepsutvik- gingenogbarns interease fortegneserier.Samleskrift fraUniversitetets PedagogiskeForskningsinstitutt,Nr. 5.Oslo 1960.(Research and Edu- cation, No. 5.InvestigationsConcerning theAttitudes ofTeachers to their Training;Musicality andMusical Interestsin Children;the Devel- opment of NumberConcepts and theInterest ofChildren inComics. Edited by J.Sandven in collaborationwith S. Stensaasen.Contribu- tions by A. Hove,E. Hveding,P. Rand and K.I. Hansen). 114. Sandven, J.et al.Norsk standardav Terman-Merrills Stanford revision av Binet-prOvene.Oslo 1954.(NorwegianStandard ofTerman-Mer- rills Stanford-revisionof the BinetTests).

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