Introduction

Notes

Introduction

1. Catalogue for the Industrial Show of the West Clare Branches of the United Irishwomen, 1913, quoted in the Irish Homestead, 30 August 1913, p. 729. 2. M. Ward, Unmanageable Revolutionaries: Women and Irish Nationalism (London: Pluto Press, 1989), p. 46; S. Pašeta, ‘Nationalist Responses to Two Royal Visits to Ireland, 1900 and 1903’, Irish Historical Studies, 31 (1999), p. 489. 3. L. Davidoff and C. Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850 (London: Routledge, 1987), p. 450. 4. For example, see A. Twells, ‘Missionary Domesticity, Global Reform and “Woman’s Sphere” in Early Nineteenth-Century England’, Gender and His- tory, 18 (2006), pp. 266–84 and A. Clark, ‘The Rhetoric of Chartist Domesticity: Gender, Language and Class in the 1830s and 1840s’, Journal of British Studies, 31 (1992), pp. 62–88. 5. ‘Easter at the O’Curry Irish College’, Clare Champion, 15 March 1913, in TCD Ms 5924. 6. K. Gleadle, Borderline Citizens: Women, Gender, and Political Culture in Britain 1815–1867 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 18. 7. For example, see L. Ryan and M. Ward (eds), Irish Women and the Vote: Becoming Citizens (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2007). 8. ‘Sinn Féin’, Enniscorthy Echo, 15 May 1909; ‘Sinn Féin’, Enniscorthy Echo, 12 June 1909. 9. L. Earner-Byrne, ‘ “Aphrodite Rising from the Waves”? Women’s Voluntary Activism and the Women’s Movement in Twentieth-Century Ireland’, in E. Breitenbach and P. Thane (eds), Women and Citizenship in Britain and Ireland in the Twentieth Century: What Difference Did the Vote Make? (London: Continuum, 2010), p. 95. 10. G. Meaney, ‘Women’s Writing, 1700–1960’, in A. Bourke et al., The Field Day Anthology of Irish Writing: Irish Women’s Writing and Traditions (Cork: Cork University Press, 2002), p. 769; L. Lane, Rosamond Jacob: Third Person Singular (Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 2010), p. 77. 11. ‘Irish Shoddy’, United Irishman, 4 March 1905, p. 3; ‘Household Hints. Suggestions and Recipes’, Irish Homestead, 18 September 1909, p. 774. 12. Irish Homestead, 25 November 1911, p. 946. 13. M. Smitley, The Feminine Public Sphere: Middle-Class Women and Civic Life in Scotland, c. 1870–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009). 14. P. Maume, ‘Somers, Elizabeth’, in J. McGuire and J. Quinn (eds), Dictionary of Irish Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), http://dib. cambridge.org/viewReadPage.do?articleId=a8189, accessed 20 June 2011. 15. Earner-Byrne, ‘ “Aphrodite Rising from the Waves”?’. 16. K. Steele, Women, Press, and Politics During the Irish Revival (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2007), pp. 25–6.

161 162 Notes

17. Lane, Rosamond Jacob,p.22. 18. For a recent exploration of the potential of the 1911 Census of Dublin for historical research, see D. Connor, G. Mills and N. Moore-Cherry, ‘The 1911 Census and Dublin City: A Spatial Analysis’, Irish Geography (2012), pp. 1–19. 19. S. Pašeta, Before the Revolution: Nationalism, Social Change and Ireland’s Catholic Élite, 1879–1922 (Cork: Cork University Press, 1999); F. Campbell, The Irish Establishment 1879–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 3.

1 Women, Gender and National Identity: Theoretical and Comparative Perspectives

1. Hanna Sheehy Skeffington, ‘Sinn Féin and Irishwomen’, Bean na hÉireann, November 1909, p. 6. 2. For a recent example of scholarship which explores the transnational connections that helped circulate feminist ideas at the turn of the twentieth century, see J. H. Quataert, ‘ “Being Heard on Important Matters of International Life”: Transnational Perspectives on Women’s Movements in Wilhelmine Germany and Edwardian Britain, 1890–1914’, in D. Geppert and R. Gerwarth (eds), Wilhelmine Germany and Edwardian Britain: Essays on Cultural Affinity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 173–98. 3. M. Smitley, The Feminine Public Sphere: Middle-Class Women and Civic Life in Scotland, c. 1870–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009). 4. J. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). Prior to the publication of an English translation, a short summary of Habermas’s ideas about the public sphere appeared, which began to influence feminist scholars. See J. Habermas, ‘The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia Article’, New German Critique, 3 (1974), pp. 49–55 and M. P. Ryan, ‘Gender and Public Access: Women’s Politics in Nineteenth-Century America’, in C. Calhoun (ed.), Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1992), p. 261. 5. See J. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), p. 7. For a useful recent summary of these debates, see P. Johnson, Habermas: Rescuing the Public Sphere (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2006), pp. 152–65. 6. N. Fraser, Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the ‘Postsocialist’ Condition (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), p. 81. For a recent critique of the idea of counterpublics, see C. Calhoun, ‘The Public Sphere in the Field of Power’, Social Science History, 34:3 (2010), pp. 301–35. 7. Fraser, Justice Interruptus, p. 74. 8. Ryan, ‘Gender and Public Access’, pp. 269, 271, 279. 9. See, for example, T. C. Barnard, ‘Sites and Rites of Associational Life in Eighteenth-Century Ireland’, in J. Kelly and R. V. Comerford (eds), Associational Culture in Ireland and Abroad (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2010), pp. 11–12; K. A. Conrad, Locked in the Family Cell: Gender, Sexual- ity, and Political Agency in Irish National Discourse (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2004), pp. 13–14; L. Ryan, ‘Publicising the Private: Notes 163

Suffragists’ Critique of Sexual Abuse and Domestic Violence’, in Ryan and Ward, Irish Women and the Vote, pp. 75–89 and C. A. Kennedy, ‘ “What Can Women Give But Tears”: Gender, Politics and Irish National Identity in the 1790s’, Unpublished PhD thesis (University of York, 2004). 10. L. Davidoff and C. Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850 (London: Routledge, 1987), p. 450. 11. For one of the most sustained critiques, see A. J. Vickery, ‘Golden Age to Separate Spheres: a Review of the Categories and Chronologies of English Women’s History’, Historical Journal, 36 (1993), pp. 383–414. See also K. Gleadle, ‘Revisiting Family Fortunes: Reﬂections on the Twentieth Anniver- sary of the Publication of L. Davidoff & C. Hall (1987) Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850 (London: Hutchinson)’, Women’s History Review, 16:5 (2007), pp. 773–82. 12. J. Rendall, ‘Women and the Public Sphere’, Gender and History, 11:3 (1999), pp. 475–88. 13. Ibid., p. 482. 14. A. Twells, ‘Missionary Domesticity, Global Reform and “Woman’s Sphere” in Early Nineteenth-Century England’, Gender and History, 18 (2006), p. 268. See also K. Gleadle, The Early Feminists: Radical Unitarians and the Emergence of the Women’s Rights Movements, 1831–51 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998). 15. E. Gordon and G. Nair, Public Lives: Women, Family and Society in Victorian Britain (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2003), p. 7. 16. S. Morgan, A Victorian Woman’s Place: Public Culture in the Nineteenth Century (London: I.B. Tauris, 2007). 17. K. Gleadle, British Women in the Nineteenth Century (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), p. 4. 18. M. K. Smitley, ‘ “Woman’s Mission”: the Temperance and Women’s Suffrage Movements in Scotland, c.1870–1914’, Unpublished PhD thesis (University of Glasgow, 2002), pp. 98–9. See also Smitley, The Feminine Public Sphere. 19. Smitley, ‘ “Woman’s Mission” ’, p. 68. 20. For the experience the Gaelic League gave women in public leadership roles, see T. G. McMahon, ‘ “To Mould an Important Body of Shepherds”: the Gaelic Summer Colleges and the Teaching of Irish History’, in L. W. McBride (ed.), Reading Irish Histories: Texts, Contexts, and Memory in Modern Ireland (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2003), p. 135. 21. G. Eley, ‘Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures: Placing Habermas in the Nineteenth Century’, in Calhoun, Habermas and the Public Sphere, pp. 289–339. 22. For a recent exploration of how a nuanced conception of the public sphere can help our understanding of women’s activism, see M. P. Ryan, ‘The Public and the Private Good: Across the Great Divide in Women’s History’, Journal of Women’s History, 15:2 (2003), pp. 10–27. 23. M. DiCenzo, ‘Militant Distribution: Votes for Women and the Public Sphere’, Media History, 6:2 (2000), p. 117. See also M. DiCenzo, Feminist Media History: Suffrage Periodicals and the Public Sphere (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan 2010). 24. E. J. Yeo, ‘Some Paradoxes of Empowerment’, in E. J. Yeo (ed.), Radi- cal Femininity: Women’s Self-Representation in the Public Sphere (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), p. 15. 164 Notes

25. K. Steele, Women, Press, and Politics During the Irish Revival (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2007), pp. 176–9. 26. L. F. Suffern, ‘Militancy and Motherhood II’, Irish Citizen, 26 December 1914, p. 250. 27. M. E. Duggan, ‘Motherhood v. Militancy II’, Irish Citizen, 16 January 1915, p. 267. 28. M. Cullen, ‘Feminism, Citizenship and Suffrage: a Long Dialogue’, in L. Ryan and M. Ward (eds), Irish Women and the Vote: Becoming Citizens (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2007), p. 15. 29. Ibid., p. 10. 30. Ibid., p. 15. For Anna Haslam, see C. Quinlan, Genteel Revolutionaries: Anna and Thomas Haslam and the Irish Women’s Movement (Cork: Cork University Press, 2002). 31. Cullen, ‘Feminism, Citizenship and Suffrage’, pp. 13–14. 32. M. Cullen, ‘Women, Emancipation, and Politics, 1860–1984’, in J. R. Hill (ed.), A New History of Ireland, Volume 7: 1921–84 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 845–63. 33. Ryan, ‘Publicising the Private’, in Ryan and Ward, Irish Women and the Vote, p. 77. 34. Ibid. 35. M. Ward, ‘The Ladies’ Land League and the Irish Land War 1881–1882: Defin- ing the Relationship between Women and Nation’, in I. Blom, K. Hagemann and C. Hall (eds), Gendered Nations: Nationalism and Gender Order in the Long Nineteenth Century (Oxford: Berg, 2000), p. 231. 36. K. Offen, ‘Defining Feminism: a Comparative and Historical Approach’, Signs, 14:1 (1988), p. 156. 37. L. Earner-Byrne, ‘ “Aphrodite Rising from the Waves”? Women’s Voluntary Activism and the Women’s Movement in Twentieth-Century Ireland’, in E. Breitenbach and P. Thane (eds), Women and Citizenship in Britain and Ireland in the Twentieth Century: What Difference Did the Vote Make? (London: Continuum, 2010) 38. Ibid., p. 99. 39. Ibid., p. 105. 40. N. Yuval-Davis and F. Anthias (eds), Woman, Nation, State (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1989). 41. S. Ranchod-Nilsson and M. A. Tétreault (eds), Women, States, and Nationalism: At Home in the Nation? (London and New York: Routledge, 2000); L. A. West (ed.), Feminist Nationalism (London and New York: Routledge, 1997). 42. C. Hall, ‘Gender, Nations and Nationalisms’, in E. Mortimer (ed.), People, Nation and State: the Meaning of Ethnicity and Nationalism (London: I. B. Tauris, 1999), p. 46; C. Hall, K. McClelland, and J. Rendall, ‘Introduction’, in C. Hall, K. McClelland and J. Rendall, Defining the Victorian Nation: Class, Race, Gender and the British Reform Act of 1867 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 42. 43. C. Hall, ‘The Rule of Difference: Gender, Class and Empire in the Making of the 1832 Reform Act’, in Blom, Hagemann and Hall, Gendered Nations, p. 108. 44. K. Jayawardena, Feminism and Nationalism in the Third World (London: Zed Books, 1986). Notes 165

45. Blom, ‘Gender and Nation in International Comparison’, in Blom, Hagemann and Hall, Gendered Nations,p.6. 46. N. Yuval-Davis and F. Anthias, ‘Introduction’ in Yuval-Davis and Anthias, Woman, Nation, State, pp. 6–11. 47. See Feminist Review, 44 (1993); Gender and History, 5:2 (1993); Women’s Studies International Forum, 19:1–2 (1996). 48. B. Einhorn, ‘Introduction: Links Across Difference: Gender, Ethnicity, and Nationalism’, Women’s Studies International Forum, 19:1–2, (1996), p. 2; C. Hall, J. Lewis, K. McClelland and J. Rendall, ‘Introduction’, Gender and History, 5:2 (1993), p. 161. 49. S. Sen, ‘Motherhood and Mothercraft: Gender and Nationalism in Bengal’, Gender and History, 5:2 (1993), pp. 231–43. 50. Ibid., p. 231. 51. Ibid., p. 232. 52. A. Blunt, ‘ “Land of our Mothers”: Home, Identity, and Nationality for Anglo- Indians in British India, 1919–1947’, History Workshop Journal, 54 (2002), pp. 49–72. 53. B. Walter, ‘Irishness, Gender and Place’, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 13 (1995), p. 37. 54. S. Thapar, ‘Women as Activists; Women as Symbols: a Study of the Indian Nationalist Movement’, Feminist Review, 44 (Summer 1993), pp. 81–96; S. Thapar-Bjökert, ‘The Domestic Sphere as a Political Site: A Study of Women in the Indian Nationalist Movement’, Women’s Studies International Forum, 20:4 (1997), pp. 493–504. 55. Thapar, ‘Women as Activists’, p. 81. 56. Thapar-Björkert, ‘The Domestic Sphere’, p. 494. 57. Ibid. 58. S. Thapar-Björkert and L. Ryan, ‘Mother India/Mother Ireland: Compar- ative Gendered Dialogues of Colonialism and Nationalism in the Early Twentieth Century’, Women’s Studies International Forum, 25:3 (2002), pp. 301–33. 59. Ibid., p. 308. 60. Ibid. 61. C. Midgley, ‘Bringing the Empire Home: Women Activists in Imperial Britain, 1790s–1930s’, in C. Hall and S. O. Rose (eds), At Home with the Empire: Metropolitan Culture and the Imperial World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 230–50. 62. E. Riedi, ‘Women, Gender, and the Promotion of Empire: the Victoria League, 1901–1914’, Historical Journal, 45:3 (2002), p. 583. 63. Ibid., pp. 587–9. 64. K. Pickles, ‘A Link in “The Great Chain of Empire Friendship”: the Victoria League in New Zealand’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 33:1 (2005), p. 29. 65. Ibid., p. 31. 66. J. Bush, Edwardian Ladies and Imperial Power (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 2000). 67. M. Hendley, ‘Patriotic Leagues and the Evolution of Popular Patriotism and Imperialism in Great Britain, 1914–1932’, Unpublished PhD thesis, (University of Toronto, 1998), p. 105. 166 Notes

68. M. Hendley, ‘Women and the Nation: the Right and Projections of Fem- inized Political Images in Great Britain, 1900–1918’, in J. V. Gottlieb and T. P. Linehan (eds), The Culture of Fascism: Visions of the Far Right in Britain (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 2004), p. 17. 69. D. Thackeray, ‘Rethinking the Edwardian Crisis of Conservatism’, Historical Journal, 54:1 (2011), pp. 199–200. 70. D. Thackeray, ‘Home and Politics: Women and Conservative Activism in Early-Twentieth-Century Britain’, Journal of British Studies, 49:4 (2010), p. 826, 830. 71. M. Billig, Banal Nationalism (London: Sage, 1995). 72. Ibid., p. 8. 73. Ibid., p. 126; T. Cusack, ‘Janus and Gender: Women and the Nation’s Backward Look’, Nations and Nationalism, 6:4 (2000), p. 544. For an interesting application of Billig’s ideas to an Irish context, see T. Cusack, ‘A “Countryside Bright with Cosy Homesteads”: Irish Nation- alism and the Cottage Landscape’, National Identities, 3:3 (2001), pp. 221–38. 74. G. Sluga, ‘Identity, Gender and the History of European Nations and Nation- alism’, Nations and Nationalism, 4:1 (1998), pp. 87–111. Sluga argues, however, that the nineteenth-century masculine bourgeois public sphere limited women’s role in the construction of national identity. 75. N. Reagin, Sweeping the German Nation: Domesticity and National Identity in Germany, 1870–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008). 76. N. Reagin, ‘The Imagined Hausfrau: National Identity, Domesticity, and Colonialism in Imperial Germany’, Journal of Modern History, 73:1 (2001), p. 72, 85. 77. Ibid., p. 54. 78. Ibid., p. 71. 79. Reagin, Sweeping the German Nation, p. 17. 80. Ibid., p. 48. 81. A. Matthews, Renegades: Irish Republican Women 1900–1922 (Cork: Mercier Press, 2010), p. 37. 82. S. Pašeta, ‘Markievicz, Constance Georgine Countess Markievicz Gore-Booth’, in McGuire and Quinn, Dictionary of Irish Biography, at http://dib.cambridge. org/viewReadPage.do?articleId=a5452, accessed 20 June 2011. 83. M. Ward, Unmanageable Revolutionaries: Women and Irish Nationalism (London: Pluto, 1983); C. Murphy, The Women’s Suffrage Movement and Irish Society in the Early Twentieth Century (Brighton: Harvester, 1989). 84. N. Regan, ‘Helena Molony (1883–1967)’, in M. Cullen and M. Luddy (eds), Female Activists: Irish Women and Change 1900–1960 (Dublin: Woodﬁeld Press, 2001), pp. 141–67; L. Lane, Rosamond Jacob: Third Person Singular (Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 2010). 85. Steele, Women, Press and Politics. 86. G. Kearns, ‘Mother Ireland and the Revolutionary Sisters’, Cultural Geographies, 11 (2004), pp. 443–67. 87. Ibid., p. 446. 88. Ibid., pp. 454–5. Kearns also misdates the foundation of the Gaelic League to 1883, instead of the correct date, 1893. 89. Ibid., p. 450. Notes 167

90. A. N. Mulligan, ‘ “By a Thousand Ingenious Feminine Devices”: the Ladies’ Land League and the Development of Irish Nationalism’, Historical Geogra- phy, 37 (2009), pp. 159–77. 91. Ibid., p. 168. 92. L. Ryan, ‘ “Furies” and “Die-hards”: Women and Irish Republicanism in the Early Twentieth Century’, Gender and History, 11:2 (1999), p. 257. 93. Ibid. 94. Thapar-Bjökert and Ryan, ‘Mother India/Mother Ireland’, p. 301; Ryan, ‘ “Furies” and “Die-hards” ’, p. 271. 95. L. Ryan, ‘A Question of Loyalty: War, Nation, and Feminism in Early Twentieth-Century Ireland’, Women’s Studies International Forum, 20:1 (1997), p. 23, 28. 96. L. Ryan, Gender, Identity and the Irish Press 1922–1937: Embodying the Nation (Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press, 2002), pp. 10, 14. 97. Ibid., p. 10. 98. Ibid., p. 12. 99. L. Ryan and M. Ward, ‘Introduction’, in L. Ryan and M. Ward (eds), Irish Women and Nationalism: Soldiers, New Women and Wicked Hags (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2004), p. 3.

2 The Irish Homestead: Women, National Identity and Print Culture

1. P. J. Mathews, Revival: the Abbey Theatre, Sinn Féin, the Gaelic League and the Co-operative Movement (Cork: Cork University Press, 2003). 2. L. Lane, ‘ “It is in the Cottages and Farmers’ Houses that the Nation is Born”: AE’s Irish Homestead and the Cultural Revival’, Irish University Review, 33:1 (2003), p. 166; L. Lane, ‘George William Russell (AE) 1867–1935: Anglo-Irish Spokesman’, Unpublished PhD thesis (Boston College, 2000). 3. C. Ó Gráda, ‘The Beginnings of the Irish Creamery System, 1880–1914’, Economic History Review, 30:2 (1977), pp. 284–305. 4. C. King, ‘Co-operation and Rural Development: Plunkett’s Approach’, in J. Davis (ed.), Rural Change in Ireland (Belfast: Institute of Irish Studies, Queen’s University Belfast, 1999), pp. 45, 46. 5. V. Tucker, ‘Ireland and the Origins of the Co-operative Movement’, in C. Keating (ed.), Plunkett and Co-operatives. Past, Present and Future (Cork: U.C.C. Bank of Ireland Centre for Co-operative Studies, 1983), p. 25. 6. Ibid., p. 28. 7. Irish Homestead, 24 February 1912. 8. Irish Agricultural Organization Society, Annual Report, 1915 (Dublin: 1915), Appendix XIX. 9. J. Bourke, Husbandry to Housewifery: Women, Economic Change, and House- work in Ireland, 1890–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 1. 10. J. Bourke, ‘ “The Best of All Home Rulers”: the Economic Power of Women in Ireland, 1880–1914’, Irish Economic and Social History, 28 (1991), p. 36. 11. T. West, Horace Plunkett: Co-operation and Politics: An Irish Biography (Gerrards Cross: Smythe, 1986), p. 32, 113; T. West, ‘The Development of Horace Plunkett’s Thought’, in Keating, Plunkett and Co-operatives, pp. 41–2. 168 Notes

It must, of course, be remembered that the relationship between Plunkett, the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction and the IAOS was rarely smooth, and led to Plunkett’s resignation from the DATI in 1907 over ill-founded accusations from John Dillon that the IAOS was part of an anti-Home Rule strategy. See M. McAteer, ‘Reactionary Conservatism or Radical Utopianism? A.E. and the Irish Cooperative Movement’, Éire- Ireland, 35:2–3, (2001), p. 151; Department of Agricultural and Technical Instruction, Report of the Departmental Committee of Inquiry into the Provinces of Agricultural and Technical Instruction (Ireland) Act, 1899 (Cd. 3572), H.C. 1907, xvii, p. 64. 12. H. Plunkett, Ireland in the New Century (London: J. Murray, 1904). 13. A. Gailey, Ireland and the Death of Kindness: the Experience of Constructive Unionism, 1890–1905 (Cork: Cork University Press, 1987), pp. 17–19. 14. C. Keating, ‘Plunkett, the Co-operative Movement and Irish Rural Develop- ment’, in Keating, Plunkett and Co-operatives, p. 45. 15. ‘IAOS AGM Report’, Irish Homestead, 3 September 1898, p. 738. 16. Bourke, Husbandry to Housewifery, p. 240. 17. ‘Homestead Competition’, Irish Homestead, 27 July 1901, p. 497. 18. S. Brooks, ‘Sir Horace Plunkett and his Work’, Fortnightly Review, 91 (1912), p. 1020. 19. NLI, Ms 9967, Letters from George W. Russell (AE), Selected and Edited by Alan Denson. 20. ‘Co-operative Banks’, Irish Homestead, 15 January 1898, pp. 54–5. 21. H. Summerfield (ed.), Selections from the Contributions to the Irish Homestead by G.W. Russell – ‘AE’. Vol. 1 (Gerrards Cross: Smythe, 1978), p. 35. 22. West, Horace Plunkett, p. 89. 23. H. Summerfield, That Myriad-Minded Man: a Biography of George William Russell ‘AE’, 1867–1935 (Gerrards Cross: Smythe, 1975), pp. 126–7. 24. George W. Russell (AE), Co-operation and Nationality. A Guide for Rural Reformers from This to the Next Generation (Dublin: Maunsel, 1912); The National Being. Some Thoughts on an Irish Polity (Dublin: Maunsel, 1916). 25. McAteer, ‘Reactionary Conservatism or Radical Utopianism?’, pp. 154–8. 26. For discussion of the role of the DATI in this exhibition see DATI, Confidential Minutes of Proceedings, 1900–21 (Dublin, n. d.), p. 258. 27. ‘At the Roots of Nationality’, Irish Homestead, 14 April 1906, p. 282. 28. Ibid., p. 283. 29. ‘Notes of the Week’, Irish Homestead, 8 January 1910, p. 23; ‘Notes of the Week’, ‘Champions to the Rescue of Irish Women’, Irish Homestead, 3 April 1909, p. 264. 30. J. Bush, ‘Edwardian Ladies and the “Race” Dimensions of British Imperial- ism’, Women’s Studies International Forum, 21:3 (1998), p. 278. 31. ‘The Homestead’, Irish Homestead, 30 May 1896, p. 203. 32. ‘A Home Industries Society’, Irish Homestead, 4 July 1896, p. 279. 33. ‘The Fireside. Avoid the Wrinkles of Old Age’, Irish Homestead, 5 September 1896, p. 433; ‘The Fireside. How to Roast Meat’, Irish Homestead, 22 August 1896, p. 401. 34. ‘Viceregal Visit to a Creamery’, Irish Homestead, 5 December 1896, p. 649. 35. ‘One of Your Lady Readers’, ‘Correspondence’, Irish Homestead,12 December 1896, p. 675. Notes 169

36. ‘A Women Who Works’, ‘What Women Want to Read’, Irish Homestead, 26 December 1896, p. 712. 37. See Bourke, Husbandry to Housewifery, pp. 109–41. 38. Ibid., p. 109, 140. 39. ‘Foxford Show, Co. Mayo’, Irish Homestead, 12 September 1896, p. 440. 40. ‘The Predominant Partner’, Irish Homestead, 15 January 1898, p. 59. 41. ‘The Predominant Partner’, Irish Homestead, 18 June 1898, p. 496. 42. Annie L. Brew, ‘Correspondence. The Homes of Rural Ireland’, Irish Home- stead, 24 September 1898, p. 800. 43. ‘Homestead Readings’, Irish Homestead, 10 September 1898, pp. 769–70. 44. Bourke, Husbandry to Housewifery, pp. 116–17. 45. Irish Homestead, 4 March 1899, p. 163. 46. Ibid., p. 173. 47. ‘The Irish Cottage’, Irish Homestead, 29 April 1899, p. 311. 48. Ibid. 49. Ibid. 50. See R. Lynd, Home Life in Ireland (London: Mills and Boon, 1909), pp. 13–21. 51. ‘A Woman’s Work is Never Done’, ‘Household Hints’, Irish Homestead, 21 December 1901, p. 838. 52. ‘Notes of the Week: Geevelea Domestic Training Class’, Irish Homestead, 21 June 1902, p. 479. 53. Ibid. 54. Plunkett Diaries, 8 October 1894, Plunkett Foundation, Oxford. 55. ‘Notes of the Week. The Misses Megan’, Irish Homestead, 4 August 1900, p. 497. 56. ‘Carrickmacross Co-operative Lace Society’, Irish Homestead, 5 April 1902, p. 269. 57. ‘Village Libraries’, Irish Homestead, 12 August 1899, p. 559. 58. ‘Homestead Readings. Bryan Gilligan on Ladies and Their Duties’, Irish Homestead, 16 September 1899, p. 642. 59. ‘Notes of the Week. One Hundred Books Suitable for a Village Library’, Irish Homestead, 11 November 1899, p. 770. 60. ‘Recreation in Rural Ireland’, Irish Homestead, 20 October 1900, p. 673. 61. ‘The Ireland of the Village’, Irish Homestead, 3 November 1900, p. 705. 62. Ibid. 63. ‘Homestead Competition’, Irish Homestead, 27 July 1901, p. 497. 64. Ibid. 65. Plunkett Diaries, 17 September 1905, Plunkett Foundation, Oxford. 66. Mary Spring Rice, ‘Tar a Gaile’, Irish Homestead, Celtic Christmas, December 1902, p. 16. 67. Ibid. 68. ‘Household Hints. Talks About Clothes –1’, Irish Homestead, 10 August 1901, p. 537. 69. Ibid. 70. C. O’Connor Eccles, ‘Irish Costume for Women’, Irish Homestead, 1 March 1902, p. 170. 71. ‘The Homestead and its Indwellers. Household Hints’, Irish Homestead, 12 December 1903, p. 1013. 72. L. Lane, ‘Female Emigration and the Cooperative Movement in the Writings of George Russell’, New Hibernia Review, 8:4 (2004), p. 85. 170 Notes

73. H. Pyle, Red-Headed Rebel: Susan L. Mitchell, Poet and Mystic of the Irish Cultural Renaissance (Dublin: The Woodﬁeld Press, 1998), p. 3. 74. Ibid., p. 64. 75. S. L. Mitchell, Aids to the Immortality of Certain Persons, Charitably Adminis- tered (Dublin: New Nation Press, 1908); E. Ní Dhuibhne, Voices on the Wind: Women Poets of the Celtic Twilight (Dublin: New Island Books, 1995), p. 65. 76. See S. L. Mitchell, ‘Oh! We Never Mention It’, Aids to the Immortality of Certain Persons, Charitably Administered, 2nd edn, (Dublin and London: Maunsel, 1913) pp. 39–40. 77. R. M. Kain, Susan L. Mitchell (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1972); Pyle, Red-Headed Rebel. 78. Kain, Susan L. Mitchell, p. 13. 79. Pyle, Red-Headed Rebel, p. xvii. 80. A. Frazier, George Moore, 1852–1933 (New Haven and London: Yale Univer- sity Press, 2000), p. 325, 367. 81. J. Eglinton, A Memoir of AE, George William Russell (London: Macmillan, 1937), p. 74. See also a recent article on the poets published by Maunsel at the beginning of the twentieth century, D. Gardiner, ‘The Other Irish Renaissance: the Maunsel Poets’, New Hibernia Review, 8:1 (2004), pp. 69–70. 82. Eglinton, A Memoir of AE, p. 74; J. Joyce, Ulysses edited by Jeri Johnson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 158. 83. Lane, ‘Female Emigration’, p. 85. 84. Ní Dhuibhne, Voices on the Wind, p. 13. 85. Pyle, Red-Headed Rebel, p. 78. 86. AE revealed the working practices of the Homestead in a letter to Sarah Purser: see National Library of Ireland, MS 9967, Letters from George W. Russell (AE), Selected and Edited by Alan Denson, letter to Miss Purser, 15 August 1902. See also the description of the Irish Homestead’s ofﬁces in Merrion Square, Dublin in Eglinton, A Memoir of AE, pp. 75–6. 87. Other pseudonymously authored ‘Household Hints’ columns could, of course, be Mitchell’s, but lack the dry, sarcastic tone that characterizes much of her writing. 88. Pyle, Red-Headed Rebel, p. 130. 89. C. Wills, ‘Women, Domesticity and the Family: Recent Feminist Work in Irish Cultural Studies’, Cultural Studies, 15:1 (2001), p. 35. 90. ‘Household Hints. Punctuality’, Irish Homestead, 2 May 1903, p. 368. 91. ‘Household Hints. Talks About Clothes II’, Irish Homestead, 19 October 1901, p. 704. 92. Ibid., pp. 703–4. 93. See L. Lane, ‘ “It is in the Cottages and Farmers’ Homes that the Nation is Born”. 94. ‘Household Hints. Talks About Clothes’, Irish Homestead, 10 August 1901, p. 537. 95. ‘Household Hints. “A Woman’s Work is Never Done” ’, Irish Homestead, 21 December 1901, p. 838. 96. ‘Household Hints. Tidiness’, Irish Homestead, 14 March 1903, p. 213. 97. ‘Household Hints. Tidiness’, Irish Homestead, 28 February 1903, p. 174. As Leeann Lane argues, the ‘Household Hints’ column often concen- trated on dispensing advice to the less well-off, see L. Lane, ‘ “There Are Compensations in the Congested Districts for their Poverty”: AE and the Notes 171

Idealized Peasant of the Agricultural Co-operative Movement’, in B. Taylor Fitzsimon and J. H. Murphy (eds), The Irish Revival Reappraised (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2004), p. 37. 98. See J. MacPherson, ‘ “Ireland Begins in the Home”: Women, Irish National Identity and the Domestic Sphere in the Irish Homestead 1896–1912’, Éire- Ireland, 36:3–4 (2001), p. 147. 99. ‘The Irish Country Girl’, Irish Homestead, 3 March 1906, pp. 161–2; ‘Home Life in Ireland – A Challenge to Irishwomen’, Irish Homestead, 1 June 1907, p. 428. 100. ‘Household Hints. The Sequel to Eve and the Apple’, Irish Homestead, 28 August 1909, p. 713. 101. Ibid., p. 714. 102. ‘Household Hints. Suggestions and Recipes’, Irish Homestead, 18 Septem- ber 1909, p. 774. The idea of state-operated, co-operative kitchens had been in circulation for some years. See, for example, ‘Central Co-operative Kitchens Instead of Private Cooks’, Englishwomen’s Review, 15 July 1898, pp. 208–9. 103. ‘Household Hints’, Irish Homestead, 18 September 1909, p. 774. 104. McAteer, ‘Reactionary Conservatism or Radical Utopianism?’ 105. Pyle, Red-Headed Rebel, p. 134. 106. ‘United Irishwomen’, Irish Homestead, 3 December 1910, pp. 1005–6. 107. Mitchell’s low-key involvement with the United Irishwomen was typical of her relationship with other organizations, including the Irish Women’s Franchise League. Hilary Pyle suggests that this was due to her persistent ill-health. See Pyle, Red-Headed Rebel, p. 145. 108. Quoted in M. McAteer, ‘A Split Unity: Gender and History in AE’s Poetry’, Irish Studies Review, 8:2 (2000), p. 187; Lane, ‘Female Emigration’, p. 97. 109. ‘Household Hints. The Man About the House’, Irish Homestead, 16 February 1907, p. 138. 110. See the special issue of the Journal of Women’s History, 15:1 (2003). 111. N. Reagin, Sweeping the German Nation: Domesticity and National Identity in Germany, 1870–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

3 The United Irishwomen

1. L. Earner-Byrne, ‘ “Aphrodite Rising from the Waves”? Women’s Voluntary Activism and the Women’s Movement in Twentieth-Century Ireland’, in E. Breitenbach and P. Thane (eds), Women and Citizenship in Britain and Ireland in the Twentieth Century: What Difference Did the Vote Make? (London: Continuum, 2010); K. Gleadle, Borderline Citizens: Women, Gender, and Polit- ical Culture in Britain 1815–1867 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 17–18. 2. Quoted in A. Heverin, The Irish Countrywomen’s Association: a History 1910– 2000 (Dublin: Wolfhound Press, 2000), p. 53. 3. S. McNamara, Those Intrepid United Irishwomen: Pioneers of the Irish Countrywomen’s Association (Limerick, 1995), p. 19. 4. Ibid. 5. Irish Farmer’s Gazette, 28 May 1910. 6. ‘The Irish Country Girl’, Irish Homestead, 3 March 1906, pp. 161–2. 172 Notes

7. ‘Home Life in Ireland – A Challenge to Irishwomen’, Irish Homestead, 1 June 1907, p. 428. 8. ‘Notes of the Week. Co-operative Domestic Economy’, Irish Homestead, 15 January 1910, p. 42. 9. ‘The Migration of Irish Women from the Farm’, Irish Homestead, 22 January 1910, p. 61. 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid., p. 62. 12. Ibid. 13. NLI, Ms 9968, Letters to and from AE, Selected and Edited by Alan Denson, Letter to Charles Weekes, 14 April 1910. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. 16. Quoted in McNamara, Those Intrepid United Irishwomen, p. 58. 17. ‘Correspondence – Irishwoman of 1910’, Irish Homestead, 19 February 1910, p. 142. 18. Ibid., p. 143. 19. E. Pilkington, ‘An Irish Guild of Countrywomen’, Irish Homestead, 9 April 1910, p. 291. 20. Ibid., p. 294. 21. ‘Notes of the Week. Apologies to the Suffragettes’, Irish Homestead,19March 1910, p. 226. For further links between the worlds of the suffragettes, advanced nationalists and women in the co-operative movement see Hanna Sheehy Skefﬁngton, ‘Sinn Fein and Irishwomen’, Bean na hÉireann, 3:13, p. 5 (n.d.). 22. ‘The United Irishwomen. What They Are and What They Want to Do’, United Irishwomen. A Journal for Irish Countrywomen, 1 May 1912, p. 1. 23. ‘Proposed League of Irish Women for Health and Wealth’, Enniscorthy Guardian, Supplement, 20 February 1909, p. 4. 24. Ibid.; McNamara, Those Intrepid United Irishwomen, pp. 22–4. 25. ‘Proposed League of Irish Women’, p. 4. 26. See A. Lett, Women’s Work in Rural Districts. From a Paper Read at the Alexandra College, Dublin, April 27, 1912 (Wexford, n.d.); A Short Sketch of the Aims and Purpose of the United Irishwomen (Wexford, n.d.); A Chat with United Irishwomen, By One of Themselves, C-1-22d, Ulster Folk and Transport Museum Archives. 27. See NLI Ms 27,647, Minute Book of the Connemara Sub-committee of the United Irishwomen, 1914–15; NLI MS 13414, Monteagle Papers. Correspon- dence between Lord Monteagle and Sir Horace Plunkett, 1911; ‘Pages for Irish Countrywomen’, Irish Homestead, 1910–1912. 28. The United Irishwomen, The Society of the United Irishwomen. Annual Report 1912 (Wexford, 1913), p. 2. 29. ‘Annual General Meeting of the United Irishwomen’, Irish Homestead, 30 November 1912, p. 982. 30. United Irishwomen, Annual Report 1912,p.2. 31. See, for example, the activities of the Fethard branch, established in October 1914, South Tipperary Museum, MS1992.587, Minute Book of the Fethard Branch United Irishwomen, 1914–1932. 32. McNamara, Those Intrepid United Irishwomen, pp. 9–10. Notes 173

33. D. Ferriter, Mothers, Maidens and Myths: A History of the Irish Countrywomen’s Association (Dublin: FAS, 1995), p. 3. 34. J. Bourke, Husbandry to Housewifery: Women, Economic Change, and House- work in Ireland, 1890–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 239. 35. See, for example, ‘Our Social Review’, Irish Independent, 19 June 1914, p. 7 and ‘Viceregal Court Circular’, Irish Independent, 21 December 1912, p. 7. 36. ‘An Abbey Matinee’, Irish Independent, 19 April 1913, p. 6. 37. See the photograph that accompanied the newspaper’s report of the United Irishwomen’s AGM in 1914, Irish Independent, 17 April 1914, p. 3. 38. K.F. Purdon, ‘The United Irishwomen’, The Englishwoman, 40:120 (1918), p. 110. 39. Ibid. 40. ‘Bree Show’, Irish Homestead, 26 August 1911, p. 680. 41. Irish Homestead, 7 December 1912, p. 1008. 42. See, for example, ‘Among the Branches. Omagh’, Irish Homestead, 3 January 1914, p. 13. 43. British Library (BL), Mss Eur E265/71, Papers of Evelyn Seton. 44. BL, Mss Eur E267/72, Papers of Evelyn Seton. 45. The 1911 Census of Ireland has been made available on the website of the National Archives of Ireland. See www.census.nationalarchives.ie 46. See Higgs’ work for extensive discussion of how occupational classiﬁcations can be used to establish socioeconomic class, along with the many pitfalls of such an approach. E. Higgs, A Clearer Sense of the Census: the Victorian Censuses and Historical Research (London: HMSO, 1996), pp. 134–8 and ‘The Linguistic Construction of Social and Medical Categories in the Work of the English General Register Ofﬁce, 1837–1950’, in S. Szreter, H. Sholkamy and A. Dharmalingam (eds), Categories and Contexts: Anthropological and Histor- ical Studies in Critical Demography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 86–106. 47. Bourke, Husbandry to Housewifery, pp. 26–7. The debate about the utility of the census for establishing female occupations in Ireland is summarized in M. Luddy, ‘Women and Work in Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Ireland: An Overview’, in B. Whelan (ed.), Women and Paid Work in Ireland, 1500–1930 (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2000), pp. 44–57. 48. For the largely middle-class status of Protestant women who were engaged in associational activity, see O. Walsh, Anglican Women in Dublin: Philanthropy, Politics and Education in the Early Twentieth Century (Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 2005), p. 42. 49. L. A. Clarkson L. Kennedy, E. M. Crawford and M. W. Dowling, Database of Irish Historical Statistics: Occupations, 1831–1911 (Colchester, 1997). 50. Ibid. Only 770 women fell into the ‘Schoolmistress, Assistant’ occupational category in the 1911 Census. 51. E. C. Paterson, ‘Crafting a National Identity: The Dun Emer Guild, 1902– 1908’, in E.A Taylor FitzSimon and J. H. Murphy (eds), The Irish Revival Reappraised (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2004), pp. 106–18; K. and C. Ó Céirín, Women of Ireland: a Biographic Dictionary (Kinvara: Tír Eolas, 1996), p. 199. 52. Census of Ireland, Dublin 1911, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/ reels/nai000139102/, accessed 20 June 2011. For suffrage organizations’ 174 Notes

campaign against the 1911 Census, see J. Liddington and E. Crawford, ‘ “Women Do Not Count, Neither Shall They be Counted”: Suffrage, Cit- izenship and the Battle for the 1911 Census’, History Workshop Journal, 71:1 (2011), pp. 98–127. 53. F. Clarke, ‘Bennett, Louisa (“Louie”)’, in J. McGuire and J. Quinn (eds), Dictionary of Irish Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), http://dib.cambridge.org/viewReadPage.do?articleId=a0581, accessed 20 June 2011. Recent work on female suffrage campaigners in Ireland has stressed the interconnection of different women’s and Irish revival groups and how individuals accommodated tensions between them. See L. Lane, ‘Rosamond Jacob: Nationalism and Suffrage’, in L. Ryan and M. Ward (eds), Irish Women and the Vote: Becoming Citizens (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2007), p. 17. 54. For Hamilton, see Census of Ireland, Dublin 1911, http://www.census. nationalarchives.ie/reels/nai000230043/, accessed 20 June 2011. For Lady Fingall, see Heverin, The Irish Countrywomen’s Association, pp. 200–1. See also the very brief mention of her work as president of the United Irishwomen in her memoirs, Seventy Years Young: Memories of Elizabeth, Countess of Fingall (London: Collins, 1937), p. 346. 55. Female occupations were heavily under-enumerated in the 1911 Census. See Luddy ‘Women and Work’, p. 45. According to the Agricultural Cen- sus of 1912, women comprised almost a quarter of the work force on Irish farms. See M. E. Daly, Women and Work in Ireland (Dundalk: Dundalgen Press, 1997), p. 22. 56. Census of Ireland 1911, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/reels/ nai003556091/, accessed 20 June 2011. 57. Census of Ireland 1911, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/reels/ nai003556073/, accessed 20 June 2011. 58. Census of Ireland 1911, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/reels/ nai003559798/, accessed 20 June 2011. 59. Clarkson et al., Database of Irish Historical Statistics. 60. Census of Ireland 1911, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/reels/ nai002370210/, accessed 20 June 2011. 61. F. Campbell, The Irish Establishment 1879–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). 62. Ibid., p. 17; for Eulalia Berridge, see Census of Ireland 1911, http://www. census.nationalarchives.ie/reels/nai002373400/, accessed 20 June 2011. 63. Census of Ireland 1911, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/reels/nai 003467883/; http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/reels/nai003564768/, accessed 20 June 2011. 64. C. Wills, ‘Women, Domesticity and the Family: Recent Feminist Work in Irish Cultural Studies’, Cultural Studies, 15:1 (2001), p. 55. 65. For a comparable analysis of Catholic middle-class strength in the case of the Gaelic League, see T. G. McMahon, Grand Opportunity: the Gaelic Revival and Irish Society, 1893–1910 (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2008), p. 103. 66. Earner-Byrne, ‘ “Aphrodite Rising from the Waves” ?’, p. 100. 67. See the example of Louie Bennett, discussed above. Many United Irishwomen were involved in other political groups, such as Mary Spring Notes 175

Rice, a nationalist who took part in the Howth gun run in July 1914. On the other side of the Irish political spectrum, Frances Eliza Battersby, President of the Omagh branch of the United Irishwomen, was a committed unionist, signing the Women’s Declaration against Home Rule in September 1912. 68. Census of Ireland, Dublin 1911; Clarkson, Database of Irish Historical Statis- tics. The percentage of Irish-speaking females is taken from those aged 10 onwards, as the recording of this data was designed to capture the extent to which Irish was spoken among the younger generation, so, unlike the occupational data, which provides ﬁgures for those aged 15 and above, the Irish language data splits into smaller age cohorts, 10–17, 18–29, 30–59, and 60 plus. 69. H. Plunkett, E. Pilkington and G. W. Russell (AE), The United Irishwomen: Their Place, Work and Ideals (Dublin: Maunsel, 1911). 70. Quoted in Pat Bolger (ed.), And See Her Beauty Shining There. The Story of the Irish Countrywomen (Blackrock: Irish Academic Press, 1986), p. 9. 71. E. Pilkington, ‘Their Work’, in Plunkett, Pilkington and Russell, The United Irishwomen, p. 23. 72. Ibid., p. 24. 73. Ibid., p. 25. 74. Ibid., p. 33. 75. Ibid. 76. ‘Among the Branches – Omagh’, Irish Homestead, 3 January 1914, p. 13. 77. J. Vernon, ‘The Ethics of Hunger and the Assembly of Society: the Techno- Politics of the School Meal in Modern Britain’, American Historical Review, 110:3 (2005), pp. 693–725; P. Atkins, ‘School Milk in Britain, 1900–1934’, Journal of Policy History, 19:4 (2007), pp. 418–9; A. H. Ferguson, L. T. Weaver and M. Nicolson, ‘The Glasgow Corporation Milk Depot 1904–1910 and its Role in Infant Welfare: An End or a Means?’, Social History of Medicine, 19:3 (2006), p. 446. 78. F.E. Seton, ‘The United Irishwomen’, Saotar na hEireann, 1914. 79. Vice-Regal Commission on the Irish Milk Supply, Appendix to the Final Report of the Irish Milk Commission, 1911, H.C. 1914 [Cd.7134], xxxvi, p. 86. 80. ‘Meeting of the Executive Committee’, Irish Homestead, 21 October 1911, p. 839. 81. ‘The First Human Duty’, Irish Homestead, 20 April 1912, p. 309. 82. Vice-Regal Commission on the Irish Milk Supply, p. 198; Irish Homestead, 12 October 1912, p. 834; Irish Homestead, 30 November 1912, p. 982. 83. Irish Homestead, 4 January 1913, 8 February 1913, 13 December 1913, 6 June 1914, 21 February 1914, 13 June 1914. 84. Seton, ‘The United Irishwomen’, p. 20. 85. Irish Homestead, 4 January 1913, pp. 14–15. 86. Irish Homestead, 20 July 1912, p. 588. 87. Irish Homestead, 6 June 1914, p. 465. 88. See the speech by Kathleen Browne ‘School Meals (Gaeltacht) Bill’, Seanad Éireann, 26 June 1930, p. 1874, available at http://debates.oireachtas.ie/ seanad/1930/06/26/00009.asp, accessed 20 June 2011. 89. Irish Homestead, 11 March 1911, p. 196. 90. Irish Homestead, 13 January 1912, p. 38; 27 January 1912, p. 77; 10 February 1912, p. 122; 17 February 1912, p. 142; 24 February 1912, p. 162; 4 May 176 Notes

1912, p. 328; 25 May 1912, p. 433; 4 January 1913, p. 14; 22 March 1913, p. 242. 91. ‘Cocoa for Schoolchildren’, Irish Homestead, 27 January 1912, p. 77. 92. Irish Homestead, 16 March 1912, p. 218. 93. Irish Homestead, 4 January 1913, p. 15. 94. Irish Homestead, 8 February 1913, p. 114. 95. Irish Homestead, 22 March 1913, p. 242. 96. ‘Woman and the Home’, Irish Homestead, 7 February 1914, p. 125. 97. ‘John Brennan’, ‘United Irishwomen’, Bean na hÉireann, July 1910, p. 5. 98. M. P. Ryan, ‘Gender and Public Access: Women’s Politics in Nineteenth- Century America’, in C. Calhoun (ed.), Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1992), p. 264. 99. ‘United Irishwomen’, Irish Homestead, 8 October 1910, p. 844. 100. United Irishwomen, Leaflet for Branches (Wexford: The People Printing Works, 1913), p. 2. 101. V. Crossman, Politics, Pauperism and Power in Late Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006), pp. 183–216. 102. Irish Homestead, 11 March 1911, p. 198. 103. Irish Homestead, 25 November 1911, p. 946. 104. Irish Homestead, 8 February 1913, p. 114. 105. Irish Homestead, 17 January 1914, p. 45. 106. L. Mayhall, ‘Household and Market in Suffragette Discourse, 1903–14’, The European Legacy, 6:2 (2001), p. 194. 107. Irish Homestead, 21 March 1914, p. 232. 108. United Irishwomen, Leaflet for Branches,p.2. 109. Ibid., p. 4. 110. H. Pyle, Red-Headed Rebel: Susan L. Mitchell, Poet and Mystic of the Irish Cultural Renaissance (Dublin: The Woodfield Press, 1998), p. 134. 111. Purdon, ‘The United Irishwomen’, p. 109. 112. ‘Meeting of the Executive Committee’, Irish Homestead, 23 December 1911, p. 1031. 113. ‘Among the Branches’, Irish Homestead, 3 January 1914, p. 14. 114. See Bourke, Husbandry to Housewifery, pp. 237–9. 115. ‘United Irishwomen’, Irish Homestead, 20 August 1910, p. 694. 116. Irish Homestead, 30 December 1910, p. 1004. 117. Irish Homestead, 25 April 1914, p. 336. 118. For Cousins, see C. Candy, ‘Margaret Cousins (1878–1954)’, in M. Cullen and M. Luddy (eds), Female Activists: Irish Women and Change 1900–1960 (Dublin: Woodfield Press, 2001), pp. 113–41. 119. On the political nature of the Women’s Co-operative Guild, see G. Scott, ‘ “As a War-Horse to the Beat of Drums”: Representations of Working-Class Femininity in the Women’s Co-operative Guild, 1880s to the Second World War’, in E. J. Yeo (ed.), Radical Femininity: Women’s Self-Representation in the Public Sphere (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), pp. 196–219. 120. ‘Meeting of the Executive Committee’, Irish Homestead, 23 December 1911, p. 1031. 121. M. Spring Rice, ‘Diary of the Asgard, 1–26 July 1914’, in F.X. Martin (ed.), The Howth Gun-Running and the Kilcoole Gun-Running (Dublin: Browne and Nolan, 1964), pp. 79–80, 95. Notes 177

122. P. J. Mathews, Revival: the Abbey Theatre, Sinn Féin, the Gaelic League and the Co-operative Movement (Cork: Cork University Press, 2003). 123. D. Figgis, ‘Irish Nationality’, English Review (June, 1913), p. 466. 124. United Irishwomen, Annual Report 1912,p.7. 125. Irish Homestead, 16 March 1912, p. 218. 126. ‘Athlone Industrial Exhibition’, Irish Homestead, 15 June 1912, p. 489. 127. Ulster Folk and Transport Museum, United Irishwomen Collection, C-1-22a, Rules of the United Irishwomen 1913, p. 4; Ulster Folk and Trans- port Museum, United Irishwomen Collection, C-1-22 l, Rules of the United Irishwomen 1912. 128. N. Gubbins-Hurley, ‘Irishwomen Waking Up’, Irish Homestead, 25 February 1911, p. 157. 129. Ulster Folk and Transport Museum, C-1-22 d, ‘A Chat With United Irishwomen, by One of Themselves’. 130. Ibid., p. 1. 131. Ibid., pp. 1, 2. 132. McMahon, Grand Opportunity, pp. 88–9. 133. BL, Mss Eur E267/71, Letter from Constance Pim to Mrs Freeman, 7 January 1915. 134. Ibid. 135. NLI, Ms 27,647, Minute Book of the Connemara Sub-committee of the United Irishwomen, 1914–15. 136. Ibid., ‘Committee Meeting Tuesday 12 March 1914’, n.p, Congested Dis- tricts Board for Ireland, Twenty Third Annual Report, 1914–1915 (Cd. 8076), H.C. 1914–1916, xxiv, p. 20. 137. Ulster Folk and Transport Museum, C-1-22c, ‘The Society of the United Irishwomen, Annual Report, 1913–14’, p. 8; Heverin, The Irish Countrywomen’s Association, pp. 213–14. 138. NLI, Ms 27,647, ‘Committee Meeting on Wednesday July 8 1914’, n.p. 139. Ibid. 140. Ibid. 141. ‘Abbeyfeale’, Irish Homestead, 8 June 1912, p. 467. 142. Irish Homestead, 7 December 1912, p. 1008. 143. ‘Dunglo Agricultural and Industrial Show and Sports’, Irish Homestead, 6 September 1913, p. 750. 144. Thomas MacDonagh O’Mahony, Kerry activist for the Gaelic League, speaking in 1904, quoted in McMahon, Grand Opportunity, p. 154. 145. ‘United Irishwomen’, Irish Homestead, 5 November 1910, p. 925. The Feis was the annual Gaelic League gathering at which competitions were held in Irish dancing, music, language and other Irish cultural activities. 146. ‘Among the Societies. United Irishwomen’, Irish Homestead, 14 January 1911, p. 38. 147. Irish Homestead, 1 April 1911, p. 258. 148. A. Milligan, ‘Work for United Irishwomen’, Irish Homestead, 18 March 1911, pp. 218–19. 149. United Irishwomen, Annual Report 1912,p.5. 150. S. Brady, ‘Home and Away: the Gaelic Games, Gender, and Migration’, New Hibernia Review, 11:3 (2007), p. 34. 151. United Irishwomen, Leaﬂet for Branches, p. 10. 178 Notes

152. ‘Camoguideacht Association’, Irish Homestead, 29 April 1911, p. 338. 153. ‘Davidstown’, Irish Homestead, 16 December 1911, p. 1011. 154. ‘Davidstown and Bree’, Irish Homestead, 6 April 1912, p. 280. 155. Irish Homestead, 8 June 1912, p. 468; ‘Games Committee, United Irishwomen’, Irish Homestead, 28 November 1914, p. 850. 156. Irish Homestead, 29 June 1912, p. 530. 157. For a brief discussion of camogie in Britain see J.M. Bradley, ‘The Gaelic Athletic Association and the Irish Diaspora in Scotland, 1897–1947’, International Journal of the History of Sport, 16:3 (1999), p. 141. 158. United Irishwomen, Leaﬂet for Branches,p.9. 159. United Irishwomen, Annual Report 1912,p.5. 160. Seton, ‘The United Irishwomen’, p. 20. 161. Irish Homestead, 15 June 1912, p. 487. 162. Irish Homestead, 8 July 1912, p. 566. 163. Irish Homestead, 21 March 1914, p. 232; Irish Homestead, 30 August 1913, p. 729. 164. ‘A Meeting of Delegates’, Irish Homestead, 20 December 1913, p. 1066. 165. For the Irish Housewives’ Association, see C. Clear, Women of the House: Women’s Household Work in Ireland 1922–1961 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2000) and Earner-Byrne, ‘ “Aphrodite Rising from the Waves” ?’. 166. M. Smitley, The Feminine Public Sphere: Middle-Class Women and Civic Life in Scotland,c.1870–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009).

4 The Gaelic League

1. ‘An Buailtean’, ‘Women Workers’, An Claideam Soluis [hereafter ACS], 6 March 1900, pp. 10–11. 2. E. MacNeill, ‘The Place of Women in the Irish Revival’, Irish Peasant, 6 January 1906. 3. For a description of events commonly held at feiseanna see T. G. McMahon, Grand Opportunity: the Gaelic Revival and Irish Society, 1893–1910 (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2008), p. 167. 4. ‘The Coiste Gnotha’, ACS, 26 August 1905, p. 8; ‘Notes’, ACS,31Mar 1905, p. 8. The Gaelic League gave women ‘signiﬁcant leadership roles’, especially through the Gaelic summer colleges, where women such as Agnes O’Farrelly and Nelly O’Brien were prominent. See T. G. McMahon, ‘ “To Mould an Important Body of Shepherds”: the Gaelic Summer Col- leges and the Teaching of Irish History’, in L. W. McBride (ed.), Reading Irish Histories: Texts, Contexts, and Memory in Modern Ireland (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2003), p. 135. See also F. A. Biletz, ‘Women and Irish-Ireland: the Domestic Nationalism of Mary Butler’, New Hibernia Review, 6:1 (2002), pp. 59–60. 5. See NLI, Ms 32,582, 1–27, Rosamond Jacob Diaries. 6. McMahon, Grand Opportunity, p. 99. For a recent study of how women, as young girls, were inspired by the Irish Fireside Club, a column for children in the Weekly Freeman designed to encourage their involvement in the Gaelic League, see R. Nic Congáil, ‘ “Fiction, Amusement, Instruction: the Notes 179

Irish Fireside Club and the Educational Ideology of the Gaelic League’, Éire- Ireland, 44:1 (2009), pp. 102–4. 7. K. Gleadle, Borderline Citizens: Women, Gender, and Political Culture in Britain 1815–1867 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 17–18. 8. ‘Dublin Education Society’, Irish Times, 25 November 1909, p. 10. 9. W. P. Ryan, The Pope’s Green Island (London: J. Nisbet, 1912), p. 87. 10. S. Pašeta, Before the Revolution: Nationalism, Social Change and Ireland’s Catholic Élite, 1879–1922 (Cork: Cork University Press, 1999); F. Campbell, The Irish Establishment 1879–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 303. 11. For the rise of shopkeepers as significant leaders of the community in rural Ireland, see D. S. Lucey, Land, Popular Politics and Agrarian Violence in Ireland: the Case of County Kerry, 1872–86 (Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 2011), pp. 161–2. 12. McMahon, Grand Opportunity,p.89. 13. Ibid., p. 92. 14. Report of the Gaelic League for the Year Ended 30th September, 1894 (Dublin: Dollard, 1895), p. 12. 15. Ibid., p. 26; NLI Ms 11,537, Gaelic League First Membership Book and List of Annual Subscriptions. 16. McMahon, Grand Opportunity,p.98. 17. NLI Ms 11,538, The Gaelic League, First List of Branches with Officers and Annual Subscriptions, 1897–1898 to 1905–1906. 18. McMahon, Grand Opportunity,p.99. 19. Ibid., p. 88. 20. Ibid., p. 19, pp. 114–18. Ó Doibhlin argues that Rose Young, one of the leading female Gaelic Leaguers in the Glens of Antrim, was almost certainly a Unionist until her death in 1947. See D. Ó Doibhlin, ‘Womenfolk of the Glens of Antrim and the Irish Language’, Seanchas Ardmhacha, 16:1 (1994), p. 114. 21. ‘Dundalk’, ACS, 3 November 1900, p. 538. 22. ‘Sandymount’, ACS, 12 January 1901, p. 698. 23. ‘New Branch in Kiltimagh’, Fáinne an Lae, 30 July 1898, p. 31. 24. ‘Kiltimach’, Fáinne an Lae, 19 November 1898, p. 159. 25. ‘Bantry Branch’, Southern Star, 4 March 1905, p. 2. 26. ‘Newry Branch’, Fáinne an Lae, 10 December 1898, p. 183. 27. ‘Newry’, ACS, 22 September 1900, p. 444. 28. This dataset was compiled from the following sources: NLI Ms 9804, Gaelic League Industrial Committee Minutes; NLI Ms 11,538, The Gaelic League, First List of Branches with Officers; NLI Ms 11,537, Gaelic League First Membership Book; NLI Ms 20,667, Gaelic League List of Branch Secretaries, 1902; National Archives of Ireland (NAI), BRS, 1/1/1, Galway, St Grellan’s Gaelic League branch, Ballinasloe, Galway, Minute Book; Southern Star, 27 October 1900, p. 2 ; ‘Cavan Branch Gaelic League’, Anglo-Celt,21March 1903, p. 3. 29. In the context of the suffrage campaigns of the early twentieth century, Jill Liddington writes about the enormous power of the digitized census records of the United Kingdom to rescue ‘forgotten Edwardians’. J. Liddington, Rebel Girls: Their Fight for the Vote (Virago: London, 2006), p. 334. 180 Notes

30. NLI Ms 11,538. 31. E. M. S. O’Hanluain, ‘The Progress of the Gaelic League’, New Ireland Review, 34:1 (1910), p. 38. 32. McMahon, Grand Opportunity, p. 99. Upper-class women also supported the Gaelic League informally, through subscriptions and gifts, such as Lady Desart, who gave considerable help to the branch in Kilkenny. See L. O Bolguidhir, ‘The Early Years of the Gaelic League in Kilkenny’, Old Kilkenny Review, 4 (1992), p. 1022. 33. Ó Doibhlin, ‘Womenfolk of the Glens of Antrim and the Irish Language’. 34. ‘Meeting in Kildownet, Achill Island’, ACS, 10 June 1899, p. 198. 35. ‘Tuam Branch of the Gaelic League’, ACS, 5 May 1900, p. 119. 36. ‘The Organizer in Kerry’, ACS, 5 May 1900, p. 116–17. 37. ‘The Organizer in County Waterford’, ACS, 9 March 1901, p. 822. 38. For Mary Ryan see Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.national archives.ie/pages/1901/Dublin/Swords/North_Street/1267258/, accessed 20 June 2011. 39. For the position of local shopkeepers in rural society, see L. O’Dowd, ‘Town and Country in Irish Ideology’, Canadian Journal of Irish Studies, 13:2 (1987), p. 44. 40. NAI, CBS 1902, 27855/S. 41. NLI Ms 11,537. 42. Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/ 1901/Galway/Curr/Kilmeelickin/1392730/, accessed 20 June 2011. 43. Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/ 1901/Clare/Tomﬁnlough/Ballycar/1072018/, accessed 20 June 2011. 44. Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/ 1901/Cork/Clonpriest/Gortaroo/1159962/, accessed 20 June 2011. 45. Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/ 1901/Carlow/Bagenalstown_Rural/Railway_Road/1038964/, accessed 20 June 2011. 46. McMahon, Grand Opportunity, p. 100. 47. Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/ 1901/Kildare/Donaghcumper/Donaghcumper/1436659/, accessed 20 June 2011. 48. Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/ 1901/Galway/Ballinasloe_Urban/Dunlo_Street/1367057/, accessed 20 June 2011. Hayden’s Hotel is still run by the Hayden family in Ballinasloe. 49. Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/ 1901/Galway/Ballinasloe_Urban/Back/1366831/, accessed 20 June 2011. 50. Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/ 1901/Antrim/Falls_Ward/Crocus_Street/979754/, accessed 20 June 2011. 51. McMahon, Grand Opportunity, pp. 108–14. 52. ‘Blackrock’, ACS, 19 January 1901, p. 709. 53. ‘Death of Mrs Edward Harrington, Tralee’, ACS, 16 June 1900, p. 219; ‘Tralee’, ACS, 23 June 1900, p. 236. 54. ‘Máire Ní Cuirrín’, ACS, 7 December 1905, p. 7. 55. NLI Ms 24,393, Fionán MacColuim Papers, Letter from Padraig O’Docharthaig, 6 April 1903. On the role of DATI dairy instructresses, see J. Bourke, Husbandry to Housewifery: Women, Economic Change, and Notes 181

Housework in Ireland, 1890–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 96. 56. D. Urquhart, Women in Ulster Politics 1890–1940: A History Not Yet Told (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2000), p. 118; M. Hill, Women in Ireland: a Century of Change (Belfast: Blackstaff Press, 2003), p. 54. 57. M. Luddy, Women in Ireland, 1800–1918: a Documentary History (Cork: Cork University Press, 1995), p. 299. 58. ‘Kiltimach’, Fáinne an Lae, 18 August 1898, p. 47. 59. ‘New Branch in Kiltimagh’, Fáinne an Lae, 30 July 1898, p. 31; ‘The Gaelic League’, Fáinne an Lae, 6 August 1898, p. 39. 60. ‘The Gaelic League’, Fáinne an Lae, 27 August 1898, p. 63. 61. ‘The Gaelic League’, Fáinne an Lae, 12 November 1898, p. 151. 62. ‘Curry (Co. Sligo) Branch’, Fáinne an Lae, 12 November 1898, p. 152. 63. Gleadle, Borderline Citizens, pp. 63–5. 64. ‘The Gaelic League’, Fáinne an Lae, 25 June 1898, p. 10; P. Rouse, ‘Borthwick, Mariella Norma’, in J. McGuire and J. Quinn (eds), Dictionary of Irish Biogra- phy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), http://dib.cambridge. org/viewReadPage.do?articleId=a0791, accessed 21 June 2011. 65. ‘Macroom Branch’, Fáinne an Lae, 23 July 1898, p. 23. 66. ‘Kilfarboy’, Fáinne an Lae, 17 September 1898, p. 87; ‘Kilfarboy, Co. Clare’, Fáinne an Lae, 29 October 1898, p. 135. 67. ‘The Gaelic League’, Fáinne an Lae, 24 December 1898, p. 199; ‘Notes’, Fáinne an Lae, 7 January 1899, p. 4. Borthwick continued to serve the Gaelic League, as a member of its executive council from 1899, secretary of that year’s Oireachtas and as chair of a branch in Drumcondra, Dublin. 68. NLI Ms 15,451, Letter from George A. Moonan to Miss C. M. Doyle, 2 November 1900. 69. ‘Reult na Mara’, ACS, 22 December 1900, p. 646. 70. Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/ 1911/Dublin/Pembroke_East/Newgrove_Avenue/38817/, accessed 21 June 2011. 71. ‘Branch Established in Sandymount’, ACS, 8 December 1900, p. 620. 72. ‘Cuige Laighean’, ACS, 14 April 1906, p. 9. 73. C. Morris, ‘In the Enemy’s Camp: Alice Milligan and Fin de Siècle Belfast’, in N. Allen and A. Kelly (eds), The Cities of Belfast (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2003), pp. 63–4; C. Morris, ‘Milligan, Alice Leticia’, in McGuire and Quinn, Dictionary of Irish Biography, http://dib.cambridge.org/viewReadPage.do? articleId=a5824, accessed 21 June 2011. 74. ‘Gaelic Meeting in Tir Chonaill’, Fáinne an Lae, 17 September 1898, p. 85. 75. ‘The Gaelic League in Co. Donegal’, Fáinne an Lae, 29 October 1898, p. 131. 76. ACS, 19 November 1904, p. 8. 77. ‘Cuige Laigean’, ACS, 24 December 1904, p. 9. 78. For women’s public speaking in the more politically radical context of the Edwardian suffrage campaign in Britain, see J. Lawrence, ‘Contesting the Male Polity: the Suffragettes and the Politics of Disruption in Edwardian Britain’, in A. Vickery (ed.), Women, Privilege, and Power: British Politics, 1750 to the Present (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), pp. 201–27. 79. ‘Dublin’, Fáinne an Lae, 17 September 1898, p. 87. 80. ‘Great Meeting at Foxford’, ACS, 6 May 1899, p. 124. 182 Notes

81. ‘In and Around Baile Atha Cliath’, ACS, 23 November 1907, p. 8. For the issue of Irish language as a compulsory subject for matriculation at the new National University of Ireland, see L. McDiarmid, The Irish Art of Controversy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), pp. 50–86. 82. ‘Jottings’, ACS, 28 September 1907, p. 8; ‘In the Cavan Gaedhealtacht’, ACS, 12 October 1907, p. 9. 83. ‘Cuige Mumhan’, ACS, 13 May 1905, p. 8. 84. ‘The Feis Week in Belfast’, Fáinne an Lae, 14 May 1898, p. 3. 85. ‘Feis Bhaile Atha Cliath’, ACS, 1 May 1909, p. 12; ‘Feis Bhaile Atha Cliath’, ACS, 8 May 1909, p. 10. 86. ‘Cuige Leigean’, ACS, 13 August 1904, p. 8. 87. ACS, 9 October 1909, p. 13. 88. ACS, 3 September 1898, p. 71. 89. ‘Kiltimach Branch’, Fáinne an Lae, 1 October 1898, p. 103. 90. ‘The Irish Language Movement in West Cork’, ACS, 23 June 1900, p. 236. 91. ‘Glenbeigh’, ACS, 5 May 1900, p. 122. 92. McMahon, Grand Opportunity, p. 187, p. 281, n. 2. 93. ‘Castleblayney’, ACS, 20 October 1900, p. 507. 94. ‘The Language Collection’, Southern Star, 9 April 1904, p. 8. 95. NAI CBS 1902, 27855/S, 22 January 1902. 96. ‘A Gaelic League Aonach’, ACS, 11 November 1911, p. 8. 97. ‘Macroom Branch’, Fáinne an Lae, 5 February 1898, p. 7. 98. ‘Claremorris Branch’, ACS, 6 May 1899, p. 117. 99. A. Bairner, Sport, Nationalism, and Globalization: European and North American Perspectives (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2001), pp. 76–7. 100. Meath Chronicle, 23 July 1904, p. 6. 101. ‘Gaelic League’, Anglo-Celt, 19 June 1909, p. 11. 102. McMahon, Grand Opportunity, pp. 95–6. 103. Irish Independent, 9 December 1905, p. 6. 104. NLI Ms 9804, Gaelic League Industrial Committee Minutes, 12 July 1902, 8 September 1902. 105. Ibid., 16 May 1903. 106. Ibid., 28 January 1905. 107. W. Murphy and L. Ní Mhunghaile, ‘Power, Jennie Wyse’, in McGuire and Quinn, Dictionary of Irish Biography, http://dib.cambridge.org/ viewReadPage.do?articleId=a7454, accessed 22 June 2011. 108. NLI Ms 9804, 31 Mar 1906. 109. Ibid., 27 October 1906. 110. ‘Arts and Crafts at the Oireachtas’, Irish Times, 29 August 1906, p. 9. 111. NLI Ms 9804, 16, 22, 27 June 1907. 112. Murphy and Ní Mhunghaile, ‘Power’. 113. McMahon, Grand Opportunity, p. 156. 114. ‘The Oireachtas’, Gaelic Journal, May 1897, p. 1. 115. ‘Notes’, Fáinne an Lae, 18 February 1899, p. 52. 116. ‘The Oireachtas Committee’, ACS, 17 June 1899, p. 212. 117. ‘The Oireachtas Committee’, Gaelic Journal, July 1899, p. 383. 118. M. de Buitleir, ‘The Oireachtas Industrial Exhibition’, ACS, 20 August 1904, p. 7. Notes 183

119. ‘The Oireachtas Committee’, ACS, 18 July 1908, p. 8. 120. ‘Le hAghaidh na mBan’, ACS, 1 August 1908, p. 10. 121. ‘The Oireachtas’, Freeman’s Journal, 4 August 1908, p. 5; ‘An tOireachtas: the Mansion House Reception’, ACS, 8 August 1908, p. 9. 122. ‘A Costume Exhibition’, ACS, 6 May 1911, p. 8. 123. ‘Oireachtas Week’, Irish Independent, 1 August 1911, p. 5. 124. ‘The Oireachtas’, ACS, 5 August 1911, p. 7. 125. N. O’Brien, ‘Gaelic League Colleges’, Irish Times, 19 June 1911, p. 9; McMahon, ‘ “To Mould an Important Body of Shepherds” ’, p. 127. 126. McMahon, ‘ “To Mould an Important Body of Shepherds” ’, p. 135. 127. UCD P102/274, The O’Rahilly Papers, Letter from Nelly O’Brien; ‘Irish College for Clare’, ACS, 30 December 1911, p. 7. 128. ‘Obaih Do Ghaedhilgeoiribh’, ACS, 2 March 1912. 129. ‘The Curry College’, ACS, 13 July 1912, p. 11. 130. Irish Homestead, 30 Nov 1912, in TCD Ms 5924, Nelly O’Brien Papers, Book of Press Cuttings, etc Relating to Gaelic League, Mainly O’Curry College. 131. ‘Easter at the O’Curry Irish College’, Clare Champion, 15 March 1913, in TCD Ms 5924. 132. ‘The O’Curry Irish College’, Clare Champion, 2 August 1913, in TCD Ms 5924. 133. NLI, Ms 32,582, 1–27, Rosamond Jacob Diaries, 13 October 1904. 134. For example, see Jacob Diaries, November 1905. 135. Jacob Diaries, 16 October 1905. 136. Jacob Diaries, 11 June 1913. 137. Jacob Diaries, 6 May 1913. 138. L. Lane, Rosamond Jacob: Third Person Singular (Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 2010), pp. 29–48. 139. M. Ní Chinnéide, Máire De Buitléir: Bean Athbheochana (Dublin: Comhar, 1993), p. 1. 140. NLI Ms 7321, Life of Mary Butler, p. 21. 141. Ibid., p. 46. 142. Biletz, ‘Women and Irish-Ireland’; K. Steele, Women, Press, and Poli- tics During the Irish Revival (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2007), pp. 74–5. 143. K. Steele, Women, Press, and Politics, p. 113. 144. G. Meaney, ‘Women’s Writing, 1700–1960’, in A. Bourke et al., The Field Day Anthology of Irish Writing: Irish Women’s Writing and Traditions (Cork: Cork University Press, 2002), p. 769. 145. M. E. L. Butler, Irishwomen and the Home Language (Dublin, n.d.); Half Yearly Magazine of the Gaelic League of London 1904 (n.p.), pp. 18–21; M. E. L. Butler, ‘A Word to the Women’, ACS, 30 May 1903, p. 5. 146. Butler, Irishwomen and the Home Language,p.1. 147. Ibid., p. 2. 148. Ibid., p. 3. 149. See Chapter Two. 150. Butler, ‘A Word to the Women’, ACS, 30 May 1903, p. 5. 151. Ibid. 152. M. Ni A., ‘Living for Ireland’, ACS, 25 January 1908, p. 10. 153. Ibid. Emphases in the original. 184 Notes

154. Ibid., p. 11. 155. E. Concannon, ‘The Dress Problem’, ACS, 4 March 1911, p. 2. 156. Ibid. 157. M. Butler, ‘Women’s World’, ‘The Language of St. Brigid’, Irish Weekly Independent, 21 October 1899, p. 5. 158. Ibid. 159. M. Butler, ‘Women’s World’, ‘The Question of the Hour’, Irish Weekly Independent, 27 January 1900, p. 5. 160. Ibid. 161. M. Butler, ‘Woman’s World’, ‘Irishwomen’s Education’, Irish Weekly Indepen- dent, 28 October 1899, p. 5. 162. M. Butler, ‘Woman’s World’, ‘Education – National and Practical’, Irish Weekly Independent, 19 May 1900, p. 5. 163. Ibid. 164. M. Butler, ‘Woman’s World’, ‘Practical Patriotism’, Irish Weekly Independent, 24 March 1900, p. 5. 165. M. Butler, ‘Woman’s World’, Irish Weekly Independent, 24 February 1900, p. 5. 166. Ibid. 167. M. Butler, ‘Woman’s World’, ‘Power of Inﬂuence’, Irish Weekly Independent, 31 March 1900, p. 5. 168. M. Butler, ‘Woman’s World’, ‘A Duty and a Privilege’, Irish Weekly Indepen- dent, 26 May 1900, p. 5. 169. Ibid. 170. M. Butler, ‘Woman’s World’, ‘Prize Competition – Rural Life in Ireland’, Irish Weekly Independent and Nation, 12 January 1901, p. 5. 171. P. T. McGinley was a leading Gaelic League activist, founding the Portarlington branch and becoming the organization’s president in 1922. See V. Morley, ‘Mac Fhionnlaoich, Peadar Toner (McGinley, Peter Toner; ‘Cú Uladh’)’, in McGuire and Quinn, Dictionary of Irish Biography, http://www.dib.cambridge.org/viewReadPage.do?articleId=a5671, accessed 19 August 2011. 172. M. Butler, ‘Woman’s World’, ‘Result of Prize Competition’, Irish Weekly Independent and Nation, 9 February 1901, p. 5. 173. M. Killeen, ‘Woman’s World’, Irish Weekly Independent and Nation, 23 Febru- ary 1901, p. 5. 174. Ibid. 175. M. Butler, ‘Woman’s World’, Irish Weekly Independent and Nation,18May 1901, p. 5. 176. Ibid. 177. N. F. Degiton, ‘Woman’s World’, Irish Weekly Independent and Nation, 6 July 1901, p. 5. 178. M. Corrigan, ‘Woman’s World’, Irish Weekly Independent and Nation, 10 August 1901, p. 5. 179. E. Ryan, ‘Woman’s World’, Irish Weekly Independent and Nation, 20 July 1901, p. 5. 180. M. Butler, ‘Competition for the Female Readers of “Woman’s World” ’, ‘Woman’s World’, Irish Weekly Independent and Nation, 23 March 1903, p. 16. 181. M. Butler, ‘Women’s World’, ‘Our Competition’, Irish Weekly Independent and Nation, 9 May 1903, p. 18. Notes 185

182. Ibid. 183. M. Butler, ‘Another View of Home Life and Domestic Inﬂuence’, ‘Woman’s World’, Irish Weekly Independent and Nation, 28 June 1902, p. 6. 184. The Irish Weekly Independent was owned by William Martin Murphy, a prominent Dublin businessman who was noted for his Home Rule politics and his crushing of the Dublin lock-out in 1913. See P. Maume, The Long Gestation: Irish Nationalist Life 1891–1918 (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1999), p. 237.

5 Sinn Féin and Radical Nationalist Ireland

1. The history of the Sinn Féin movement is by no means simple. Sinn Féin was less a political party and more a rather general sentiment aiming for a self-reliant Ireland in the spirit of ‘Ourselves’ (the literal translation of the Gaelic term). The Sinn Féin movement began life first as Cumann na nGaedheal formed by Arthur Griffith on 30 September 1900 in Dublin, emerging from opposition to various members of the Dublin Corporation who supported a loyal address to Queen Victoria on the occasion of her visit to Ireland in 1900, building on the enthusiasm for separatism generated by the 1798 centenary celebrations and Irish nationalist opposition to the Boer War. Over the following years, the movement adopted many guises, including the National Council in 1903, the Dungannon Clubs in Belfast formed under the auspices of Bulmer Hobson in 1905, a merger of the Dungannon Clubs and Cumann na nGaedheal in April 1907 as the Sinn Féin League, and finally became plain old Sinn Féin in 1908. See M. Laffan, The Resurrection of Ireland. The Sinn Féin Party, 1916–1923 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 20–5; D. Fitzpatrick, Politics and Irish Life 1913–1921. Provincial Experience of War and Revolution (Cork: Cork University Press, 1977); R. F. Foster, Modern Ireland: 1600–1972 (London: Penguin, 1988), p. 611; P. Maume, The Long Gestation: Irish Nation- alist Life 1891–1918 (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1999), p. 55; M. Kelly, ‘The End of Parnellism and the Ideological Dilemmas of Sinn Féin’, in D. G. Boyce and A. O’Day (eds), Ireland in Transition, 1867–1921 (London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 155–7. 2. P. Maume, ‘Somers, Elizabeth’, in J. McGuire and J. Quinn (eds), Dic- tionary of Irish Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), http://dib.cambridge.org/viewReadPage.do?articleId=a8189, accessed 13 July 2012. 3. M. Ward, Unmanageable Revolutionaries: Women and Irish Nationalism (London: Pluto Press, 1989), pp. 66–7. 4. In Limerick in 1921, there were 4,297 male members of Sinn Féin and 401 women; in Kerry in 1920 there were 6,124 men and 406 women. See D. Fitzpatrick, The Two Irelands, 1912–1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 37, 246 and Laffan, The Resurrection of Ireland, pp. 201–4. 5. Kelly, ‘The End of Parnellism’, pp. 143–6. 6. Ward, Unmanageable Revolutionaries, p. 50; S. Pašeta, ‘Nationalist Responses to Two Royal Visits to Ireland, 1900 and 1903’, Irish Historical Studies, 31 (1999), pp. 493–5; J. Condon, ‘The Patriotic Children’s Treat: Irish 186 Notes

Nationalism and Children’s Culture at the Twilight of Empire’, Irish Studies Review, 8:2 (2000), pp. 167–78. 7. ‘Patriotic Children’s Treat’, United Irishman, 14 July 1900, p. 7. A. Matthews, Renegades: Irish Republican Women 1900–1922 (Cork: Mercier Press, 2010), pp. 33–6. 8. ‘Inghinidhe na hÉireann (Daughters of Erin)’, United Irishman, 13 October 1900, p. 8. 9. For lists of members, see ibid., ‘Inghinidhe na hÉireann (Daughters of Erin)’, United Irishman, 27 Oct 1900, p. 8 and United Irishman, 31 October 1903, p. 5. The diverse collection of female activists who formed the backbone of the Inghinidhe na hÉireann is discussed in Matthews, Renegades, p. 34–6. 10. K. Steele, Women, Press, and Politics During the Irish Revival (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2007), p. 81. Molly Walker (better known as Maire Nic Shiubhlaigh) and Maire Quinn are examples of women who gained experience of acting in Inghinidhe na hÉireann tableaux, before going on to act professionally in companies such as the Irish National Theatre Society. See M. Nic Shiubhlaigh, The Splendid Years: Recollections of Maire Nic Shiubhlaigh: As Told to Edward Kenny (Dublin: J. Duffy, 1955). 11. Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/ 1901/Dublin/Mountjoy/Mountjoy_Square/1326126, accessed 1 August 2011. 12. For William Rooney, see M. Kelly, ‘...and William Rooney Spoke in Irish’, History Ireland, 15:1 (2007), pp. 30–4. William’s ﬁancée, Marie Killeen was also a prominent member of the Inghinidhe na hÉireann, becoming vice-president in 1903. See United Irishman, 31 October 1903, p. 5 and W. Murphy, ‘Rooney, William (Ó Maolruanaidh, Liam)’, in McGuire and Quinn, Dictionary of Irish Biography, http://dib.cambridge.org/ viewReadPage.do?articleId=a7797, accessed 1 August 2011. 13. Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/ 1901/Dublin/North_Dock/Leinster_Avenue/1275399, accessed 1 August 2011. Both Judith Rooney and Mary Perolz lived in two of the most deprived areas of north Dublin, North Dock and Mountjoy, both of which had some of the highest densities of single-room tenement dwellings in the city. See J. V. O’Brien, Dear, Dirty Dublin: A City in Distress, 1899–1916 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), p. 134 and J. Prunty, Dublin Slums, 1800–1925: A Study in Urban Geography (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1998). 14. Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/ 1901/Dublin/Mountjoy/Charleville_Avenue_/1322890, accessed 1 August 2011. 15. Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/ 1901/Dublin/Fitzwilliam_St_Upper/1348180, accessed 1 August 2011. 16. D. McCabe and O. McGee, ‘Egan, James Francis’, in McGuire and Quinn, Dictionary of Irish Biography, http://dib.cambridge.org/ viewReadPage.do?articleId=a2899, accessed 1 August 2011; Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/1901/Dublin/ Palmerstown/Ballyfermott_Upper/1290820, accessed 1 August 2011. 17. F. Clarke, ‘Carbery, Ethna’, in McGuire and Quinn, Dictionary of Irish Biogra- phy, http://dib.cambridge.org/viewReadPage.do?articleId=a1460, accessed Notes 187

1 August 2011; Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives. ie/pages/1901/Antrim/Clifton_Ward_Belfast/Antrim_Road/1004186, accessed 1 August 2011. 18. W. Murphy and L. Ní Mhunghaile, ‘Power, Jennie Wyse’, in McGuire and Quinn, Dictionary of Irish Biography, http://dib.cambridge.org/ viewReadPage.do?articleId=a7454, accessed 1 August 2011. 19. See Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/ 1901/Dublin/South_Dock/Mount_Street_Lower/1351386, accessed 1 August 2011 and ‘Inghinidhe na hÉireann’, United Irishman, 27 October 1900, p. 8. The Derrybawn Hotel was, however, located in another deprived area of Dublin, towards the South Dock. See O’Brien, Dear, Dirty Dublin, p. 127. 20. F. Campbell, The Irish Establishment 1879–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 314. 21. Only one Protestant has been identiﬁed in the Inghinidhe’s membership. Ella Young, who taught Irish history classes for the organization, was a Presbyterian. See Census of Ireland 1901, http://www.census.national archives.ie/pages/1901/Dublin/Rathmines/Grovesnor_Square/1295662, accessed 1 August 2011 and L. Lunney, ‘Young, Ella’, in McGuire and Quinn, Dictionary of Irish Biography, http://dib.cambridge.org/ viewReadPage.do?articleId=a9169, accessed 1 August 2011. Another member, a Miss Varian, was also probably a Unitarian. See United Irishman, 31 October 1903, p. 5. 22. ‘Maire’, ‘Inghinidhe na hÉireann: the Story of the First Meeting’, Bean na hÉireann, 20 (June 1910), p. 3; Ward, Unmanageable Revolutionaries, p. 51. 23. For the importance of friendship to women’s campaign for the vote during this period, and an indication of how socializing could be coupled with public political activism, see K. Cowman and H. Brown, ‘Exploring Suffrage Friendship’, in H. Brown, A. Kaloski and R. Symes (eds), Celebrating Women’s Friendship Past, Present and Future (York: Raw Nerve Press, 1999), pp. 121–54. 24. ‘Inghinidhe na hÉireann’, United Irishman, 27 Oct 1900, p. 8. 25. ‘Maire’, ‘Inghinidhe na hÉireann’, p. 3. 26. ‘Inghinidhe na hÉireann’, Sinn Féin, 19 Mar 1910. 27. K. Cowman, ‘ “Doing Something Silly”: the Uses of Humour by the Women’s Social and Political Union, 1903–1914’, International Review of Social History, 52 (2007), pp. 259–74. 28. United Irishman, 31 October 1903, p. 5. 29. Ward, Unmanageable Revolutionaries, p. 65. Ward argues that the Inghinidhe na hÉireann’s lack of organization was deliberate, as the women now had much more important political work to be getting on with in the newly emergent Sinn Féin movement and to throw themselves wholeheartedly into another ‘patriotic children’s treat’ would have been ‘to put the clock back’. Ward’s analysis underplays, though, the ability of women to do both and how the women of Inghinidhe na hÉireann, as products of the gender orthodoxy of Edwardian Britain and Ireland, would have seen no contradic- tion between their activities caring for children and their commitment to radical nationalist politics. Indeed, Ward misreads the 1903 Annual Report of the Inghinidhe na hÉireann, eliding the failure of the second children’s treat with a comment on the lack of ceilidhs during that particular session, giving the impression that the organization had turned its back decisively 188 Notes

on frivolities such as entertaining children and organizing dances when, in fact, the opposite was the case. 30. ‘Inghinidhe na hÉireann’, United Irishman, 7 January 1905, p. 7. 31. ‘Inghinidhe na hÉireann’, United Irishman, 15 April 1903, p. 7. 32. C. Carney, ‘Access to School Meals: the Constraints of Permissive Legis- lation’, Irish Journal of Education, 19:1 (1985), pp. 5–38. For the broader culture of debate and controversy generated by child welfare schemes in early twentieth-century Ireland, see L. Earner-Byrne, Mother and Child: Maternity and Child Welfare in Dublin, 1922–60 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007), p. 8. 33. M. E. Daly, ‘ “Oh, Kathleen Ni Houlihan, Your Way’s a Thorny Way!”: the Condition of Women in Twentieth-Century Ireland’, in A. Bradley and M. Valiulis (eds), Gender and Sexuality in Modern Ireland (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997), p. 112. 34. ‘The Connemara Islands’, Irish Times, 13 November 1913, p. 9; National Library of Ireland (NLI), Papers of Roger Casement, Ms 13073/4ii, Hibernian Bank Limited to Roger Casement, July 1913. For the involvement of the Dublin Trades’ Council in the campaign to provide school meals, see ‘Feed- ing of Necessitous School Children’, Irish Times, 1 December 1910, p. 5. 35. The Irishwomen’s Reform League and the Irishwomen’s Franchise League both supported the campaign to provide school meals to poorer children. See ‘School Clinics’, Irish Times, 7 November 1913, p. 7; ‘Woman Suffrage’, Irish Times, 23 October 1912, p. 11. For the Dublin Municipal Council, see the report of the meeting of 12 February 1912 in Minutes of the Munici- pal Council of the City of Dublin, from the 1st January to 31st December 1912 (Dublin, 1913), pp. 159–60. 36. J. Bourke, Husbandry to Housewifery: Women, Economic Change, and House- work in Ireland, 1890–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); ‘Health- ier Schools’, Irish Independent, 29 June 1910, p. 7. 37. Earner-Byrne, Mother and Child, p. 16. Lady Aberdeen, however, was committed to Irish Home Rule and was an energetic promoter of Irish design and goods. See J. Helland, ‘Embroidered Spectacle: Celtic Revival as Aristocratic Display’, in B. Taylor Fitzsimon and J. H. Murphy (eds), The Irish Revival Reappraised (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2004), pp. 94–105. For the WNHA’s campaigns against TB, see G. Jones, ‘Captain of All These Men of Death’: the History of Tuberculosis in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Ireland (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001), pp. 101–26. 38. ‘Work of the Organisation’, Freeman’s Journal, 14 April 1915, p. 2. 39. Inghinidhe na hÉireann’s campaign involved many women who had, like Maud Gonne, strong connections to other women’s and radical groups in Ireland, such as Hanna Sheehy Skefﬁngton, Helena Molony, Constance Markievicz and Sidney Gifford. See S. Czira, The Years Flew By (Dublin: Gifford and Craven, 1974), p. 53. For a recent account of Inghinidhe na hÉireann’s school meals which stresses the relatively marginal role played by Gonne and Markievicz see Matthews, Renegades, pp. 77–81. 40. A. Bobotis, ‘Rival Maternities: Maud Gonne, Queen Victoria, and the Reign of the Political Mother’, Victorian Studies, 49:1 (2006), pp. 63–83. 41. Ward, Unmanageable Revolutionaries, p. 81; ‘Feeding of School Children’, Irish Times, 17 November 1910, p. 8. The scheme was only free to those children who could not afford to pay. See Matthews, Renegades, p. 80. Notes 189

42. M. Gonne, ‘Responsibility’, Irish Review, 1:10 (1911), p. 484; H. Hayes, ‘Feeding the Children’, Irish Citizen, 18 October 1913, p. 174. 43. M. Gonne, ‘The Feeding of School Children’, Irish Times, 30 November 1911, p. 6. 44. Ward, Unmanageable Revolutionaries, p. 81. 45. M. Gonne, ‘The Children Must be Fed’, Bean na hÉireann, May 1910 in K. Steele (ed.), Maud Gonne’s Irish Nationalist Writings 1895–1946 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2004), p. 141. Political debate in Britain about ‘national efficiency‘ had come to a head in the aftermath of the Second Boer War (1899–1902) and was allied to concerns about how best to retain Britain’s imperial status. See G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: a Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1899–1914 (London: Ashfield Press, 1990). For the application of these imperial ideas in the context of Protestant philanthropic work in Dublin, see O. Walsh, Anglican Women in Dublin: Philanthropy, Politics and Education in the Early Twentieth Century (Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 2005), p. 156. 46. M. Gonne, ‘Feeding the Schoolchildren’, Bean na hÉireann, November 1910 in Steele, Maud Gonne’s Irish Nationalist Writings, p. 144. 47. Carney, ‘Access to School Meals’, p. 11. 48. E. Coey Bigger, Report on the Physical Welfare of Mothers and Children. Volume 4. Ireland (n.p., 1917), pp. 67–8. 49. ‘Reports of the School Meals Committee’, in Reports and Printed Documents of the Corporation of Dublin. Volume II 1915 (Dublin, 1916), p. 261. 50. Ward, Unmanageable Revolutionaries, p. 53. 51. United Irishman, 7 May 1904, p. 3. 52. ‘Una’, ‘Women’s Ways’, Enniscorthy Echo, 27 March 1909, p. 2. Una Bolger is identified as being the most likely author of the ‘Women’s Ways’ column in the Enniscorthy Echo by Angela Bourke in her biography of Una’s daugh- ter, Maeve Brennan . See A. Bourke, Maeve Brennan: Style, Wit and Tragedy: An Irish Writer in New York (London: Pimlico, 2005), pp. 18–20. 53. Matthews, Revival, p. 92. 54. ‘A National Organization’, United Irishman, 6 October 1900, p. 4. 55. ‘Cumann na nGaedheal’, United Irishman, 1 December 1900, p. 5. 56. Ward, Unmanageable Revolutionaries, p. 66. 57. ‘Cumann na nGaedheal’, United Irishman, 20 June 1903, p. 7; United Irishman, 7 November 1903, p. 7. 58. For the presence of Quinn at Cumann na nGaedheal meetings, see ‘Cumann na nGaedheal’, United Irishman, 7 May 1904, 25 May 1904, 11 June 1904, 19 June 1904, 25 June 1904; for Macken, see ‘Cumann na nGaedheal’, United Irishman, 2 July 1904, 9 July 1904, 23 July 1903, and numerous other occasions during 1904. 59. ‘Cumann na nGaedheal’, United Irishman, 18 November 1905, p. 7. 60. ‘Dunleary’, United Irishman, 26 September 1903, p. 7. 61. Ibid. 62. ‘Cumann na nGaedheal’, United Irishman, 10 September 1904, p. 7. 63. Pašeta, ‘Nationalist Responses’, p. 499; D. Ferriter, The Transformation of Ireland, 1900–2000 (London: Profile, 2005), p. 81. 64. Pašeta, ‘Nationalist Responses’, p. 502. 65. United Irishman, 27 January 1906, p. 4. 190 Notes

66. For Macken’s presence at National Council executive meetings, see ‘The National Council’, Sinn Féin, 16 February 1907, 30 March 1907, 6 April 1907, 13 April 1907, 27 April 1907 and many other occasions during 1907. For Macken’s career at UCD, see J. J. Hogan, ‘Mary M. Macken: An Appreciation’, Studies, 39:155 (1950), pp. 315–18. 67. For Wyse Power and Murphy, see ‘The National Council’, Sinn Féin, 16 February 1907, 13 April 1907, 20 April 1907, 27 April 1907 and in many other reports of executive Sinn Féin meetings during 1907 and 1908. For Molony, see ‘The National Council’, Sinn Féin, 5 September 1908. 68. ‘The National Council Resident Executive’, Sinn Féin, 13 October 1908. Women were allowed to stand for election as Poor Law Guardians following the Poor Law Guardians (Ireland) (Women) Act of March 1896. See V. Crossman, Politics, Pauperism and Power in Late Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006), pp. 193–211. 69. Ann Matthews does brieﬂy mention how Sinn Féin’s policy of not meeting in pubs made it potentially easier for women to become members, without then going on to analyse the nature of female activism in the organization. See Matthews, Renegades, p. 67. 70. ‘Athlone’, Sinn Féin, 27 March 1909. 71. ‘Sinn Féin’, Enniscorthy Echo, 8 May 1909. 72. ‘The National Council’, Sinn Féin, 1 December 1906; ‘The Poor Law Sys- tem’, Sinn Féin, 8 December 1906; ‘The Central Branch’, Sinn Féin [Daily ed.], 6 October 1909. 73. ‘Irishwoman’s Duties’, Sinn Féin, 27 February 1909. 74. ‘Dublin’, Sinn Féin, 20 March 1909. 75. L. Lane, Rosamond Jacob: Third Person Singular (Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 2010), p. 36. 76. NLI, Ms 32,582, 1–27, Rosamond Jacob Diaries, 16, 23 February 1906. 77. Jacob Diaries, 2 November 1906. 78. Jacob Diaries, 6 December 1907. 79. ‘Two Corrections’, Sinn Féin, 19 September 1908. 80. ‘Sinn Féin’, Enniscorthy Echo, 15 May 1909; ‘Sinn Féin’, Enniscorthy Echo, 12 June 1909. 81. ‘The National Council’, Sinn Féin, 30 May 1908; ‘The National Council’, Sinn Féin, 25 July 1908. 82. ‘The Women of Ireland’, Sinn Féin, 15 April 1911; Ward, Unmanageable Revolutionaries, pp. 75–80. 83. Steele, Women, Press, and Politics, p. 27. 84. A. Milligan, ‘Appeal to the Women of Ireland’, Shan Van Vocht, 7 June 1897, p. 104. 85. A. Milligan, ‘Industrial Ireland’, Shan Van Vocht, 7 November 1898, p. 207. 86. Steele, Women, Press, and Politics, p. 65. 87. Maume, ‘Somers, Elizabeth’. 88. ‘Irishwomen’s Duty’, Bean na hÉireann, January 1909, p. 10. 89. ‘ “Irish Shoddy” ’, United Irishman, 11 February 1905, p. 6. 90. Douglas Hyde, the founder of the Gaelic League, famously declared that men should be dressed in ‘the warm-stripped green jersey of the Gaelic Ath- letic Association’, ‘clad like men and Irishmen’, rather than in the ‘shoddy second-hand suits of Manchester and London shop-boys.’ See D. Hyde, Notes 191

‘The Necessity for De-Anglicising Ireland’, in The Revival of Irish Literature (London: Fisher Unwin, 1894), p. 157. 91. ‘Irish Shoddy’, United Irishman, 4 March 1905, p. 3. 92. United Irishman, 18 March 1905, p. 5. 93. ‘Editorial Notes’, Bean na hÉireann, August 1909, p. 8; Bourke, Maeve Brennan, p. 20. Una Bolger was christened Anastasia, but adopted the Irish version of her name when she became active in radical nationalist politics. Bob Brennan was a noted Wexford nationalist, being a member of the Gaelic League, Sinn Féin and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, leading the 1916 rising in the county. See M. Kennedy, ‘Brennan, Robert’, in McGuire and Quinn, Dictionary of Irish Biography, http://dib.cambridge.org/ viewReadPage.do?articleId=a0934, accessed 7 August 2011. 94. ‘Una’, ‘Women’s Ways’, Enniscorthy Echo, 14 November 1908. 95. Bourke, Maeve Brennan, p. 33. 96. ‘Una’, ‘Women’s Ways’, Enniscorthy Echo, 13 February 1909, p. 12. 97. ‘Una’, ‘Women’s Ways’, Enniscorthy Echo, 13 March 1909. 98. ‘Una’, ‘Women’s Ways’, Enniscorthy Echo, 10 April 1909. 99. ‘Una’, ‘Women’s Ways’, Enniscorthy Echo, 1 May 1910. 100. Steele, Women, Press, and Politics, p. 113. 101. M. E. L. Butler, ‘Seen Through the Mist’, United Irishman, 14 September 1901, p. 2. 102. M. E. L. Butler, ‘The Daughters of the Motherland’, United Irishman, 17 October 1903, p. 2. 103. M. E. L. Butler, ‘Our Irish Homes’, Sinn Féin, 17 November 1906. 104. M. E. L. Butler, ‘Womanhood and Nationhood’, United Irishman, 3 January 1903, p. 6; United Irishman, 17 January 1903, p. 6; United Irishman, 24 Jan- uary 1903, p. 6; United Irishman, 31 January 1903, p. 6. 105. Butler, ‘Womanhood and Nationhood’, United Irishman, 3 January 1903, p. 6. 106. Ibid. 107. Butler, ‘Womanhood and Nationhood’, United Irishman, 17 January 1903, p. 6. 108. Ibid. 109. Ibid. 110. Butler, ‘Womanhood and Nationhood’, United Irishman, 31 January 1903, p. 6. 111. Ibid. 112. Ibid. 113. M. Butler, ‘To the Women of Ireland’, in The National Council, The Irish Yearbook 1908 (Dublin, 1908), pp. 336–9. 114. Ibid., p. 337. 115. Ibid., p. 338. 116. Ibid. 117. Ibid., p. 339. 118. Ibid. 119. Steele, Women, Press, and Politics, p. 111–19. 120. In her analysis of Máire Nic Shiubhlaigh’s participation in the Easter Rising, Karen Steele examines her ‘veiled political agency’, a useful term which captures how radical nationalist women during this 192 Notes

period could use ‘feminine’ activities, such as cooking and cleaning, to hide more ‘masculine-coded’ political work. See K. Steele, ‘Gender and the Postcolonial Archive’, CR: the New Centennial Review, 10:1 (2010), pp. 58–9. 121. L. Kenny, ‘Colour and Health’, Sinn Féin [Daily ed.], 8 October 1909, p. 1. 122. ‘Cookery Notes’, Bean na hÉireann, February 1909, p. 5. 123. ‘The Woman of the House’, Bean na hÉireann, April 1909, p. 7. 124. ‘Hints on Furnishing’, Bean na hÉireann, February 1909, pp. 3–4. 125. ‘List of Household Requisites of Irish Manufacture’, Bean na hÉireann, November 1910, p. 13. 126. Steele, Women, Press, and Politics, p. 111. 127. See, for example, C. Breward, B. Conekin and C. Cox (eds), The Englishness of English Dress (Oxford: Berg, 2002); C. Buckley, Fashioning the Feminine: Representation and Women’s Fashion from the Fin de Siècle to the Present (London: I. B. Tauris, 2002); W. Parkins, Fashioning the Body Politics: Dress, Gender, Citizenship (Oxford: Berg, 2002); B. Burman and C. Turbin, ‘Material Strategies Engendered’, Gender and History, 14:3 (2002), pp. 371–81. 128. K. Navickas, ‘ “That Sash Will Hang You”: Political Clothing and Adornment in England, 1780–1840’, Journal of British Studies, 49 (2010), p. 543. See also J. Butler, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of ‘Sex’ (London: Routledge, 1993). 129. For example, Rebecca Bennette only brieﬂy discusses Irish dress in the context of the Irish Women’s Franchise League’s attitude towards fashion in ‘The Meaning of Dress: Nationalism, Feminism, and Fashion in Early- Twentieth-Century Ireland’, Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium, 18/19 (1998), pp. 1–10, while Janice Helland’s work focuses on how elite ﬁgures, such as Lady Aberdeen, promoted an Irish identity through dress. See J. Helland, British and Irish Homes Arts and Industries 1880–1914 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2007). 130. C. Clear, ‘ “The Minimum Rights of Every Woman”? Women’s Changing Appearance in Ireland, 1940–1966’, Irish Economic and Social History, 35:1 (2008), pp. 68–80. 131. ‘Elsie’, ‘Elsie in Search of a Blouse’, Sinn Féin, 1 December 1906. 132. ‘Irish Blouses’, Sinn Féin, 22 December 1906. 133. For the perception of female religious as acceptable models of Irish womanhood, see Y. McKenna, ‘Forgotten Migrants: Irish Women Religious in England, 1930s–1960s’, International Journal of Population Geography,9 (2003), p. 296. 134. ‘Eilis’, ‘Earnest Women’, Sinn Féin, 25 January 1908. 135. ‘Crede’, ‘Earnest Women’, Sinn Féin, 22 February 1908. Roisin Nic Sheamus was almost certainly Rosamond Jacob, whose Sinn Féin activism is discussed earlier in this chapter. 136. ‘Our Bookshelf’, Enniscorthy Echo, 19 December 1908. 137. ‘How Irishwomen Should Dress’, Bean na hÉireann, January 1909, p. 2. 138. ‘Brighid’, ‘Fashion Notes’, Bean na hÉireann, April 1909, p. 12. 139. Bean na hÉireann, May 1909, p. 12. 140. ‘A Costume for Irish Ladies’, Sinn Féin, 6 November 1909. 141. ‘A Costume for Irish Ladies’, Sinn Féin, 5 March 1910. 142. ‘Fashion in France’, Sinn Féin [Daily ed.], 14 October 1909, 28 Oct 1909, 4 December 1909, 11 December 1909. Notes 193

143. ‘Fashion in France’, Sinn Féin [Daily ed.], 18 November 1909. 144. ‘Ladies’ Costumes’, Sinn Féin [Daily ed.], 13 October 1909. 145. For the classic analysis of how fashion expresses modernity, see E. Wilson, Adorned in Dreams: Fashion and Modernity (London: I. B. Tauris, 2003).

Conclusion

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Aberdeen, Lady, 131 Butler, Mary, E. L., 6, 83, 89, 127, 159 ‘AE’, see Russell, George William An Claideam Soluis column, 115–16 An Claideam Soluis (ACS) (newspaper), Catholicism, 118, 122 15, 90, 101, 112, 113, 115–18 Gaelic League membership, 107, Anderson, Benedict, 18 113 Anderson, R. A., 68 Inghinidhe na hÉireann, 126, 132, Anglo-Celt (newspaper), 106 135 Anthias, Floya, 18–19 Irish language, 113–15, 118–19, 144–6 Irish Weekly Independent column, Balfour, Lady Betty, 35, 138 118–23 Bean na hÉireann (newspaper), 4, 7, 9, Irish Women and the Home Language, 45, 124, 128, 137, 138, 139, 147 113–15 fashion columns, 7, 148–53 Sinn Féin, 113 household hints columns, 147–8 Sinn Féin column, 143 Belfast, 88, 90, 91, 98, 102, 104, 109, women and public life, 116, 142, 127, 150 145, 146 Bengal, 19 ‘Womanhood and Nationhood’ Bennett, Louie, 16, 61 (United Irishman column), 144–5 Bennett, Margaret, 96 Byrne, Miss L., 135 Berridge, Eulalia, 64 Byrne, Mary Ellen, 105 Biletz, Frank, 113 Billig, Michael, 23, 25, 28 Cahill, Minnie, 98 ‘banal nationalism’, 23 Campbell, Miss A., 94, Blaney, Annie, 97–8 Campbell, Fergus, 64, 128 Blaney, Mary, 97–8 Carmichael-Ferrall, Mrs, 75 Blunt, Alison, 20 Casement, Roger, 131 Boer War, 2, 125, 129, 133 Cashel, 79–80 Bolger, Una, 45, 124, 133, 138, 140, Catholic Church, 27, 54, 105, 122, 153 130, 156 ‘Woman’s Ways’ column, 140–3 Catholicism, 8, 17, 64, 86, 89, 118, Borthwick, Norma, 100–1, 105, 108 122, 128, 156 Bourdieu, Pierre, 24 Census of Ireland (1901), (1911), 8, Bourke, Angela, 141 60–5, 75, 93, 126–8 Bourke, Joanna, 31, 37, 58 Civil War (1922), 26 Bree, Co. Wexford, 59, 63, 70, 72, 75, Clarke, Kathleen, 25 77, 78, 82, 84 Clarke, Mrs, 104 Brennan, John, see Gifford, Sidney Clear, Caitriona, 149 British Empire, 21 Concannon, Eileen, 117 Bryan, Miss, 84 Congested Districts Board (CDB), 31, Burke, Constance, 100 32, 36, 39 Butler, Judith, 149 Conlon, Miss, 105

207 208 Index

Connemara, 79–81, 131 Earner-Byrne, Lindsey, 4, 17 Connolly, Mrs Cole, 122 Easter Rising (1916), 25, 26, 128 Corrigan, Florris, 105 Education (Provision of Meals) Corrigan, Margaret, 122 (Ireland) Act 1914, 132 County Cork, 30, 80, 91, 92, 96, 100, Egan, Annie, 127 103, 105 Eglinton, John, 44 Cousins, Margaret E., 76–7, 155–6 Eley, Geoff, 14 Cowman, Krista, 129 emigration, 37, 39, 40, 43, 44, 50, Cullen, Mary, 15–16 54, 55, 67, 111, 116, 119, 141, Cumann na mBan, 20, 139, 141 144 Cumann na nGaedheal, 7, 125, 133–4, Enniscorthy, 3, 52, 59, 135, 136, 141 136, 137, 159 Enniscorthy Echo (newspaper), 45, 133, branches: Dunleary, 134; Edenderry, 135, 140–2 134 ‘Woman’s Ways’ column, 133, women executive members, 134 140–2 Cunningham, Miss, 135 Czira, Sydney, see Gifford, Sidney Fáinne an Lae (newspaper), 90, 93, 100, 101, 112 Davidoff, Leonore, 2, 12 Farren, Mary, 135 Degiton, Nora F., 121 fashion, see also Irish identity, dress, 7, Department of Agriculture and 35, 36, 37, 55, 58, 59, 80, 84, 85, Technical Instruction (DATI), 109–10, 117, 129, 140, 147–54, 31, 36 160 DiCenzo, Maria, 14 feminism, 15–17, 18, 22, 24–8, 45, Dobbs, Margaret, 94 48–9, 55, 71, 72, 73–7, 131–2, domesticity, see Irish identity, 136, 141–2, 147, 153–4, 157, domesticity 160 Douglas, Miss, 104 Ferriter, Diarmaid, 58 Dowd, Letitia, 97 Figgis, Darrell, 77 Dowd, Martha, 97 Fingall, Countess of, 35, 58, 62 Doyle, Cissie, 101, 104, 159 Finlay, Fr. Thomas, 34, 35, 107 Doyle, Evelyn, 109 First World War, 27 Dryhurst, Mrs, 136 Fitzpatrick, David, 125 Dublin, 43, 48, 108, 112, 113, 117, Foxford, Co. Mayo, 36, 42, 103, 109 126, 134, 155 Fraser, Nancy, 11 Gaelic League, 6, 90–1, 94, 96, 97, Furlong, Alice, 126 98, 100, 101–2, 103, 104, 105, 109, 110, 113 Gaelic Athletic Association, 41 Inghinidhe na hÉireann, 7, 127, Gaelic Journal (newspaper), 90 128, 130, 131–3 Gaelic League, 6, 8, 9, 11, 82, 125, Sinn Féin, 135–6, 139, 149 126, 128, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, United Irishwomen, 56, 58–62, 65, 139, 143, 146, 148, 150, 151, 153, 68, 72, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85 155, 156 Dublin Municipal Council, 131, 132 branches: Bailieboro, 104; Duggan, Marion, 14–15 Bagnalstown, Co. Carlow, 96; Dundalk, 91 Bantry, Co. Cork, 92; Blackrock, Dun Emer guild, 61 98, 104; Belfast, 88, 90, 91, 98, Dungannon Clubs, 124, 134 102, 104, 109: Bridge Street, Dungloe, Co. Donegal 66, 67, 81 Dublin, 94; Castleblaney, 105; Index 209

Central branch, Dublin, 96–8, Irish language colleges, 3, 110, 111, 100, 101, 103, 109, 113; 159 Coleraine, 105; Coonhala, Co. Jacob, Rosamond, 88, 111–12, 155, Cork, 105; Cork, 90, 98; County 159 Cork, 91, 92, 96, 100, 103, 105; membership, 90, 96–8 Crossmolina, Co. Mayo 95; Milligan, Alice, 91, 102–3, 110 Curry, Co. Sligo, 100; Derry Oireachtas, 108–9 (Londonderry), 96, 105; Oldham, Edith, 94 Dundalk, 91; Dunleary, 94; Poor Law Guardians, 98–9, 107, 108 Eugene O’Curry Industrial Protestant members, 91 branch, Dublin, 94; Five public life, 13, 22, 25, 28, 88, 98–9, Provinces branch, Dublin, 110; 107, 156–9 Foxford, Co. Mayo, 103; schoolteachers, 89, 95, 97, 110 Foynes, Co. Limerick, 94; Sheehy Skeffington, Hanna, 9 Glenbeigh, 98, 105; Glens of shopkeepers, 95–6 Antrim, 91, 94; Gortroe, Co. social composition, 93–9 Cork, 96; Keating branch, social events, 106 Dublin, 109; Kildownet, Co. Ulster College, 88 Mayo, 95; Kilfarboy, Co. Clare, women, role of: activism, 99–112; 101; Kilmilkin, Co. Galway, 96; founders of branches, 99–102; Kiltimagh, Co. Mayo, 91–2, fundraising, 105; gendered 99–100, 105; Killybegs, Co. nature of women’s Gaelic Donegal, 102; Macroom, 101, League work, 99, 104, 110–12; 106; Navan, 106; Newmarket, lecturers, 102-4; language 96; Newry, 93; Rockcorry, Co. teachers, 104–5, 119; Monaghan, 106; Sandymount, membership of national 91, 101, 104, 159; Skibbereen, committees, 100–1, 103, 106–8; 105; St Grellans, Ballinasloe, office holders, 89, 90, 91, 93–6, Co. Galway, 96–8; Swords, 95; 98, 101 104; timirí (organizers), Tir Chonaill, Co. Donegal, 102; 103–4 Tralee, 98; Tuam, 95; gender ideology, 2, 3, 5, 7–8, 9–11, 14, Waterford,111–12 108, 109, 113, 124, 133, 143, Butler, Mary, E. L., 107, 113 152–3, 155-6 camogie, 106 Geoghegan, Mrs, 108 Catholic members, 89 Germany, 23–4 Coiste Gnotha (national executive), Gifford, Sidney, 66, 71 88, 101, 103, 107, 113 Gill, T. P., 34 Dobbs, Margaret, 94 Glasgow, 12 Dublin, 6, 90–1, 94, 96, 97, 98, 100, Gleadle, Kathryn, 3, 13, 89, 100 101–2, 103, 104, 105, 109, 110, Gonne, Maud, 2, 3, 24–5, 28, 125, 113 126, 131, 132, 133, 134 farming, 94–7 school meals, 130–2 feiseanna, 88, 89, 104, 107, 108, 110, Gordon, Eleanor, 12 112, 159 Griffin, Miss K., 135 Hayden, Mary, 16, 88, 89, 107, 110 Griffith, Arthur, 74, 113, 133, 134, Industrial Committee, 3, 107–8 147, 148 Irish dress, 109–10, 117 Gubbins-Hurley, Nicola, 78, 82–3 Irish identity, 41–2, 120, 156–9 Gwynn, Stephen, 131, 140 210 Index

Habermas, Jürgen, 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, 14, Irish Agricultural Organization Society 16, 28 (IAOS), 1, 4, 5, 6, 29, 30–4, 36, 47, Hackett, Dora, 126, 127, 128 51, 53, 74, 75, 77 Hall, Catherine, 2, 12, 18 Irish Citizen (newspaper), 11, 14–16, Hamilton, Emmeline, 62, 66, 81, 83 25, 27, 61 Harrington, Mrs, 98 Irish Countrywomen’s Association Haslam, Anna, 15 (ICA), 4, 8, 17, 80, 156 Hastings, Mrs, 152 Irish Homestead (newspaper), 4, 5, 6, Hayden, Josephine, 97 15, 28, 29–30, 32–49, 52, 53, 54, Hayden, Mary, 16, 88, 89, 107, 110 56, 57, 59, 62, 68, 78, 82, 111, 141, 158 Hayes, Mary, 96 ‘Household Hints’ column, 43–9 Hendley, Matthew, 21 Irish Housewives’ Association (IHA), 4, Higgins, Pádhraig, 157 157 Hipwell, Miss, 79–80 Irish identity, 1, 2, 4–5, 7, 8, 10, 13, home industries, 33, 35–7, 38, 39, 59, 17–18, 23, 25, 26–8, 29, 30, 31–2, 138 34, 42, 43, 45, 49–50, 51, 52, 56, Home Rule, 76, 124, 66, 67–8, 71, 73–9, 81, 83–6, 88–9, housekeeping, see Irish identity, 91, 99. 102, 105, 107–10, 115, housekeeping 118, 120, 122, 124, 131–2, Hurley, Mrs, 105 137–40, 143, 147, 149, 152–4, Hutton, Margaret, 104 155, 158, 160 Hyde, Douglas, 95 clothes, see Irish identity, dress domesticity, 2, 4, 21–4, 27–9, 30, India, 20–1 34, 45–50, 51–4, 56, 67, 71, Industrial Development Association, 112, 141–3, 148, 149, 153, 8, 102, 140 158 Inghinidhe na hÉireann, 4, 7, 8, 16, dress, 1, 3, 5, 7, 35, 37, 42–3, 45–7, 25, 68, 71, 124, 125–33, 134, 135, 50, 53, 54, 58, 60, 66, 77, 137, 143, 147, 153, 157, 159 79–81, 84–6, 109–10, 116–19, 125, 129, 132, 136–40, 145, activities, 128–30 147–54 Catholic members, 128 food, 42, 47, 50, 78 children, 126, 128–30 housekeeping, 4, 5, 7, 23, 24, 28–9, Dublin, 7, 127, 128, 130, 131–3 34–7, 39, 46, 47, 75, 85, 119, Enniscorthy branch, 141–2 146, 158 foundation, 125–6 language, 1, 6, 7, 13, 52, 65–6, gendered nature of work, 128–9, 79–83, 88, 96, 100, 103, 108, 132–3 111, 113–15, 118–19, 122, 129, Irish Republican Brotherhood 130, 136, 144–6, 153, 158 connections, 127 Irish Ireland movement, 42, 71, 102, Irish language, 128–30 103, 129, 140, 143, 152, 153 Ladies’ School Dinner Committee, Irish Republican movement, 3, 7, 20, 130–1 26, 127, 132, 139 membership, 126–8 Irish Weekly Independent (newspaper), school meals, 130–3 6, 113, 118 social events, 130 Irish Women’s Centenary Union, 2 Interdepartmental Committee on Irish Women’s Franchise League, 14, Physical Deterioration, 130 16, 61, 112, 155 Index 211

Irish Women’s Reform League, 15, 61 McNamara, Sarah, 58 Irish Women Workers’ Union, 16, 62 Meaney, Gerardine, 4 Irish Worker (newspaper), 25 Melaghlin, Miss M., 140 Midgley, Clare, 21 Jacob, Rosamond, 7, 25, 155–6 Milligan, Alice, 83, 91, 102–3, 110, Dublin, 155 125, 138 Gaelic League membership, 88, Mitchell, Susan L., 5, 6, 7, 29, 43–52, 111–12, 155, 159 141 Nic Sheamus, Roisin (pseudonym), assistant editor of Irish Homestead, 150 44 radical nationalism, 136, 153 ‘Dear Lily’ column, 46–8 Jayawardena, Kumari, 18 ‘Household Hints’ column, 44–6, Johnston, Anna, 102, 125–7, 138 48–50, 158 Joyce, James, 44 literary career, 43 United Irishwomen, 48, 61, 62, 74 Kearns, Gerry, 25–6 Molony, Helena, 25, 126, 134, 135, Keegan, Mrs, 94 153 Kennedy, Catriona, 157 Moonan, George, 101 Killeen, Miss M., 121 Morgan, Simon, 12 Kirk, Margaret, 64 Mulhall, Lizzie, 135 Mulhall, Mary, 135 Ladies’ Land League, 16–17, 26, 136 Mulligan, Adrian, 26 Laffan, Michael, 125 Murphy, Miss, 105 Lane, Leeann, 4, 30, 43, 44, 112 Lett, Anita, 6, 52, 55, 56, 83, 85, 158 Nair, Gwyneth, 12 women’s public work, 72–3 National Council, 134–6 Levingston, Elizabeth, 62–3 women executive members, 135 Luddy, Maria, 157 national identities, 1, 5, 14, 17–28, 29, Lynch, Mrs, 105 37, 71, 88, 108–9, 116, 119, 122, Lynd, Robert, 40 132, 138, 140, 144, 157 National University of Ireland, 88, 103 Macken, Mary, 125, 134, 135 Navickas, Katrina, 149 MacManus, Lucy, 99–100, 102, 103 Ní Breathnach, Miss, 137 MacNeill, Eibhlin, 87–9 Nic Niocaill, Eibhlin, 104 MacNicholas, Miss, 105 Ní Cuirrín, Máire, 98 Mahony, John J., 121 Ní Dhubhghaill, Eibhlin, 103 Mangan, Miss, 80–1 Ní Shuilleabhain, Máire, 103 Mansﬁeld, Miss, 81 Norman, H. F., 33, 34, 44 Markievicz, Constance, 3, 24, 25, 28, 45, 125, 130, 142, 147 O’Beirne, Dorathe J., 126, 128 Mathews, P. J., 30, 77 O’Brien, Annie, 59 M’Cann, Edith, 104 O’Brien, Miss, 85 McGinley, P. T., 121 O’Brien, Nelly, 3, 109, 110, 111, 159 M’Collum, Teresa, 109 occupational background McCoubrey, Margaret, 27 Gaelic League, 94–8 McCraith Blakeney, Mrs, 75 Inghinidhe na hÉireann, 126–8 McGorisk, Lizzie, 105 United Irishwomen, 60–4 McMahon, Timothy G., 82, 90, 91, 96, O’Connor, Mary 98, 107, 110 O’Donoghue, Miss, 83 212 Index

O’Farrelly, Agnes, 103, 107, 109, 110 Reynolds, Miss L., 69, 74 Offen, Karen, 16 Rice, Mary Spring, 42, 77, 94 O’Gorman, Alice, 63 Rooney, Judith, 127, 128 O’Grady, Margaret, 66 Rooney, William 127, 133 O’Grady, Standish, 66 Ruiglidh, Miss R., 137 O’Hanluain, Enri, 94 Russell, George William (‘AE’), 5, 31, O’Kane, Mrs, 105 32, 38, 158 Oldham, Edith, 94 editor of Irish Homestead,33 O’Leary Curtis, Mary 126 rural civilization, 33–4 O’Malley, Kathleen, 96 relationship with Susan Mitchell, O’Mara, Miss, 105 44, 48 O’Reilly, Annie, 106 opinion of women, 33–4, 47, 48, 53 O’Reilly, Margaret, 96, 103, 108 United Irishwomen, 51, 53, 54, O’Ryan, Miss, 136 66, 68 Ryan, Miss E., 122 Parnell, Anna, 26 Ryan, Frederick, 131 Parnell, Fanny, 16 Ryan, Louise, 16, 20, 26–7 Patterson, Annie, 108 Ryan, Mary (historian), 11 Perolz, Mary, 126, 127 Ryan, Mary (secretary of Swords Pilkington, Ellice, 53, 54–5, 66–7, 75 Gaelic League branch), 95 Pim, Charlotte, 74–5 Ryan, W. P., 89 Pim, Constance, 76 Plunkett, Horace, 5, 6, 30–2, 34, 39, Sanfey, Lizzie, 64 41, 49, 51 school meals, 7, 26, 28, 52, 68, 69–71, foundation of IAOS, 30–1 128, 130–2, 137, 153, 157 Gaelic League, 42 schoolteachers, 60, 63–4, 89, 95, 97, Ireland in the New Century (1904), 31 110 opinion of women, 32 Sennett, Richard, 149 United Irishwomen, 66, 158 Seton, Evelyn, 59, 69, 84 Poor Law Guardians, 6, 51, 52, 56, Shan Van Vocht (newspaper), 25, 125, 67, 71, 72, 98, 99, 107, 108, 138 135–6, 139, 145, 146, 156, Shannon, Miss, 136 158, 159 Sheehy Skefﬁngton, Hanna, 3, 9, 25, post-independence Ireland, 156–7 26, 131 Power, Jennie Wyse, 3, 107, 108, 125, Sinn Féin, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 30, 43, 66, 126, 128, 135, 136, 137, 153, 77, 84, 108, 124–54 159 branches: Athlone, 135; Praeger, Rosamund, 104 Enniscorthy, 3, 135, 136, 137; Primrose League, 21–2 Farrihy, Co. Clare, 136; Dublin, public activism, see Women, public 135–6, 139, 149; North Leitrim, activism 137; Waterford, 136; Wexford, Purdon, K. F., 59 137 Pyne, Mary Ann, 96 Butler, Mary, 142–7 Cumann na nGaedheal, 7, 124, 125, Quakers, 13, 65 133–7, 159 Quinn, Maire, 125, 126, 134 domesticity, 147–8 gender ideology, 125 Reagin, Nancy, 23–4 Irish dress, 84–6, 136–7, 139–40, Rendall, Jane, 12 148–54 Index 213

Irish manufactures, 3, 84–6, 145 United Irishman (newspaper), 5, 7, 25, Jacob, Rosamond, 136 74, 113, 124, 125, 126, 130, National Council, 7, 124, 125, 134–40, 142, 144, 147 133–7, 159 United Irishwomen, 6, 7, 8, 16, 24, 28, Nationalist Women’s Committee, 29, 34, 42, 48, 51, 91, 95, 97, 112, 137 115, 124, 125, 130, 139, 155, 156, radical nationalist press, 137–54 157, 158, 159, 160, 174–5 women, role of: activism, 135–7, activities, 66–7 142–3, 145, 146; members, 108, branches: Abbeyfeale, 81; Athlone, 113, 121; organizers, 137; 78; Ballycarney, Co. Wexford, executive committee, 135 73, 85; Ballyragget, Co. Sinn Féin (newspaper), 7, 15, 124, 125, Kilkenny, 68; Borris, Co. 135, 137, 138, 139, 142, 143, Carlow, 68, 70; Bree, Co. 147–52, 160 Wexford, 59, 63, 70, 72, 75, 77, daily edition, 147, 152 78, 82, 84; Chapeltown and Slattery, Mrs, 84 Fenit, Co. Kerry, 69; Clifden, 81; Connemara, 79–82; Smitley, Megan, 10, 13, 86 Davidstown, 70, 83–4; social class, 8, 51, 157–8 Doonaha, Co. Clare, 84; Gaelic League, 89, 93–8, 99–100, Dungloe, Co. Donegal, 67, 81; 101, 103 Durrow, Queen’s County, 68, Inghinidhe na hÉireann, 126–8 69; Fenit, Co. Kerry, 68, 69; United Irishwomen, 58–64, 69 Fethard, Co. Tipperary, 78, 156; Somers, Elizabeth (‘Lasarfhiona’), 5, 7, Kilbaha, Co. Clare, 85; Kilkee, 124, 138, 148, 153 Co. Clare, 67, 70, 73, 78, 82, 85; activism, 139 Kilmallock, Co. Limerick, 68, journalism, 139–40 70; Knockrooskey, Co. Mayo, Steele, Karen, 25, 113, 138, 142, 143, 70; Lislap, Co. Tyrone, 64; 147, 148 London, 59; Marshalstown, Co. Stoer, Emily, 101–2, 104, 107, 159 Wexford, 63; Monagheer, Co. Studdert, Mrs, 85 Wexford, 70; Oylegate, Co. Suffern, Lilian, 14–15 Wexford, 64, 86; Omagh, 68, Sutton, Miss, 85 69, 74–5; Roundstone, Co. suffrage movement Galway, 64; St Ita’s, Co. Britain, 12, 14 Limerick, 68 Ireland, 9, 11, 14–15, 16, 27, 48, 55, camogie, 83–4 61, 65, 75–7, 136 Catholic members, 64–5, 86 Scotland, 13 Dublin, 56, 58–62, 65, 68, 72, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85 farming, 52, 54–5, 62–3, 64 temperance movement, 13, 87, 102 feminism, attitudes to 75–7 Thackery, David, 22 foundation, 52–6 Thapar-Björkert, Suruchi, 20 involvement in local politics, 6, 67, Thorold, Mary, 97 71–3 Tod, Isabella, 15 Irish dancing, 82–3 Tolan, Margaret, 95–6 Irish dress, 80, 84–6 Townshend, Maud, 61 Irish identity, 71, 77–86 Transvaal Committee, 2 Irish language, 65–6, 79–83, 158 Twells, Alison, 12 membership, 58–66 214 Index

milk depots, 67–9 Wickham, Mrs, 98 promotion of Irish culture 77–9 Women, religion, 64–5 public activism, 2, 4, 8, 10, 13–14, school lunches, 69–70 16–17, 21–22, 24, 25, 27–9, schoolteachers, 60, 63–4 50–1, 65, 67, 88–90, 98–9, social class, 58–64, 69 101–2, 104, 107–8, 111–13, sub-committee for Connemara, 121, 123–5, 132–4, 136–7, 80–1 139, 140–3, 146–7, 155–6, Susan L. Mitchell, 48, 61, 62, 74, 158–60 171 ‘spheres’, 2, 5, 6, 10, 11–13, 16, 18, Unionist politics, 74–5 22, 23, 26, 49, 52, 55, 73, 112, West Clare industrial exhibition, 121, 145 1, 85 Women’s Co-operative Guild, 76 United States, 11, 37, 54, 111 Women Graduates’ Association, 98 University College Dublin (UCD), 16, Women’s National Health Association 135 (WNHA), 58, 71, 75, 131 Women’s Social and Political Union, Victoria League, 21 129 Women’s Unionist and Tariff Reform War of Independence (1919–21), Association (WUTRA), 22 20, 26 Ward, Margaret, 16, 25, 27, 125, 132 Waterford, 7, 88, 95, 104, 111–12, Yeats, Lily, 43, 44, 61 136, 153, 155 Yeats, W. B., 33, 61 Wexford, 6, 52, 62, 63, 64, 66, 68, 73, Yeo, Eileen Janes, 14 82, 83, 94, 121, 133, 135, 137 Yuval-Davis, Nira, 18–19